HEYTHROP COLLEGE

UNIVERSITY OF LONDON

Falun Gong as a Religion: Past, Present, and Future (An edited version has been submitted to the Heythrop College, University of London

in partial fulfilment of the requirements for the degree of BD for International Students)

Supervisor: Dr. Elizabeth Burns

Heythrop College, University of London LEUNG Man Kit United Kingdom July 2015

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Abstract

Falun Gong (FLG), an organisation founded by Li Hongzhi in 1992 to cultivate Falun Dafa,

took advantage of the resurgence of religious activities and the qigong bloom in China in the

1980s, and has developed rapidly into one of the largest non-governmental organisations in

the world. However, FLG was soon treated as a threat by the Chinese government, and

was officially banned in China in 1999 on the ground of being an evil cult. This study

reviews the beliefs, rituals, ceremonies and practices of FLG, and argues that FLG is a

syncretistic blend of traditional ideas in China from qigong, Confucianism, Daoism and

Buddhism, as well as the apocalyptic and salvation beliefs found in Western religions.

This study further argues that FLG has key features of a religion, although Falun Dafa

practitioners do not admit that FLG is a religion. This study does not, however, concur

with the allegation that FLG is an evil cult. The main reason for suppressing FLG in

China was political and follows the norm in Chinese history, in which religion has been

required to serve as both political and social controls. That is, the Chinese can enjoy

freedom of religious belief to the extent that it does not pose a threat to the governing

regime. This study notes that, after the suppression, FLG has now effectively transformed

itself into a global community in 40 countries by means of cyberspace, which has enabled

the spread of Falun Dafa to non-Chinese spiritual or health seekers. The study concludes

by suggesting that the teachers and practitioners of FLG might tone down the mystical

aspect of its teachings, and at the same time, enhance its current role as a spiritual and/or

health transnational organisation.

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Acknowledgments

My first and foremost appreciation goes to Almighty God by whose grace this

study has been completed. I then wish to express my sincere thanks to my academic

supervisor Dr. Elizabeth Burns of Heythrop College, University of London for her

constructive contributions and help, and her reading of the manuscripts and making many

helpful remarks, especially her suggestion on the scope of this study. I would also like to

express my thank to Professor Ma Koon-yiu of The University of Hong Kong, who

brought me critical eyes on the historical roles of religion and attitudes of the Chinese to

religions in China Moreover, these years of my BD study would have been boring

without encouragement and discussion with my fellow colleagues. Among those I

especially wish to acknowledge Mr. Wong Chi-tong for his kindness in approving my

frequent study leaves and Ms Iris Leung for her forbearance in taking up my work during

my study leaves. Finally, I wish to express my greatest gratitude to my father and my

wife Joyce for their unstinting help and forbearance at all stages of my study. Without

them, I would not have completed my study!

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Contents Chapter 1 Introduction ......................................................................................................... 5

Background ....................................................................................................................... 5 Purposes of the Study ....................................................................................................... 6 Significance of the Study .................................................................................................. 7 Methodology of the Study ................................................................................................ 9 Summary of Chapters ..................................................................................................... 10

Chapter 2 Falun Gong: Origins, Development and the Crackdown ................................. 12 Institutional Religions in China ...................................................................................... 12 Local Folk Religions in China ........................................................................................ 15 Historical Roles of Religion in China ............................................................................. 17 Post-1949 Regulation of Religions ................................................................................. 20 Falun Gong: Origins ....................................................................................................... 22 Falun Gong: Development in the 1990s ......................................................................... 24 Falun Gong: the Crackdown........................................................................................... 26 Chapter Summary ........................................................................................................... 29

Chapter 3 Falun Gong: Beliefs, Rituals, Ceremonies and Practices ................................. 30 Beliefs ............................................................................................................................. 30 Ethical Doctrines............................................................................................................. 37 Rituals, Ceremonies and Practices .................................................................................. 38 Chapter Summary ........................................................................................................... 41

Chapter 4 Falun Gong A Religion?................................................................................ 42 What is a Religion? ...................................................................................................... 42 Falun Gong as a Religion? ............................................................................................. 45 Falun Gong as an Evil Cult?........................................................................................... 56 Chapter Summary ........................................................................................................... 58

Chapter 5 Epilogue ............................................................................................................ 59 Concluding Remarks....................................................................................................... 59 Future of Falun Gong ..................................................................................................... 60

Bibliography Appendix A Glossary of Chinese Terms Appendix B Chinese Dynastic History

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Chapter 1

Introduction

Background

The term Falun Gong, which represents an organisation founded by Li Hongzhi in

China in 1992, is often used interchangeably with the term Falun Dafa (which literally

means cultivation of the Law of the Dharma Wheel). 1 In this study, Falun Gong

(FLG) is specifically used to refer to the organisation, and Falun Dafa is reserved for

the cultivation of practices. Initially, FLG focused on the study and practice of breathing

exercises (qigong), and the initial official response from the Chinese government was

positive (Chan, 2004; Lu, 2005; Li, 2014). However, the number of Falun Dafa

practitioners grew rapidly. FLG was soon treated as a threat by the Chinese government,

and was officially banned in China in 1999 on the ground of being an evil cult. Since

then, the Chinese government has launched a massive campaign to suppress FLG (Human

Rights Watch/Asia, 1997).

1The Dharma (which literally means teaching) means the truth that governs the world. Buddhists hold that this truth was revealed and put into words by Sakyamuni Buddha. Legend says that upon his enlightenment under a poplar-fig tree, the Buddha preached his first sermon The Setting in Motion of the Dharma Wheel to his former friends in Deer Park near Benares. In the sermon, the Buddha taught them his realisation of the instrument for emancipation the Dharma, i.e. the truth of suffering and of the self-discipline free from extremes (the Middle Way). See Schumann, 1973.

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Purposes of the Study

The year 2014 marks the Silver Jubilee anniversary of the suppression of FLG in China,

and its organised activities have virtually disappeared in China (Tong, 2012). Yet, FLG

has transformed into a global community with Chinese and non-Chinese practitioners

(Zhao, 2003), and is now one of the largest non-governmental organisations in the world

(Penny, 2005; Noakes, 2010). Most research on FLG from political scientists has focused

on the political reasons for banning FLG in China, and on the political consequences of

the suppression to the Chinese government. Sociologists (e.g. Leung, 2002; Chan, 2004;

Shepherd, 2005) have examined the reasons for its quick flourishing in China in the 1990s.

Others (e.g. Ownby, 2003, 2008; DuBois, 2010; Penny, 2005, 2012; Junker, 2014) have

investigated FLG as one of the new religious movements. Yet, only a few publications

(e.g. Chang, 2004) have been focused on its theological aspects, including its religious

beliefs, rituals, ceremonies, and practices.

The purposes of the present study are therefore:

a) to trace the religious life and historical roles of religion among the Chinese so as

to understand the origins, development and subsequent suppression of FLG;

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b) to summarise its core beliefs, rituals, ceremonies, and practices so as to investigate

whether FLG can be classified as a religion and whether FLG is an evil cult as

alleged by the Chinese government; and

c) to discuss the future of and ways forward for FLG as a result of the suppression in

China.

Significance of the Study

Since most of the discussion of FLG has been concerned with its conflict with the Chinese

government, one of the contributions of this study is to shift the discussion away from the

conflict and to look at the historical roles of religion among the Chinese in order to

understand the reasons for its rapid growth in less than a decade and its subsequent

suppression by the Chinese government. This study also looks at the theological beliefs,

rituals, ceremonies, and practices of FLG, which have often neglected by those who view

it as a political movement or a social activity. This study therefore provides a multi-

disciplinary insight of FLG from theological, historical, sociological and political aspects.

Studying FLG in Hong Kong has several distinct advantages. Firstly, Hong Kong, Macao

and Taiwan are the only places within China where FLG has not yet been banned. Falun

Dafa practitioners maintain their daily practice at 30 different locations throughout Hong

Kong, and maintain a website distributing information to its practitioners and the public

(Chiu, 2001; Chan, 2013). They also organise rallies and sit-ins to exhibit their grievances

about the sufferings of its practitioners in China (Photo 1). Secondly, most of the

publications of FLG (e.g. books, audio, video tapes) have been written or produced in

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Chinese, and though they are not permitted to be published or circulated in China, they

are readily available in Hong Kong. Thirdly, FLG also publishes both English and

Chinese versions of its semi-official newspaper - The Epoch Times daily in Hong Kong,

which serves as its mouthpiece in Hong Kong publishing its beliefs, practices, updated

news, and activities.2 With such distinct advantages, there has been a lot of research on

FLG and/or Falun Dafa in Hong Kong.3

Photo 1 Protest of FLG against the Chinese Government in Hong Kong

2 The URL of The Epoch Times (Hong Kong edition) is at www.epochtimes.com.hk (accessed: 23 November 2014). 3 For example, academics in Hong Kong studying FLG include: Professor David Palmer, the Chair of the Department of Sociology at The University of Hong Kong; Dr. Chan Shun-ching, Associate Professor at The University of Hong Kong; Professor Anne Cheung, the co-Director of the Law and Technology Centre at The University of Hong Kong; Dr. John Lagerwey, Professor of Chinese Studies at The Chinese University of Hong Kong; and Dr. Beatrice Leung, Professor at Lingnan University.

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Methodology of the Study

This study traces the origins and development of FLG since its founding in the early

1990s, and this study is therefore both descriptive and longitudinal.4 That is, this study

is able to describe the changes of FLG and the reactions of the Chinese government

during the last two decades. Various methods (e.g. questionnaires, interviews, focus

groups, field observation) have been used to collect the data of FLG. This study

triangulates quantitative and qualitative data in order to minimise the errors from using

one single source. 5 The official publications of FLG as well those of the Chinese

government are the major sources. The former include its semi-official newspaper (The

Epoch Times) and two of its official websites (Minghui and FalunDafa),6 which provide

valuable information about the beliefs, rituals, practices, future moves, etc of FLG. The

latter include Xinhua News, Peoples Daily, Beijing Review, etc, which summarise the

attitudes or reactions of the Chinese government towards FLG since its founding in the

early 1990s. Moreover, Li Hongzhi, the founder of FLG, published two books, Falun

Gong (first published in 1992) and Zhuan Falun (first published in 1994). These two

4 Descriptive research can present an accurate account of some phenomenon, the distribution of characteristics in some population, the patterns of relationships in some social context, at a particular time, or the changes in those characteristics over time (Blaikie, 2000:74), and a longitudinal research studies its subjects through time (Gomm, 2009:124). 5 Triangulation can partially overcome the deficiencies that flow from employing one investigator or one method (Denzin, 1986:236). 6 The URLs for Minghui and FalunDafa are at respectively www.Minghui.ca and www.FalunDafa.com (accessed: 7 October 2014). FalunDafa is for the beginners of FLG, and contains information on the exercises, and offers books and videos for them.

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books have become the key writings detailing the beliefs and practices of FLG. Besides

these, Li has always been willing to be interviewed by media and his messages are also

posted on FLGs website ClearWisdom.7 However, it is difficult to evaluate FLG from

the official sources alone, because they obviously release data that support their respective

claims and are often contradictory to one another. Hence, secondary sources such as the

views of scholars published in academic journals are also included. A search of scholarly

research published during the past two decades in academic journals has therefore been

carried out.

Summary of Chapters

This study is organised into five chapters. Chapter 1 includes an overview of the study,

and discusses the objectives for the study and outlines the research questions of the study.

Chapter 2 outlines the religious life and historical roles of religion among the Chinese. It

will then trace the origins of FLG, and explain its rapid development and subsequent

crackdown in China in just less than a decade. Chapter 3 summarises the beliefs, rituals,

ceremonies, and practices of FLG. Chapter 4 first discusses the criteria used in this study

to define a religion. It will then answer the questions: Is FLG a religion? And, if yes, is

7 The URL for ClearWisdom is at www.clearwisdom.net (accessed: 21 November 2011).

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FLG a religious cult? Chapter 5 summarises the findings of this study, and also looks

forward to the future of FLG. In this study, all terms originally in Chinese appear in

English translation followed by their Chinese titles with Romanised pinyin in italic. A

glossary of the Chinese characters of these terms is given in Appendix A. All Biblical

references are based on the New International Version (available:

www.biblestudytools.com/niv/; accessed: 17 November 2014).

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Chapter 2

Falun Gong: Origins, Development and the Crackdown

Institutional Religions in China

There has been a consensus among scholars that the beliefs and doctrines of FLG

borrowed from those of the traditional religions in China. 8 Therefore, in order to

understand the origins, development, and subsequent suppression of FLG in China, it is

necessary to comprehend historically the distinct characters and roles of religion in China.

First, it is noted that monotheism now predominates in the US and Europe, and yet most

Chinese are still polytheists. 9 Studies usually identify the reason as a historical one:

China is one of the oldest civilisations in the world (see the dynasty history of China in

Appendix B), and her civilisation had already been nurtured by the Zhou dynasty (1059-

249 BCE).10 The Zhou kings asserted that they were given mandates by Heaven to rule

8 For example, Ownby (2003, 2003a) and Irons (2003) argue that FLG is just a reincarnation of centuries-old traditional religions in China, and Zhao (2003:210) argues that FLG is a religion underscored by its integration of folk Buddhist and Daoist discourses in its physical-spiritual exercises. 9 Anthropologists usually argue that religion in human societies developed in the linear order of: animism, manism, fetishism, polydemonism, polytheism, and monotheism. This evolutionary theory of religion was first advanced by E B Tylor in 1871 in his two-volume work, Religion in Primitive Culture, based on his research on the autochthonic people. According to Tylor, animism is the belief that spirits are separated from bodies; manism is the worship of spirits of deceased humans; fetishism is the belief in objects that are believed to have magical powers; polydemonism is the belief that nature is controlled by supernatural powers; polytheism is the worship of multiple deities; and monotheism is the belief in the existence of one god. 10 There have been a number of books published to describe and discuss the distinct characters of religions and the roles of religions in China. The most recent ones include Poceski (2009); Yao and Zhao (2010); and Lagerwey (2010).

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the state. Heaven represented the highest deity, and the Zhou kings were named as Son

of Heaven and were regarded as the highest deity incarnated. China entered the Warring

States period in the late Zhou, and Chinese philosophy was born with many philosophical

schools formed. Among these schools, two schools Confucianism and Daoism were

subsequently developed into religions.11 Confucianism was founded by Confucius (551-

479 BCE), and its religious dimension followed the spiritual dimension of the early Zhou

emphasising the dependence of the political authority of rulers upon Heaven. Rulers who

behaved virtuously would receive Heavens support; but those who failed to behave

virtuously would lose it. Daoism was founded by Lao Tzu (604-531 BCE), who was

puzzled by the disorder in society during the Warring States period. Daoists are more

concerned with other-worldliness, and seek a harmony with the metaphysical principle

of being the Way (Dao) - through a quiet submission.

Peace was restored in the time of the Han dynasty (202 BCE-220 CE). The Han kings

adopted Confucianism as the governing political philosophy and religious policy of the

state. Confucianism became a ritual religion, with its emphasis upon rituals in family

11 Confucius and his disciples were men of considerable education but lacking political power. They were puzzled by the disorder during the Warring States period. They therefore looked back with admiration to the early years of the Zhou dynasty. They formulated a humanistic philosophy that embraced the virtues of harmony, wisdom, filial piety, and the enactment of rites conductive to ethical conduct.

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and society (Ching, 1993; Nadeau, 2012). Daoism was also developed into an organised

religion, with the establishment of religious institutions, rituals, teachings and practices

(Nadeau, 2012). Daoists also discovered a number of celestial gods, and the founder,

Lao Tzu, was also deified as the Great Lord (Tai-shang Lao-zun).12 At the same time,

Buddhism entered into China via the Silk Road (Nadeau, 2012). However, Buddhist

teaching of the abandonment of this-worldly ties was not compatible with the dominant

this-worldly Confucian teaching at that time. Buddhism was subsequently mixed up with

Confucianism and Daoism, and flourished during Tang dynasty (618-907 CE). Since then,

Confucianism, Daoism and Buddhism became the three great traditions (sanjiao) in the

religious life of the Chinese for the next 2,500 years (Figure 1). Besides these three

religious traditions, Western religions (e.g. Zoroastrianism, Manichaeism, Judaism,

Christianity and Islam) have also entered China via the Silk Road since the 7th Century

(Poceski, 2009). All these monotheistic religions, which were not compatible with the

polytheistic culture of the Chinese, were not popular among the Chinese (Zhou,

2014:138).13

12 Among the celestial gods, the Primeval Lord of Heaven (Yuan-shi Tien-zun) is regarded as the most omnipotent god. 13 For example, Islam, which was once dominant during the Mongol rule (1279-1368 CE), is now only popular among the Uyghur ethnic groups in Mongolia and Xinjiang and Hui Muslims in central and southern China (Frankel, 2012), while the missionary work of Christianity could only reach the public till the forced opening of China under the Western colonial powers after the First Opium War (1839-42 CE).

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Figure 1 Chronology of the three main religious traditions in China

Local Folk Religions in China

Besides institutional religions, local folk religions have played another dominant role in

the religious life among the Chinese since the Xia dynasty (c. 2000 - c.1600 BCE) (Dean,

2003; Zhou, 2014). Their common distinctive characteristic is their lack of a coherent

cannon and a system of doctrine, as well as clergy and ecclesiastical institution (Poceski,

2009:5). The Chinese worship war heroes, sages, righteous government officials,

legendary figures, literary characters, gods, spirits, ghosts, etc as idols in shrines and

temples.14 Among these deities, Sun Wukong (popularly known as the Monkey King), a

14 For example, Guan Yu (popularly known as Lord Guan), a general serving under a warlord in the 3rd Century CE, is worshipped throughout China for his righteousness demonstrated in his life. Another legendary figure, Mazu of the 10th Century CE, who was a daughter of a fisherman, was given the title of Goddess of the Sea, and is worshipped for her ability to roam over the seas to protect fishermen and sailors. She is worshipped in the southern coastal regions of China (in particular, in Taiwan). See Yang, 1961 and Potter, 2003.

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famous literary character, is said to possess the most powerful magical powers.15 In

addition to these idols, ancestor worship (jizuxian) forms an important part in the

religious life of the Chinese.16 For them, ancestors are not just dead, buried and forgotten,

and their spirits are still present to protect their descendants. The practice of ancestor

worship is strongly linked with Confucian rituals, which emphasise a hierarchy of society

from Heaven at the top, to the king and then gods, and down to ancestors (Lagerwey,

2010). Yet, most Chinese do not find it offensive to worship local deities together with the

institutional religions (Jochim, 1986; Lu. 2011). For them, spirits of all kinds are seen as

compassionate helpers, regardless of tradition. 17 Thus, it is common to see a Chinese,

who claims himself to be a Daoist and/or a Buddhist, who also worships other idols and

his ancestors (Photo 2).18

15 The Monkey King was a character in one of the Four Great Classical Novels of Chinese literature Journey to the West of the 16th Century CE, and is worshipped for his ability to command wind, part water, exorcise demons, etc. 16 Chinese worship their ancestors by having small altars at home or at their gravesites or in clan ancestral halls, and offer incense burnt, food, and paper money to them (Jochim, 1986). 17 Ownby (2002:224) notes that many Chinese worship from god to god and temple to temple according to their perception of a particular gods efficacy. 18 This religious tolerance does not usually apply to believers of monotheism, such as Christians and/or Muslims. Yet, in China, Christians and Muslims, whose number has shown an increasing trend, are still a small fraction in the total population. In 2010, the official numbers of Protestants and Catholics in China, as reported in Annual Report on Chinas Religions published by the Chinese Academy of Social Sciences, were respectively 23 million and 5.7 million (i.e. only about 2.2% of the total population) (Blue Book of Religions, Peoples Daily (12 August 2010)), though unofficial sources sometimes quote a figure for all Christians (including both Protestants and Catholics) of 100 million. See, for example, the data in Asia Harvest (2010), How Many Christians are there in China Today? (available: www.asiaharvest.org; accessed: 16 November 2014).

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Photo 2 Worship of Sakyamuni Buddha in Zhaoqing Longmu Daoist Temple in

Southwest China19

Historical Roles of Religion in China

The above paragraphs review the religious life among the Chinese, and it should be noted

that successive Chinese governments allow a pluralistic mix of religions and freedom of

religious beliefs among the Chinese. Successive governments intentionally promote

Confucianism among the elites in order to maintain the political stability of the governing

regimes by means of the Confucian patriarchal teaching of loyalty and filial piety. They

have also allowed Daoism and Buddhism to flourish in society, so that ordinary people

may dream of the other-worldly affairs in the case of discontent concerning this-worldly

affairs. They also allow the superstitious local folk religions so that peasants, who form

19 Longmu (meaning Dragon Mother) was a female leader of south China in the Qin dynasty. There have been a lot of legendary stories about her, and she was deified for her good acts during her life.

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the majority in the population, can satisfy their spiritual need.20 The folk tradition of

ancestor worship also has an important function of educating the people to obey the

hierarchy in society. The relative peace in the religious life among the Chinese over the

past 2,500 years demonstrates the success of such tactics which have been employed by

successive governments (Zhou, 2014).

Despite the attitude of religious tolerance exhibited by most Chinese, successive

governments have been suspicious of any religious sects, especially those combining a

charismatic leader with a high degree of organisation and mass appeal. As early as the 2nd

BCE, a religious sect consisting of poor peasants within the Daoist faith, during a

widespread pestilence, started a rebellion - the Yellow Turban Rebellion- against the

Han dynasty. 21 Though the rebellion (184-204 CE) was eventually quelled, it led to

severe damage to the economy and eventually resulted in the downfall of Han dynasty in

220 CE. The Yellow Turban Rebellion, which served as a model for subsequent peasant

uprisings, was well documented and has been studied by the Chinese throughout

20 In the early 1980s just after the economic reform, 80% of the total population in China lived in rural areas and worked in agriculture. Even in 2008, over half of the population still lived in rural areas. See Chinas urban population exceeds 600 million, Xinhua News (15 June 2009). 21 It was called the Yellow Turban Rebellion, because the rebels wore yellow cloth bound about their heads as a badge.

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centuries. 22 Notable examples of similar religious revolts in the past two centuries

include: the White Lotus uprising (1796-1804 CE), the Taiping rebellion (1850-64 CE)

and the Boxers revolution (1900 CE) (Dillon, 2010). 23 In these revolts, the Chinese

governments found that their followers were more loyal to the sects than to the state, and

the lesson learnt is thus the need to suppress such movements at the very initial stage by

labelling such organizations with negative terms, such as heretical cults, superstitious

sects, evil religious organizations, etc (Thomas, 2001:472).

22 After the Yellow Turban Rebellion, years of wars among different warlords followed in the Era of Three Kingdoms, which lasted for 65 years before peace was restored during the Jin dynasty in 285 CE. A novel, entitled The Romance of the Three Kingdoms [book titles are usually given in italics] written by Luo Guanzhong, was published between 1321 and 1323 CE, and has also been acclaimed as one of the Four Great Classical Novels of Chinese literature. This story has been told in numerous forms including operas, films, television series, and video games. 23 In the White Lotus uprising, the White Lotus society, a religious cult, drew its inspiration from the Maitreya School of Buddhism and incorporated ideas and concepts from Daoism. In response to famine and harassment from government officials, the society incited its followers to overthrow the Qing dynasty. The uprising lasted for 9 years, and resulted in 100,000 casualties and contributed to the decline of the Qing dynasty. The Taiping rebellion began under the leadership of Hong Xuiquan, who declared himself to be the younger brother of Jesus and proclaimed that he was ordained to form a Kingdom of God in China. His followers, mostly poor peasants of Guangxi province, ravaged 17 provinces, and established a dynasty (called Heavenly Kingdom of Great Peace) in Nanjing in 1851. The rebellion lasted for 14 years, and resulted in 25 million casualties and again contributed to the decline of the Qing dynasty. For details of the Taiping rebellion, see Hsu, 2000. The last one the Boxers revolution - was caused by a group of young men (the Boxers). The Boxers practised calisthenic rituals, and claimed to possess a spirit that made them invulnerable to foreign weapons. In 1900, the Qing government supported the group in the hope that their ritual power could drive all foreigners out of China. The Boxers then attacked foreigners and Christian churches in China, and besieged the foreign legation compound in Beijing. An international alliance with 20,000 armed troops was formed, and captured Beijing. The defeat of the Qing government in the Boxers revolution accelerated the overthrow of the Qing dynasty in 1911. For details of the Boxers Revolution, see Preston, 2002.

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Post-1949 Regulation of Religions

The Chinese Communist Party came to power in 1949 in China, and the Peoples

Republic of China so founded was based on orthodox atheistic Marxism. Religion should

therefore have withered away. Yet, this has not happened. Since 1954, Chinas

Constitution grants freedom of religious beliefs to all her citizens, but prohibits anyone

who makes use of religion to disrupt public order, impair the health of citizens or

interfere with the educational system of the state.24 The Communist government created

national religious organisations to control the five recognised institutional religions (the

Five Great Religions): Buddhism, Daoism, Islam, Protestantism, and Catholicism. 25

Both Confucianism and local folk religions were classified as feudal superstition and

24 Article 36 of the Constitution of the Peoples Republic of China (available: http://english.cpc.people.com.cn/; accessed: 14 November 2014) states: Citizens of the People's Republic of China enjoy freedom of religious belief The state protects normal religious activities. No one may make use of religion to engage in activities that disrupt public order, impair the health of citizens or interfere with the educational system of the state. Religious bodies and religious affairs are not subject to any foreign domination. This provision remains unchanged in all versions (1954, 1975, 1982, 1988, 1993, 1999 and 2004) of the Constitution. Besides the Constitution, the Chinese Community Party since the economic reform issued a number of official documents on her policy on regulating religious activities. For example, Document 19 of 1982 (available: http://cpc.people.com.cn/; accessed: 14 November 2014) details the basic policy of respecting and protecting freedom in the five recognised institutional religions, and Document 6 of 1991 (available: http://cpc.people.com.cn/; accessed: 14 November 2014) details regulatory control of the activities of religions. 25 Confucianism was said to be the relic of feudalism and became a target of criticism (Lu, 2011:129). For the Five Great Religions, their religious organisations are required to register with the Religious Affairs Bureau, and the government monitors their membership, locations of meetings, training, selection and ordination of clergy, publications, and sources of funds. For details of the control mechanisms, see Human Rights Watch/Asia, 1997. Among them, Protestantism and Catholicism have received special attention since the early decade of the founding of the Peoples Republic of China, because their missionary work has been claimed to be linked with imperialism during the late Qing dynasty. The Catholic churches have been placed under the authority of the Chinese Catholic Patriotic Association, and Protestant congregations have been managed by the China Christian Council (Lu, 2011). Their links with foreign missions were cut, and they have then been required to adopt the Three-Selfs (self-administering, self-supporting, and self-propagating) policy.

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were suppressed, and so was the folk tradition to worship ancestors (Dean, 2003). During

the Cultural Revolution (1966-76), all religious activities were suppressed with all

churches, mosques, and temples closed, believers persecuted, etc (Lu, 2011:130). Since

the economic reform of the late 1970s, China has experienced a resurgence of different

religious faiths and activities (Ashiwa and Wank, 2009; Goossaert and Palmer, 2011;

Overmyer, 2003; Palmer, 2009). 26 However, only the Five Great Religions are

continually recognised, and they are still regulated by the national religious

organisations.27 Confucianism, which emphasises the importance of order, harmony and

hierarchy, is still not a recognised religion, but has now received state support, in

particular, since 2005 to tally with the official policy of building a harmonious

society. 28 Table 1 lists the official data of believers of the Five Great Religions.

26 There have been various reasons to account for the resurgence. For example, Adams et al (2000:20) said, more than four decades of Chinese communismleft the worlds most populated country starved for a spiritual dimension to life. Schechter (2001:17-8) argues that millions in China feel a spiritual void as the country transitions from Marxism to market. Potter (2003), on the other hand, argues that the Chinese government accepted a trade-off of broader social and economic autonomy in exchange for her political legitimacy. 27 Regulation of the Five Great Religions now varies from religion to religion and also from time to time. The Vatican of the Catholic Church remains in diplomatic recognition of Taiwan, and relations with the Peoples Republic of China have not yet been normalised. The Catholic churches are still managed by the Chinese Catholic Patriotic Association, and Protestant congregations are still managed by the China Christian Council. However, both unofficial house Christian and underground Catholic churches have now attracted an increasing number of followers, which poses a challenge to the patriotic churches. Religious activities in Tibet and Xinjiang have also received special attention, as there have been numerous unrests in Tibet and Xinjiang against the Chinese government. The major ones in Tibet since 1949 include: the armed revolt in 1959, the uprising between 1987 and 1989, and the uprising in 2008. In Xinjiang, the rmqi riot in 2009 resulted in a large number of casualities. The Chinese government associated the religious activities with these unrests in Tibet and Xinjiang respectively. 28 The Chinese government has sponsored academic conferences on Confucianism, established Confucius institutes throughout the world, and promoted Confucianism as the best of Chinese civilisation. See Zhou, 2014. The policy of building a harmonious society was first proposed during the 2005 National Peoples

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Table 1 Number of Believers of the Five Great Religions in China Religions Year 1999 Year 2003 Buddhism 100 million 100 million Daoism 3 million 3 million Islam 19 million 20.3 million Catholicism 4 million 5 million Protestantism 15 million 16 million Total About 141 million About 144 million

(Source: Wong, 1999:11; Lai, 2003)29

Falun Gong: Origins

There has been a consensus that Falun Dafa was originated from qigong (Shepherd,

2005; Lu, 2005), which in turn is associated with Dao in Daoism. Qigong is ancient

Chinese deep-breathing exercises which first appeared in writings during the Jin Dynasty

(265 317CE), and aim at the integration of body, breath and mind (Palmer, 2007:32;

Leung, 2002). Qi (literally means air) is located in ones lower abdomen (dantien),

and is said to be the seat of power and the vital energy of the body (Matthews,

2005:100; Li, 2014:181). Gong means cultivation (Lai, 2010). Thus, qigong is the

cultivation of vital energy of ones body. Practitioners of qigong claim that it can result

in physical benefits by enhancing the flow of vital energy through ones body in harmony

Congress, and was intended to deal with the huge social injustice and inequality brought by the rapid economic growth in China since the 1980s. 29 Wong (1999) and Lai (2003) edited the data in the table using the official data published by the Chinese government. However, Human Rights Watch/Asia (1997) expressed doubt on the accuracy of these official data, and argues that the number of followers should have far exceeded the quoted figures. Similarly, Lai (2003) expressed doubt on these official data, and quoted an unofficial figure of 200 million for total followers of the Five Great Religions. In response to the increasing number of religious followers, the Chinese government, besides tightening her control over religious activities, has launched mass campaigns promoting socialist spiritual civilisation and nurturing patriotism among youngsters. For details of these campaigns, see Human Rights Watch/Asia, 1997.

22

with the metaphysical principle of being (Palmer, 2003; Palmer 2007, 2009).30 They

usually follow a master, and become his disciples. Each master has his unique way of

practising qigong. He chooses his closest and most talented disciple, and this disciple will

inherit all his unique practice methods and become the master of the next generation.

Despite the repressive control on institutional religions, the Communist regime since 1949

has allowed practice of qigong for medical purposes (Xu, 1999; Li, 2014).

There was a qigong bloom in the 1980s in China,31 and in 1986, the state-sponsored

China Qigong Scientific Research Association was established to regulate the numerous

qigong organisations formed. In 1989, the association announced that one in twenty

Chinese - both old and young, strong and weak - now practise qigong,32 and qigong was

probably the greatest mass movement in modern China that was not under direct

government control (Zhu and Penny, 1994:3). According to the Chinese official source,

Li Hongzhi, the founder of FLG, in 1988 learnt qigong first from Master Li Weidong and

30 Besides the claimed physical benefits, practising qigong is also said to enable one to have magical powers. See, for example, videos at URLs: www.youtube.com/watch?v=2tb8bWbA678 [accessed: 30 November 2014] and www.youtube.com/watch?v=yYn0jPA4mR8 [accessed: 30 November 2014]. 31 Scholars advanced various reasons to account for the qigong bloom in China in the 1980s. Liu (1999) and Shepherd (2005) argue that the economic reform since the late 1970s has led to spiritual demands of her people, as people no longer believe in Marxism. Ownby (2005:202) argues that the Chinese have regarded the rise of science and technology as the cause of Western dominance, and they believe qigong as a form of Chinese science that can lead to a brighter tomorrow. Similarly, Palmer (2007) argues that qigong was actively promoted by the government to unite elites and lower-class people under a banner of scientism and progress. Others claim that the government allowed or even encouraged qigong in order to cut medical costs (Lowe, 2003). 32 Fitness and Health Through Qigong, Beijing Review (20-24 April 1989).

23

then Master Yu Guangsheng.33 He later developed his own unique way - Falun Dafa - of

practising qigong. In 1992, Li Hongzhi formed the Falun Dafa Research Society, which

marked the birth of FLG.

Falun Gong: Development in the 1990s

In 1993, the Falun Dafa Research Society was approved by the China Qigong Scientific

Research Association as an affiliate branch, and was re-named as the Falun Gong

Research Branch Society. The initial official response to FLG was quite positive.34

However, the first setback occurred in 1994, when the China Qigong Scientific Research

Association terminated FLGs membership. During 1994-96, FLG failed to be registered

in various state associations.35 As a result, FLG had to decentralise its organisational

structure, and its local groups could only exist by affiliating with branches of Chinas

33 The biography of Li Hongzhi remains unsettled. For example, the autobiography of Li in the Appendix to the 1993 version of Zhuan Falun states that he was born in Gongzhuling, a county town in the northeast Jilin Province of China, on 13 May 1951, which was the eighth day of the fourth lunar month coinciding with the birthday of Sakyamuni Buddha. He received his spiritual training from the age of 4, and he claimed that he had received qigong from a master on Changbai Mountain since 1979 and had more than 20 Buddhist and Daoist teachers. See Penny, 2003. On the other hand, Li, according to the Chinese official source, was born in Changchun, the provincial capital of Jilin Province, on 7 July 1952, and learnt qigong only in 1988. Li Weidong, his first master, was a master of Chanmi gong, and his second master, Yu Guangsheng, was a master of Jiugong Bagua gong. See Life and times of Li Hongzhi, Xinhua News (22 July 1999). 34 For example, the official China Radio and Broadcasting Press in 1994 published his book Zhuan Falun, which became the bestseller in Beijing in early 1996 (Tong, 2002; Ownby, 2008; Palmer, 2007). Palmer (2003) accounts for the tolerant attitude towards the belief of many Chinese leaders and scientists by arguing that they held that FLG, as a form of qigong, was a science that can help China to regain its dignity. 35 For example, FLG failed to register in the National Minority Affairs Commission as a non-religious academic organisation, in the China Buddhist Association as a non-religious cultural organisation to study Buddhism, and in the United Front Department as a non-religious academic organisation (Tong, 2002).

24

sports administration (Tong, 2002). In 1996, FLG suffered another setback when the

government banned publications of FLG among others by labelling them as pseudo-

science (Shepherd, 2005). Guangming Daily (a newspaper for intellectuals run by the

Communist Party) published an article criticising Falun Dafa as feudal superstition and

Li Hongzhi as a swindler.36 These setbacks might have been one of the reasons that Li

left for and later settled in the US (Lu, 2005). Despite such setbacks, there has been an

incredibly rapid growth in the number of its practitioners (Lowe, 2003). In 1999, FLG

sources claimed that there were around 100 million practitioners, of whom over 70

million were in China (Lum, 2006; Tong, 2012).37

36 Raise the Alarm and Cry Out to Oppose False Science, Guangming Daily (17 June 1996). 37 Estimates of FLG's peak membership in China varied by source and by definition, especially the fact that anyone can become a member by attending its daily practice in parks, buy and read its books, etc (Penny, 2012:67). In 1999, the Chinese officials documented 2.3 million FLG believers, and nearly 360,000 of them were members of the Chinese Communist Party (Falun Gong Really is a Heretical Teaching, Peoples Daily (28 October 1999)). Palmer (2007) argues that the most probable number of its practitioners is between 3 and 20 million.

25

Falun Gong: the Crackdown

Official hostile attitudes towards FLG started in 1997, when the Public Security Bureau

investigated whether FLG should be classified as an evil cult. Although the investigation

concluded that there was no evidence found thus far,38 a series of actions to suppress

FLG followed: police disrupted the daily Falun Dafa practice in parks and searched the

homes of its practitioners, and the official media criticised the practices of FLG.39 Falun

Dafa practitioners organised protests at these newspaper or television stations. In 1998,

He Zuoxiu, a renowned atheist and a physics professor, in an interview on Beijing

Television considered Falun Dafa as superstitious (Ownby, 2008). About 2,000 Falun

Dafa practitioners gathered at the television station, which was forced to offer an apology

(Ownby, 2008).

In April 1999, He Zuoxiu criticised Falun Dafa again in an article entitled I Do Not

Approve of Teenagers Practising Qigong in Tianjin Youth Science and Technology

Journal published by Tianjin Teachers College (Thornton, 2010). Falun Dafa

practitioners protested again, and the protest was dispersed by riot police with 45

38 Behind the April 25 Incident, Minghui (21 April 2001) (in Chinese). 39 US House Calls for End to Falun Gong Persecution, The Epoch Times (16 March 2010).

26

practitioners arrested (Palmer, 2007). They then demanded that the police release the

detainees, but were told that the arrest was ordered by the Beijing authority (Li, 2014).

On 25 April 1999, more than 10,000 Falun Dafa practitioners gathered in Zhongnanhai -

the headquarters of the Chinese government in Beijing - to request the release of the

detainees (Li, 2014). This was the largest demonstration in Beijing since the June-fourth

event of 1989 (Li, 2014).40 The Chinese leaders were shocked, as it showed that FLG

could mobilise a large number of people to challenge the regime. 41 FLG was then

officially banned in China on 22 July 1999 on the ground of being an evil cult

(xiejiao).42 A campaign was launched to defame FLG, and a number of its practitioners

were arrested.

Why was FLG suppressed in 1999, despite the initial positive response from the

Communist government? Notable religious uprisings in the past (e.g. the Taiping

40 The June-fourth event of 1989 was triggered by the death of Hu Yaobang, the former General Secretary of the Chinese Communist Party, in April 1989, who had been forced to step down in 1987 for his mishandling of students protest for political reform in 1986. University students gathered in Tiananmen Square to commemorate Hu and to demand political reform again. The protests were brutally ended by the use of forces on 4 June 1989. 41 See A Quiet Roar: Chinas Leadership Feels Threatened by a Sect Seeking Peace, New York Times (4 November 1999). It was also reported that the Chinese Government on 30 April 1999 held an emergency meeting and concluded that the demonstration of 25 April 1999 was a political threat to the regime. See Cracks in Chinas Crackdown, The Washington Post (12 November 1999). 42 See The Notice from Chinese Communist Party to All Communist Members that It is Forbidden to Practise Falun Dafa, Peoples Daily (23 July 1999). FLG was alleged to have caused social unrest and instability, to spread superstitious and heretical ideas, and to deceive the masses, and Li Hongzhi deceives the people to deify himself and he deifies himself in a scheme to take the place of the government and rule the world. See Chinese Official Says Falun Gong Ban Follows Chinese Law, Peoples Daily (24 July 1999).

27

revolution) used god as a tool to organise and mobilise the masses, and they had clear

political aims to overthrow the government and/or to launch social reforms. FLG,

however, deals only with purifying its practitioners through exercises, and does not touch

on social or political issues. Yet, there is evidence that the reason for the suppression of

FLG was a political one.43 It was reported that Jiang Zemin, the Chairman of the Chinese

Communist Party as well as the President of China at the time of suppression, compared

FLG with Polands Solidarity movement, and expressed his concern on its organisational

capacity that could rival the Communist regime (Hu, 2003; Geenlee, 2006). 44 By

coincidence, the protests launched by FLG after 1996 tallied with the increased demands

against the government around various social issues. 45 FLG thus was regarded as a

potential source of destabilising social order and the regime. By labelling FLG as an evil

cult, the Chinese government wants to link FLG with other religious sects causing

disturbances throughout Chinese history (Irons, 2003). The suppression of FLG therefore

supports the summary in the earlier paragraphs that successive Chinese governments can

43See China Says Falun Gong Aims to Replace Government, Peoples Daily (28 July 1999). 44 Polands Solidarity movement was led by the trade union Solidarity in Poland, which in the early 1980s became the first independent labour union among countries of the Soviet bloc. In 1989, Solidarity led the democratic movement in Poland, and successfully overthrew the Communist regime in Poland. 45 Prominent social problems in China in the 1990s included: mass layoffs, widespread bureaucratic corruption, moral decay, social dislocation, environmental disasters, public health crises, etc. See Fairbank and Goldman, 1998.

28

allow freedom of religious beliefs only to the extent that such freedom does not affect the

political stability of the regime.

Chapter Summary

In this chapter, this study argued that there has been a pluralistic mix of religions among

the Chinese, and besides institutional religions, the Chinese also have local folk religions

and folk traditions involving the worship of ancestors. Successive governments have

intentionally allowed such a pluralistic mix so that there have been few religious conflicts

among the Chinese. However, there have been a number of religious uprisings in the past,

which eventually led to the downfall of the governing regimes. As such, the current

Communist regime has maintained a tight control over religious activities and insists that

religions should serve as both political and social controls.46 The study in this chapter

further argued that FLG flourished in less than a decade because it took advantage of the

qigong bloom in the 1980s. Yet, it is also because of such rapid growth that the Chinese

government treated FLG as a threat and therefore reverted back to the traditional method

of suppression of such religious sects.

46 However, Potter (2003) argues that, despite the tight control, there has been a change in the relationship between the regime and religious activities in China, with more tolerance of religious activities since the economic reform. He argues that the changing socio-economic conditions have limited the capacity of the regime to use force to enforce compliance, and compliance now depends on the trade-off of autonomy and loyalty.

29

Chapter 3

Falun Gong: Beliefs, Rituals, Ceremonies and Practices

Beliefs

The beliefs of FLG are summarised in Li Hongzhis book Zhuan Falun, which is an

edited compilation of Lis lectures. 47 This book, besides describing the beliefs, also

explains its relationship with qigong, Buddhism and Daoism; the origins of the cosmos,

virtue, and evil; spirits, gods and demons; and ethical behaviour in everyday life. In

Zhuan Falun, Li (2000) explains that Falun Dafa is a form of modern science based on

Buddhism, Daoism, and qigong. He frames his ideas as scientific by connecting

molecular cells of science with the Daoist idea of the human body as a small universe

together with Buddhist belief that a grain of sand holds 3,000 worlds (Li, 2000:31).48

This is reflected by the emblem of FLG (Figure 2), which is a large Buddhist swastika

with four small spinning swastikas and four revolving Daoist yin-yang symbols.49

47 The book was first published in 1994. By 1999, the book had been translated into nine languages, and an English version of this book first appeared in 1999. There is another introductory guide on Falun Dafa written by Li Honzhi Falun Gong (first published in 1992), which explains the relationship between qigong and Falun Dafa, the causes of illness, and the cultivation exercises in Falun Dafa. 48 Buddhists hold that there are 3,000 worlds in a grain of sand, which implies that the universe is so vast that one cannot see its exterior and so small that one cannot see its most microscopic interior. 49 Swastika is a sacred symbol in Buddhism, and in China and Japan, it symbolises luck, good fortune, and well being. See Swastika, in Damien Keown, A Dictionary of Buddhism (Oxford UP, 2003) p 287. The circle in the yin-yang symbol represents the Dao in Daoist thought, and the two halves represent respectively yin and yang. The curves within the yin-yang symbol imply movement in which yin and yang are mutually-arising, interdependent, and continuously transforming into the other. The smaller circles of opposite colours with yin and yang show that the interdependent nature of yin and yang. In Zhuan Falun, Li (2000:93) explains that this Falun emblem is a miniature of the universe.

30

Figure 2 Emblem of FLG

(Source: FalunDafa [available: www.FalunDafa.com; accessed: 21 October 2014])

Falun Dafa and Science: an Advanced Science

Li Hongzhi insists on the scientific basis of Falun Dafa in the Preface to his Zhuan Falun.

He criticises scientists who call Falun Dafa superstitious, by asserting that Falun Dafa is

an advanced science. Li (2000:i) explains that science is confined only to this physical

world, and Falun Dafa enables its practitioner to have a clear exposition of humanity,

every dimension of material existence, life, and the entire universe. He further argues that

Falun Dafa enable one to understand phenomena that are intangible and invisible in

physical dimension. Li (2000:37) supports his assertion that by claiming that practising

Falun Dafa can help one to emit energy in the form of electromagnetic waves. He then

states that his gong has been measured by modern apparatus (which, he says, can detect

all types of electromagnetic waves) and was found to generate abundant radiation (Li,

2000:37). Yet, the details of the measurement (e.g. the experimental set-up, the data)

31

were not given in Zhuan Falun and/or appeared elsewhere in FLGs publications or

scientific journals.

Falun Dafa and Qigong: Not Just Improving Health

Falun Dafa was developed out of qigong. Chapter 2 described how qigong can enhance

the flow of qi through ones body, and can thus help one to improve ones health. How

can Falun Dafa improve ones health? Li Hongzhi claims that he can insert a Dharma

Wheel (falun) into ones abdomen. In an interview with Time magazine, Li explains

that he uses [his] mind to direct and order such insertion.50 By practising Falun Dafa, he

further argues that one is able to turn this falun. When the falun is rotating at the same

rate as the universe, the practitioner begins to become one with the cosmos. Li further

teaches that once the falun spins, it spins constantly and never has to be renewed or

restarted. This falun is therefore more powerful than qi, because it is also able to absorb

positive energy from the universe and neutralises negative energy trapped in ones body.

Li teaches that practising Falun Dafa can also cure illness. He teaches that the cause of

illness is karma - a term borrowed from Buddhist teaching. 51 However, unlike

Buddhism, Li teaches that his karma is a visible black substance, which is accumulated

50 Interview with Li Hongzhi, Time (10 May 1999). 51 In Buddhist terms, karma is the principle that all intentional actions, good or bad, will lead to future results. See Harvey, 2013.

32

when one (or ones ancestors) does immoral acts. Practising Falun Dafa, according to Li,

can eliminate part of ones karma. However, the elimination of the remaining karma

depends on cultivating ones innate morality (xinxing) by abolishing jealousy and

stubbornness, and accumulating merit (de). Here, the term de bears the same meaning

to that in Buddhism, i.e. by doing good work. Li therefore urges practitioners to lead

moral lives.

Falun Dafa and Buddhism: Beyond Spiritual Enlightenment

Falun Dafa is concerned not only with physical but also with spiritual progress. His falun

is related to the Dharma Wheel in Buddhist teaching. The Dharma Wheel in Buddhist

teaching is the endless cycle of rebirth (samsara), which can only be escaped by

following Buddhas Dharma (Schumann, 1973). For Li, his falun goes beyond the

Buddhist Dharma Wheel, and encompasses the three Principles of [the] Universe -

Truthfulness, Benevolence, and Forbearance (Zhen-Shan-Ren). For Li, Daoists only

cultivate Zhen, which is achieved when one acts honestly, and one can then return to

ones Dao. For Li, Buddhists only cultivate Shan, which is achieved when one has a

charitable heart and performs good work. For Li, Falun Dafa goes beyond Zhen and Shan,

33

and its practitioners also cultivate Ren, which enables them to endure when suffered and

not resent, but to accept the suffering.

Li Hongzhi teaches that the ultimate goal of cultivation is to achieve a transcendent state

of consummation. Consummation, in Buddhist term, means nirvana, i.e. spiritual

enlightenment. However, consummation in FLG goes beyond spiritual enlightenment and

also includes a form of deification-through-death that confers godlike powers and

spiritual immortality upon advanced practitioners (Lowe, 2003:265). In Zhuan Falun, Li

(2000:14) says that the human Primordial Spirit does not become extinct when a

person is dead, only the largest molecular elements in this dimension of ours have

sloughed off, while the bodies in other dimensions are not degenerated. Li (2000:44)

therefore teaches that by practising Falun Dafa, one can replace all his body cells with

high energy matter. At this cultivation level, one stops the ageing process (Li, 2000:105),

and thus can achieve longevity (and hence, immortality). He further says:

In the West, one can reach paradise through cultivation practice after death. In the East, one can achieve a divine status through cultivation practice while one is still alive.52

52 Interview with Li Hongzhi, Time (10 May 1999).

34

Li Hongzhi has therefore transformed Falun Dafa from qigong to a method of gaining

enlightenment and self-salvation (Lu, 2005), and immorality for its practitioners.

The Cosmic Law and Human World History: Salvation of the Whole Humanity

Li Hongzhi claims that he alone knows the truth of the cosmos and the future of

humankind, because he himself stands at the highest point in the universe and can

therefore see at his level the forms of existence for different lives and matter in different

time-spaces, and the truth of our universe (Li, 2000:183). Li says:

Once upon a time, we were all living in other spaces, but we committed sins, so we came to earth to repent and save ourselves. But weve forgotten we committed sins, and instead of repenting we invented cars and rockets and get prosperous and live well and forget about repenting. Gods come once or twice to try to save us, but in the end they give up because man is so set on his own way .[emphasis added] 53

This saying was likely to be borrowed from the teaching in Christianity, which holds that

the present human predicament was due to the fall of the first man.54 He claims that

human civilisations have already experienced destruction 81 times, and only a few could

survive after each destruction and were then required to live in primitive ways.

According to Li, archaeologists have evidence of past civilizations in Peru, France and

53 Chinas Cult Flourishes in Chinas Spiritual Vacuum, The Scotsman (18 November 1998). 54 Therefore, just as sin entered the world through one man, and death through sin, and in this way death came to all people, because all sinned (Romans 5:12)

35

South Africa, and a two-billion-year-old nuclear reactor was uncovered by French

scientists in Gabon (Li, 2000:9). 55 Li further claims that prehistoric beings created

pyramids, which sank to the bottom of the ocean before being discovered by the

Egyptians (Porter, 2003:31). However, Li did not provide any evidence in supporting this

latter claim. Like that in Christianity and Islam, he also holds an apocalyptic view of the

world by claiming that the present human civilization is now heading for final destruction.

He then claims that he is sent to save humanity from the coming destruction. Only those

who purify themselves with Falun Dafa to a higher stage can escape the coming final

destruction.

Mystical Supernormal Abilities

According to Li Hongzhi, the universe has multiple dimensions, in which humans live in

the lowest descent level. There are other beings around us, including Buddha, ghosts,

demons, etc, and our five senses cannot see them. However, one can raise ones

perception and cultivate supernormal abilities by Falun Dafa.56 One of the most vital

55 The nuclear reactor in Gabon was discovered in 1972, and scientists and geologists usually treat the reactor as a natural one due to the specific geological conditions of this region. See, for example, The Workings of an Ancient Nuclear Reactor, Scientific American (26 January 2009). 56 Li (2000) distinguishes three levels of cultivation process - qi, In-Triple-World-Fa, and Beyond-Triple-World-Fa. Qi is the lowest level, at which other qigong practices also teach. Falun Dafa focuses on the other two higher levels. In-Triple-World-Fa aims at purifying the body of the practitioner and replacing it with high energy matter. Beyond-Triple-World-Fa aims at cultivating the fashen of the practitioner.

36

supernatural abilities is to open the Third Eye (tianmu), which is located slightly above

and between the eyebrows and is connected to the pineal body (Li, 2000:25). The

ordinary eyes can only see objects in physical dimensions, and the Third Eye allows one

to see objects thousands of miles away or events in the future. He teaches that the Third

Eye can ascend up to five levels, namely: Flesh Eyesight, Celestial Eyesight, Wisdom

Eyesight, Law Eyesight, and Buddha Eyesight, and when one is at or below the level of

Celestial Eyesight one can observe only our physical world, and only when one is at or

above the level of Wisdom Eyesight, can one see other dimensions. He supports the

existence of Third Eye with an example in Zhuan Falun, and Li (2000:181) says:

I taught the Celestial Eye opening on the second day of a class. Right away, one person with good inborn quality had his Celestial Eye opened at a very high level. He saw numerous scenes that many other people could not see. He told others: Wow, I saw Falun falling like snow flakes on the audiences bodies throughout the whole auditorium. I saw what Teacher Lis real body looks like, Teacher Lis halo, what Falun looks like and how many fashen there are.

Ethical Doctrines

Closely linked with its beliefs are the ethical doctrines of FLG. The basic assumption

about human nature in its ethical doctrines is that humans are benevolent in nature and

such nature was contaminated by modern society, and this assumption tallies with that in

37

Confucianism.57 Falun Dafa practitioners are therefore required to lead moral lives, to

work hard and be good citizens, and to take responsibility for their own decisions and

actions. By cultivating ones xinxing, one can not only improve ones physical health, but

also achieve consummation. Indeed, the morality demonstrated by Falun Dafa

practitioners probably helped FLG to recruit people to cultivate Falun Dafa, especially

during the rapid socio-cultural changes in Chinese society in the 1990s as a result of the

economic reform (Xiao, 2001). Besides cultivating xinxing, practitioners are required to

follow the Principles of the Universe (truthfulness-benevolence-forbearance), and among

these principles, forbearance is regarded as the highest moral virtue in this degraded world,

and this virtue has probably enabled practitioners to continue to cultivate Falun Dafa in

China even after the suppression in 1999.

Rituals, Ceremonies and Practices

FLG does not have any religious formality, rituals or forms of worship. Falun Dafa

practitioners are ascetic; but continue to live with their families and occupations.

Practitioners are only required to carry out daily exercises. There were originally five

57 Mend Tzu (371 288 BCE), who has been regarded as the most famous Confucian after Confucius, holds that the innate human nature is good.

38

particular exercises (Figure 3).58 The sixth one - Sending Forth Righteous Thoughts

(Figure 4) - was introduced in a conference in 2001, and this exercise involves a sitting

meditation, in which practitioners are required to follow mudrs and recite formulae when

they perform the exercise.59 The last exercise is claimed to be able to eliminate evil in

other dimensions (Palmer, 2003:348). Li Hongzhi produced books and video tapes

narrating the exercises. Practitioners, especially beginners, are strongly encouraged to

regularly practise and to study FLG writings together in groups (Li, 2014:81).

58 The five exercises are said to be able to enhance the flow of the falun in ones body. Falun Heavenly Circulation is gently tracing the hands over the entire body, front and back. Strengthening Divine Powers is meditation. Buddha Showing a Thousand Arms is gentle stretching movements. Falun Standing Stance comprises four static postures that one needs to hold for several minutes each. Penetrating the Two Cosmic Extremes is hand-gliding movements. 59 The formulae are: The Fa rectifies the Cosmos. Evil is completely eliminated. The Fa rectifies Heaven and Earth, immediate retribution in this lifetime.

39

Figure 3 Five Exercises in Falun Dafa

(Source: FalunDafa [available: www.FalunDafa.org ; accessed: 10 November 2014])

Figure 4 Mudrs (hand positions) in Sending Forth Righteous Thoughts

(Source: FalunDafa [available: www.FalunDafa.org ; accessed: 10 November 2014])

40

Chapter Summary

This chapter first examines the relationship between Falun Dafa with science, qigong,

Buddhism and Daoism. However, this study notes that there are mystic aspects of Falun

Dafa, which are beyond reason and are not supported by evidence. This chapter also

presents the core belief of FLG of truthfulness-benevolence-forbearance (Zhen-Shan-

Ren). Truthfulness is the ultimate objective of Daoism, and benevolence is the highest

purpose of Buddhism. FLG also has ethical doctrines, which share the basic assumption

about human nature with Confucianism. Thus, FLG is usually said to be a synthesis of

the traditional Chinese religions of Confucianism, Daoism and Buddhism. However, FLG

goes beyond these traditional religious beliefs by claiming that practising Falun Dafa

enables one to accept suffering, to achieve consummation, and to acquire supernormal

abilities. FLG also holds an apocalyptic view similar to that in Christianity, Islam, etc,60

and claims that cultivating Falun Dafa can lead to the salvation of practitioners in the

coming final destruction.

60 Li (1998) claimed that actually, there are still many elements borrowed from Western religions.

41

Chapter 4

Falun Gong A Religion?

What is a Religion?

In this chapter, the question of whether FLG is a religion will be answered. Before

presenting the analysis, it is first required to define the term religion. However, it is

difficult (if not, impossible) to define the term religion in just one section of this study.

Indeed, there is no single, universally agreed definition of the term religion, and there

are also several Latin words which might have served as the origin of the English word

religion. First, the word religion might have been derived from the Latin word religio

(meaning respect, devotion or superstition). An early definition of this type came from

Edward Burnett Tylor (1832-1917), the founder of British anthropology, who defines

religion as the belief in spiritual beings (Segal, 2006:4). Such substantive definition

is based on the substance of religious beliefs (i.e. what a religion is).61 Theologians

usually prefer referring the word religion to have come from the Latin words religo

(meaning to tie or fasten) or religare (meaning binding, tying or attaching). They are

more interested in the role of religion in (re-)establishing the bond between humans and

61 Similarly, Emile Durkheim (1858-1917), the founder of sociology, defines religion as a unified system of beliefs and practices relative to sacred things. For Durkheim, the sacred and the profane are treated differently by religious believers, who give special feeling to the sacred. See Durkheim, 1965, c 1915.

42

the divine.62 Such functional definition focuses on the function(s) of religion (i.e. what

a religion does). Functional definitions are also adopted by sociologists, though they are

more interested in the role of religion as a social activity (Giddens, 2009:677).63

What can therefore be deduced concerning the meaning of religion? Ninian Smart

(1927-2001), a pioneer of secular religious studies, answers this question by looking at

individual religions and identifying the common features among them. Smart (1969)

originally proposed a six-dimensional (ritual, mythic, doctrinal, ethical, social/institutional,

and experiential) definition for religion, and later Smart (1989) added the seventh

dimension - the material dimension - to the definition. 64 This study therefore combines

substantive and functional definitions with Smarts seven-dimensional definition, and

62 In the Abrahamic religions of Judaism, Christianity or Islam, religion is not just devotion to a supernatural being, but serves the purpose of re-uniting humans with God, since the fall of the first human Adam. For example, in Christianity, Jesus suffering and death atoned for the sins of humanity and reconciled humanity with God. Christians can therefore re-unite with God by faith in Jesus birth, death and resurrection. 63 For example, Karl Marx (1818-83) treated religion as a pacifier for exploited people, and religion is the opium of the people is his famous quote in Critique of Hegel's Philosophy of Right (1843). Sociologists always consider religion to be a social construct, and are willing to include, for example, nationalism as well as rationalism as a religion (Asad, 1993). 64 The ritual dimension refers to outward behaviours coordinated with an inner intention to make contact with, or to participate in, the invisible world (Smart, 1969:16). The mythological dimension refers to [t]he collection of myths, images and stories through which the invisible world is symbolised (Smart, 1969:18). Examples of myths include stories of historical events or persons, e.g. Exodus, life of Jesus. The doctrinal dimension includes doctrines that are an attempt to give system, clarity and intellectual power to what is revealed through the mythological and symbolic language of religious faith and ritual (Smart, 1969:19). The ethical dimension refers to the moral principles governing the daily life of its believers. For Smart (1969: 21), [t]he doctrinal, mythological, and ethical dimensions express a religions claim about the nature of the invisible world and its aims about how peoples lives ought to be shaped. The social/institutional dimension refers to the interaction of the religion with society (Smart, 1969: 21). The experiential dimension refers to the experiences of its founder(s) and believers of the invisible world (Smart, 1969:21). For example, Muslims, Christians, etc always claim to experience that God answers to their prayers. The material dimension is the existence of artifacts, aids to worship, and places (Smart, 1989).

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adopts four key criteria in distinguishing a religion from other social activities or

political movements. These four criteria are: the existence of a spiritual leader, or a belief

in supernatural being(s); a shared belief system with sacred text(s); sacred rituals,

ceremonies and practices; and a religious organisational structure. The first criterion,

which includes the existence of a spiritual leader, is framed such that Buddhism can be

included as a religion.65 With these four criteria, the traditional institutional religions (e.g.

Christianity, Islam, Hinduism and Buddhism) as well as Confucianism have no

difficulties in classifying themselves as religions, 66 and Marxism, nationalism, etc

cannot be classified as religions.67

65 Whether Buddhism is a religion or just a way of living is highly controversial, as Sakyamuni Buddha did not regard himself as a god or a supernatural being, though there are no difficulties in identifying a belief system with sacred texts, rituals and practices, and a religious organisational structure in Buddhism, and though Buddhists in China usually treat Sakyamuni Buddha and other bodhisattvas (e.g. Kuan Yin) as supernatural beings, who can offer help in the case of crises or changes. 66 In this study, Christianity includes both Protestant Christianity and Catholic Christianity. For Confucianism, although Confucius did not perform miracles or argue for the existence of gods, Confucius has been worshipped by Chinese in Confucian temples. Moreover, Confucianism does have formal organisations, and The Analects, which is regarded as a sacred text, contains the sayings and teachings of Confucius. 67 In the words of Smart (1969), Marxism cannot be classified as a religion, as [n]either relationship to a personal God nor the hope of an experience of salvation or nirvana can be significant for the Marxist.

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Falun Gong as a Religion?

Both Li Hongzhi and Falun Dafa practitioners do not admit that FLG is a religion, and

they regard Falun Dafa as an advanced science. They further argue that Falun Dafa does

not contradict any other religious faiths; but encompasses them into its beliefs.68 Penny

(2012) argues that Falun Dafa practitioners are justified in claiming that FLG is not a

religion, since there is no formal membership for FLG.69 Furthermore, Penny (2012)

argues that they may have intended to downplay their metaphysical teachings, and instead,

present truthfulness-benevolence-forbearance as the Principles of the Universe such that

non-believers can easily accept its doctrines. However, the official position of the

Chinese government is that FLG is a religious cult, and indeed, an evil cult. The

following addresses this question by using the four criteria identified in the earlier

paragraphs.

68 The following was the view of Falun Dafa practitioners as quoted by Porter (2003), which represents the typical views of its practitioners on this question: Actually, Falun Gong is just a very flexible practice method. Id say its like a way of life. We get to practise any time we have, maybe we get together Saturday at a park. We dont have any - We dont worship anything, and there are no rituals to follow. Its not a religion. And, Falun Gong is a not a religion, but we do have our principles, which is, again, Truthfulness, Compassion, and Forbearance. 69 Penny (2012) argues that the term religion only appeared in Chinese in the late 19th century, and that for a Chinese to claim himself as belonging to a religion requires ones formal membership in a church, temple or mosque, not just holding a set of beliefs.

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Li Hongzhi: both a Spiritual Leader and a Supernatural Being

One of the criteria in this study to qualify one as a religion is the existence of a spiritual

leader, or a belief in supernatural being(s). Chapter 3 argues that Falun Dafa is a moral

system involving cultivation of truthfulness-benevolence-forbearance. Falun Dafa

practitioners claim that there is neither a spiritual leader nor a supernatural being in FLG.

However, in FLG, there is a very distinct role for the founder - Li Hongzhi. While Falun

Dafa practitioners rank equally as seekers of consummation, and Li is given the title of

Master (Sifu meaning teacher), and this sounds quite symbolically like Jesus among

his disciples.70 Li says in a talk in Toronto in 1999:

You are cultivators, but Im not. Every one of you has to comply with the standards of a cultivator without exception. You must all reach the realm and standards of Consummation. Yet, I am not the same as you. Im here to teach you this Fa (Li, 1999).71

In the 1994 version of Zhuan Falun, Li further compared himself with Chairman Mao,

and Penny (2012:85) quoted the comparison as follows: 72

Falun Dafa founded by Mr Li Hongzhi is like a red sun rising from the east, whose radiance with unlimited vitality will illuminate every corner of the earth,

70In the Bible, Jesus is portrayed as rabbi (again meaning teacher), who preaches the good news from the Father. For example, John 3:1-2: Now there was a man of the Pharisees, named Nicodemus, a ruler of the Jews. This man came to Jesus by night and said to Him, Rabbi, we know that You have come from God as a teacher; for no one can do these signs that You do unless God is with him. 71 In this talk, Li (1999) further claims that he knew why Jesus had to be crucified, and why Yahweh did not release him. 72 Mao Zedong (commonly referred to as Chairman Mao) (1893 1976) was the founding father of the Peoples Republic of China in 1949. During the Cultural Revolution (1966-76), Mao was deified as the rising sun bringing hope to the people and was worshipped as the omnipotent living god by Chinese at their home altars. See Landsberger, 2002.

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nourish all the living things, warm the whole world and play an unparalleled role in the realization of an ideal and perfect human society on this planet.

It can therefore easily be deduced that Li has assumed the role of spiritual leader in FLG,

whose function is to lead his followers to enlightenment. This study, however, further

argues that Li has deified himself from a spiritual leader to a living god. In the

writings of FLG, Li has always been associated himself with Sakyamuni Buddha. His

birth, according to his autobiography, was on 13 May 1951, which in that year was the

lunar birthday of Sakyamuni Buddha.73 Li always dresses in a Buddhist saffron robe and

sits in the lotus position. Li further asserts that he has already reached the highest level of

cultivation and been equipped with various law bodies (fashen).74 He claims that his

fashen can exist independent of, but are controlled by, his main body, and allows him to

do whatever he wants to do. Li (2000:92) promises practitioners that when they cultivate

Falun Dafa, one of his fashen will protect them from disasters and illnesses. Thus, Li

suggests that he himself is an omnipresent supernatural being. In Zhuan Falun, he further

claims that he teaches the Dharma at a level above that at the time of Sakyamuni Buddha.

He says:

73 Li (2000) explained that his birth day was incorrectly recorded by the government during the Cultural Revolution and he simply rectified it back to the right date. 74 The term fashen was probably borrowed from Buddhist term dharmakya. Dharmakaya is one of the three bodies (trikaya) of the Buddha, representing the real nature the Buddha, out of which buddhas arise and to which they return after their dissolution.

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[t]he Dharma that Sakyamuni professed two thousand five hundred years ago was only for everyday people at a very low level; it was taught to those who had just evolved from a primitive society and still possessed very simple minds . The Dharma Sakyamuni taught at that time took that situation into consideration, and he did not articulate fully the [Dharma] that he understood at his own level. (Li, 2000:6-7).

In his biography, Li was said to possess supernormal abilities (e.g. rendering himself

invisible, putting nails out of wood with his bare hands, passing through a glass window)

at the age of eight (Penny, 2003). All these magical powers are similar to those

possessed by the Monkey King in Chinese local folk religion (Xiao, 2001). Among the

miracles, curing illness is an essential character of religious founders. 75 The earlier

paragraphs mentioned that Li has magical power to insert a falun into the practitioners

lower abdomen, rendering one immune to disease. Li further claims to have cured many

illnesses through Falun Dafa.76 The study on Falun Dafa practitioners by Chen (2005)

reported narratives that Li had cured non-curable diseases of his followers. Like Jesus, Li

also claims that he can exorcise demons and impurities from the bodies of his follower,

75 The major figures in Judaism (Moses), Christianity (Jesus), and Islam (Muhammad) have all worked miracles in founding their divine missions. In the Old Testament, Moses had performed ten plagues of Egypt (Exodus 7:20 - 8, 9, 10, 11, 9-12:30), parted the Red Sea (Exodus 14:21-31), etc. In the New Testament, the four Gospels record 37 miracles of Jesus, including cleansing a man with leprosy (Mt 8:1-4; Mk 1:40-45; Lk 5:12-14), healing a centurions servant (Mt 8:5-13; Lk 7:1-10), raising Lazarus from the dead (Jn 11:1-45), etc. The Quran also records a number of miracles of Muhammad, e.g. splitting the moon (Q 54:1-3), night journey to Jerusalem and ascent to Heaven (Q 17:1, 53:12-18). 76 In 1993, Li Hongzhi participated in the second Oriental Health Expos in Beijing and claimed that his booth was crowded with people waiting for treatment, because the visitors were impressed with his immediate treatment of some patients (Li 2000:145).

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and to stop raining (Penny, 2003). Also, he claims himself, similar to Jesus, as the

messiah sent by god(s) to save humankind from the coming destruction. The study of Li

(2014:187) found that many Falun Dafa practitioners regarded Li as a god who is above

all other gods. Penny (2012) found that many Falun Dafa practitioners see Li as the

future Maitreya Buddha, and noted that Li has neither confirmed or denied this (Penny

2012:108-11).77 This study therefore concludes that FLG satisfies the first criterion of a

religion in this study with Li as a supernatural leader with spiritual powers.78

A Shared Belief System with Sacred Texts

Chapter 3 shows that FLG has a defined set of beliefs. The beliefs of truthfulness and

benevolence already covered Daoism and Buddhism respectively, and its belief of

forbearance goes beyond Daoism and Buddhism. In Zhuan Falun, Li Hongzhi further

says (Li, 2000:93):

This universe consists of two major schools, the Buddha School and the Dao School . Confucianism belongs to the Dao School; when many Western religious cultivation practices reach high levels, they are classified as belonging to the same system as ours, the Buddha School. There are only two such schools.

77 According to Buddhist teaching, Maitreya Buddha is now residing the Tushita heaven, and will descend in some 5,670,000,000 years to earth to preach anew the true Dharma. 78 Lu (2005:178) says, [a] large number of practitioners regarded Li Hongzhi as an omnipotent God who is protecting and guiding practitioners at all times, satisfies all qualified practitioners needs, and even determines the future of the world.

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Confucianism is thus placed within Daoism, and Western religions are placed within

Buddhism. Thus, FLG encompasses all the major religious thoughts. There are also a

number of features in Lis teachings, which are common to those of other religi