Families in Transition: Ethnic Case Studies

Dr. Jane Granskog

California State University, Bakersfield

Self, Family and Community: Positive Dependency

sociological interdependence - self defined in relationship to family, community, ancestors, spirits

cyclical continuous flow between each essential for health and harmony

Self oriented toward personal interaction

Positive Dependency Flows

Follow own wishes but within a context limiting boundaries of Self

Control limiting boundaries of Self instilled by space & sound - respect & obedience toward elders

Dependency within the Family

Families are viewed as interlocking life units in which the well-being of one is inherent in well-being of others

Roles modify as persons move from one stage to another but not outside group

Bonding with trust is based on demands of custom v.s. a measure of the individual performance of given individual

Dependency within the Family Lateral extended kin - horizontal basis

that carries brunt of dependency flowTension diluted by stretching discipline

linesImportance of respect mechanismEmphasis on mutuality, reciprocity -

setting things right in family disputes through face-to-face encounters (Hawaiian, 'ohana' practice)

Dependency within the Community

emphasis on sharing, support between all groups/subunits within community - reciprocity

emphasis on exchange of services (time & energy)

importance of “doing” for others - involvement, commitment

Types of IndependenceOpposing dependency - supremacy of

self outside of flow, emphasis on self first and foremost (sociological independence - Independence Complex)

Positive dependency - freedom to make choices within a cooperative framework (caring about others)

Factors Influencing the Nature of Dependency Flow

Length of time (history) that you've had with someone - continuity, commonality

Nature of the "kinship" bond (biological vs non-biological and significance of the difference)

Nature of the interaction and intensity of the bond (e.g., life & death situation - wartime buddies)

Factors Influencing the Nature of Dependency Flow

Location - distance limits the type & frequency of interaction (being able to call upon them), limits involvement

Common interests - ties are with people with whom you share important parts of your life - work, school, leisure activities, etc.

Factors Influencing the Nature of Dependency Flow

Personal background/history - personality traits, coming from a disengaged vs enmeshed family; significance of "poisonous pedagogy" - disfunctional traits carried from childhood

Gender and Ethnic Background - differences in socialization patterns of females v.s. males and how they are expressed within the socio-cultural context

Positive Dependency FeaturesCommitment (“amae”) - presume

on each other’s convenience, call on in time of need

Involvement - engaged in daily activities

Bonding - established history, being a part of one’s life

Obligation - there to help each other out

Positive Dependency Features

Reciprocity - doing for one another

Trust - being able to count on one another, a known quantity

Continuity - sense of community/”family” that extends over time

Kinship ExerciseFrequency of interaction -- how often do

you communicate with them, what is the nature of the communication?

What areas of life do you share with different members? economic - support each othersocial - get together at family

reunions, spend week-end in shared activities, etc.

religious - go to church together, etc.

Kinship ExerciseRole obligations and/or responsibilities

-- what have you done for them recently & what have they done for you?, when you get into trouble, who are you most likely to call upon?

Note any patterns in the nature of your interaction with kin -- do you interact with some more than others and if so why? Is it because they live close by, share common interests and values, and/or because they are relatives?

Changing Family Dynamics

Changing Family Dynamics

1950’s“ traditional family” (focus on structure as economic unit of production & consumption - breadwinner/homemaker) no longer dominant by 1990’s - greater acceptance of plurality of forms

Significance of “second shift” - changing role of males & females within home, impact of “downsizing”, conflicting demands work/home (40% of labor force, nonstandard work schedules), increased economic stress on middle class families

1950’s“ traditional family” (focus on structure as economic unit of production & consumption - breadwinner/homemaker) no longer dominant by 1990’s - greater acceptance of plurality of forms

Significance of “second shift” - changing role of males & females within home, impact of “downsizing”, conflicting demands work/home (40% of labor force, nonstandard work schedules), increased economic stress on middle class families

Ethnic Families in AmericaEthnic Families in America

Significance of “primordial attachments’- belonging to a given ethnic group with a unique cultural heritage

Changing perspective of “Americanization”, assimilation -renewed ethnic consciousness

Focus of identity and solidarity lies in family’s ability to socialize members into ethnic culture

Significance of “primordial attachments’- belonging to a given ethnic group with a unique cultural heritage

Changing perspective of “Americanization”, assimilation -renewed ethnic consciousness

Focus of identity and solidarity lies in family’s ability to socialize members into ethnic culture

Features of Ethnic FamiliesEmphasis on family activities - eating

"ethnic" foodsStructure of the family - traditionally

typically large extended families, patriarchal ideal, father-headed, mother-centered; strong family orientation; trend to smaller more nuclear families, increasing impact of socialization by outside institutions

Features of Ethnic Families -2Ideology - emphasis on trust within

group/family loyalty to kin first; emphasis on honor of the family

Cohesion/integration - traditional unity as the primary social & economic unit, emphasis on supportive family rituals; presently less likely to operate as such

Limited Geographic mobility -- place oriented to a considerable degree

Focus of Articles in Ethnic Families

Historical background of immigration patterns

Demographic characteristics (rates of marriage, divorce, intermarriage)

Structure of the family (distribution of status, authority, responsibility within nuclear family) & extended kin networks

Focus of Articles in Ethnic Families

Cultural values - achievement, style of life, educational & occupational aspirations; reflected in socialization patterns

Characteristics at different stages of the family life cycle - form of acculturation/assimilation taking place

Overview of Immigrant Family in U.S.

Overview of Immigrant Family in U.S.18th cen. Mercantilism, great

transformation to large scale capitalist enterprises w/ rise of proletariats in 19th cen. (push factors); opportunities in U.S. (pull factors)

Immigration waves: 1) 1832-82 (old); 2) 1882-1930 (new - Irish, Germans); 3)”great lull” 1925-’65; 4) 1965 on - Asians, Indians, Pacific Islders., circular & transmodern migration patterns

18th cen. Mercantilism, great transformation to large scale capitalist enterprises w/ rise of proletariats in 19th cen. (push factors); opportunities in U.S. (pull factors)

Immigration waves: 1) 1832-82 (old); 2) 1882-1930 (new - Irish, Germans); 3)”great lull” 1925-’65; 4) 1965 on - Asians, Indians, Pacific Islders., circular & transmodern migration patterns

Black American FamilyBlack American Family

Importance of a holistic approach to studying African American families in context

Four cultural traits distinguishing Black Americans from other immigrants:Are from countries with very different norms &

valuesAre from many different tribes & culturesFirst came without womenCame in bondage

Importance of a holistic approach to studying African American families in context

Four cultural traits distinguishing Black Americans from other immigrants:Are from countries with very different norms &

valuesAre from many different tribes & culturesFirst came without womenCame in bondage

Black American FamilyMajor problems with most studies of

black family life in past, focus on low income groups, presumed to fit various stereotypes by social scientists (few studies until 1970’s) - two major perspectives:

Pathological, disorganization perspective

Strength-resiliency perspective

Black American Family PerspectivesPathological view goes back to slavery

period - supported by both pro- & anti-slavery groups (either not capable of stable family life or such was not possible under conditions of slavery), views family as deviant/maladaptive

ignores variability in family types & existence of free black families

Black American Family PerspectivesFrazier - 1930’s - concerned with

assimilation of blacks in America - viewed “moral disorganization” of black families as impediment to assimilation, failure to keep sexual urges under control;

1965 Moynihan, re-affirmed, view of matrifocal families as disfunctional, associated w/ culture of poverty.

Black American Family Perspectives

Strength resiliency perspective emerges in 1968 w/ Billingsley; focus on adaptive mechanisms of family to meet conflicting demands placed on it; strong role of women

Major strengths - strong kinship bonds, strong work orientation, adaptability of family roles, high achievement & religious orientation

Black American Family

Stack - focus on strategies used in black networks to survive in poor urban environments; domestic networks; focuses on reciprocal exchange & mutual aid among kin & non-kin (not always as effective as stated)

Staples: majority of Black families have nuclear model (1972 - 2/3 w/ husband & wife);

significant variables: education, work, income

Modern Black American Family 1960-’70-’80 decline in fertility rate (birth

rate of college-educated black women lower than white counterparts); increase in out of wedlock births, co-habiting couples;

Distinction of family vs non family households - diversity in composition (nuclear, extended & augmented family households

130% increase in female headed households (discrimination, urban living, poverty); 45% unemployment rate of black men

Modern Black American FamilyBlack kinship network more extensive &

cohesive than among Anglos, take in relatives more readily, rely on kin more

Role relations - egalitarian, husbands involved in decision making; high value of children

Economic problems major factor in marital conflict, imbalanced sex ratio, increase in interracial dating & marriage

Native AmericansSignificant variation among diverse

cultures ranging from hunter gatherers to agricultural states; described primarily by anthropologists in terms of 10-12 cultural areas

Major impact of contact - disease (1/2+ of Indian languages extinct), policy of extermination (vs incorporation characterized by Spanish territories)

Native Americans vs EuropeansNative Americans vs EuropeansContrastsContrasts

Indian marriages public, customary, contract between kin groups VS European marriages - private legal contract between individuals

Indians tolerant of & expressed diversity of marriage forms (polygamy, monogamy etc) & descent systems VS Europeans - monogamy, nuclear family, bilateral inheritance only

Native Americans vs Europeans - Contrasts

Indians - significant variation in level of social organization & kin terminology systems VS Europeans - not significant

Attitudes re: kinship: European failure to understand different kin structures especially of matrilineal groups lead to breakdown of kin systems

Acculturation of Native Americans

forced acculturation to Anglo-European practices via missionary efforts (e.g., “proper” marriage); education (B.I.A., boarding schools);

racist federal policies - force individual land holding (loss of land), economic conditions on reservations, inducements to relocate to urban areas; intermarriages - Indian women marrying non-status whites, lost traditional rights

Modern Native American Families

are approximately 300 federally recognized tribes + another 100 non-recognized tribes (east, California)

despite forced acculturation + influence of American popular culture on N. American youth, & 500 years of ethnocide, significant differences in family practices & values remain

Modern Native American Families

key values - cooperation, balance , harmony, kinship, respect -interrelation of all life, P.D.N.

up to early ‘60’s, dominant view based on early anthro studies - extended family seen as norm; families classified by degree of acculturation

do not have definitive, current research to document changes in Native American family life

Modern Native American Families

problems with classification of “extended family networks”, what constitutes extended - Red Horse’s typology; Native American families are more firmly based on interdependence (e.g., child rearing, ego identity)

types based on degree of assimilation - reflected in degree of intermarriage (white father, grandfather, husband, +school teachers, clergy)

Modern Native American Families

Miller’s typology based on degree to which have Indian/White values & behaviors - traditional (Indian values); transitional (adapts to white means & ends); bicultural (Indian values + adapt to whites); marginal (anomic in both worlds)

bicultural considered to be most well-adjusted

greater availability & proximity of kin, effect on support networks

Modern Native American Families

ways in which researchers define & measure family extension critical

measures - household composition, residential propinquity

best measure - effective or functioning support network based on interaction & proximity of residence

Native American Socio-demographics

fastest growing, youngest population (1.4 million + 6.7 million partial descent); median age lower than general population

more women of childbearing age, more are also adolescents

23% all Native Am. families, female headed; over 1/4th live in povery; high rates of unemployment

Native American Sociodemographicsintermariage increased 20% ‘70 to ‘80;

50%, married to another racesocialization - less acculturated, higher self

esteem, acculturation--destructive effectgender differences: women, concern w/

kinfolk, family, marriage, sex; men, employment, money, success, material matters; men’s roles more changed than women

Gay and Lesbian FamiliesGay and Lesbian Families Major shift from 1960s-’70s to late 1980s -

significant upsurge in # of children w/ 1 or 2 gay/lesbian parent; 1989 Denmark legalized gay marriage, 2001 Netherlands gave full legal rights to same-sex marriages; on-going controversy in U.S.

Impact of sexual revolution, alternative reproductive technologies, continued discrimination & backlash re: “The Family” (DOMA-1996); redefining family in social vs. biological terms;

Legitimizing same-sex marriages significant impact recognizing plurality of diverse vibrant family forms (2001 Gallup poll--opposition dropped to 52%)

Major shift from 1960s-’70s to late 1980s - significant upsurge in # of children w/ 1 or 2 gay/lesbian parent; 1989 Denmark legalized gay marriage, 2001 Netherlands gave full legal rights to same-sex marriages; on-going controversy in U.S.

Impact of sexual revolution, alternative reproductive technologies, continued discrimination & backlash re: “The Family” (DOMA-1996); redefining family in social vs. biological terms;

Legitimizing same-sex marriages significant impact recognizing plurality of diverse vibrant family forms (2001 Gallup poll--opposition dropped to 52%)

Diversity Among Latino Diversity Among Latino FamiliesFamilies

Diversity Among Latino Diversity Among Latino FamiliesFamilies

Historical view - biased perspectives, focus on one family form vs. diverse forms present, tendency to see as “traditional”, disorganized and dysfunctiona;

Impact of economic restructuring & immigration on global basis; 4 factors - new technologies (computer chip), global interdependence, flight of capital, & dominance of info. & service sectors; new demands for immigrant labor

Historical view - biased perspectives, focus on one family form vs. diverse forms present, tendency to see as “traditional”, disorganized and dysfunctiona;

Impact of economic restructuring & immigration on global basis; 4 factors - new technologies (computer chip), global interdependence, flight of capital, & dominance of info. & service sectors; new demands for immigrant labor

Mexican-American Family

Significance of impact of history of colonization by Spain & conflict with U.S. on demographics of Mexican Americans

Key events: Mexican-American War (1846-’48); 1880-1930 & Bracero Program (1942-’64) -- significant increase due to need for labor

Mexican-American Family pop. of Mexican origin tripled from

4.5million in ‘70 to 13.5 million in 1990; presently 60%+ of total Hispanic population (2/3 native born);

majority (86%) in Arizona, California, Colorado, New Mexico, & Texas

Highly heterogeneous population with variable family structures depending on region, education, time of migration, social class, etc.; marked by low family income, high labor force participation -- largest average household size of all Latino groups

Mexican-American Familytraits of Mexican Americans thought to

affect/reflect family patterns - person oriented vs goal oriented (emphasis on interpersonal relations); less materialistic & competitive than Anglos, material goods, a means to an end

stereotypes of traditional family involve positive/negative interpretations of structural features

Traditional Mexican-American Family Features

Familism (la familia) - key role of family to all members, major support in attaining all goals; warm, nurturing, stable structure

Male dominance - machismo - stereotypes--aggression, sexual prowess; real machismo - emphasis on honor of family, courage, generosity, respect for others including role of wife & children; marianismo (matrifocality)

Traditional Mexican-American Family

Sex & age grading - females submissive to males, young to elders - stereotypes overlook functions of each within extended peasant family; respect for elders, role of eldest son, authority over sisters & younger children

Features of traditional family were a response to needs for survival; importance of familism remains strong despite other changes

Modern Mexican-American Family

Primarily located in cities (85%) in SWYoung median age, slightly more males

than females; among hispanics, lowest median income except for Puerto Rican families; blue collar jobs predominant

significantly larger than other ethnic families; lowest level of education (median school years); disproportionate number low S.E.S

Cuban American Family - Immigration

Long term immigration patterns between Cuba & Florida; key turning point 1/1/59 with advent of Castro

By 1986, U.S. Cuban population = 1 million

Six stages of immigration between 1959-80 - commercial flights, airlifts, fewer by small boats & rafts

Cuban American FamilyBecause of key economic role of women,

traditional patriarchal structure of family disrupted; now more egalitarian in role relations

Key feature - Biculturalism & bilingualism - Cubans, significant impact on host culture - 3 stages: acculturation, retention of original Cuban culture, syncretism (all within family unit); also a source of tension between parents & children

Puerto Rican American Family Immigration of working class linked to political-

economic relation between two countries with major immigration after WWII, especially in 1950’s with industrialization efforts in P.R.

Source of cheap labor in services agriculture & garment industry; most between ages 15-39.

Majority in urban areas, New York; migration marked by ebb & flow, marked return migration

Puerto Rican American Family modified extended family predominant with

emphasis on family interdependence, needing others for support (P.D.N.)

emphasis on compadrazgo, hijos de crianza machismo & marianismo (mother role key) respeto - generalized deference to superiors;

emphasis on personalismo - face to face, informal, personal relations

Puerto Rican American FamilyHigh number of poor, female headed

households, blue collar, service jobs; out-group marriage patterns (‘49-’69) indicate rapid assimilation

Four types of familial household structures: modified extended family; nuclear family; blended nuclear (Fa/Mo/So/Da/Step children); single parent families - typology overlooks blending of forms

Puerto Rican American FamilyModified extended family primary

support system, 1st & 2nd generationsEmphasis on familism, interdependence,

family unity (obligation for assistance)Respeto related to age/sex hierarchy -

status increases with age (elder parents)Strict dichotomy between genders

(ideology of male dominance prevails)

Zapotec Peasantsagricultural village in Oaxaca, Mexico; pop.

~1,250 in late ‘60’s; patrilocal, ext. family, ideal

3 central values representing good: humility (we are all equally poor, attend

to others, obedience to authority); trust (character, taking people at word); respect (manipulating social hierarchy to

benefit one, granting favors)

Zapotec Peasants evil - institutionalized envy - opposite of that

which is good - always making invidious comparisons; mark of disharmony, witchcraft

categories of kin - “insiders” (close to me) vs “outsiders” (people who mean nothing, or may be something to me); is an endogamous village, thus a matter of manipulating kin ties

deviant person is one with defective kin ties;

Zapotec Peasant Ideology

community ideology re: sexual behavior - only between married individuals, are punished for extramarital affairs; incest, abhorrent to community, punished by authorities.

reality - only person without extramarital affairs is the deviant; no clear notion of adultery; gossip about sexual affairs constant, but one who informs is viewed as most deviant; incest occurs often; no real punishment for adultery

Zapotec Peasantsmajor ritual & religious symbols of

society built upon association with “insiders”

compadrazgo ties extend to 4 generations; everyone related thru blood & marriage

strategy to follow - keep number of insider ties to minimum needed to maximize security

The Korean-American Family - Historypioneer immigration to Hawaii 1903-05

(uneducated, unskilled laborers); Korean war brides, 1950's -

intermarriage with servicemen, higher divorce rates

main immigration after 1965 Immigration Act (3rd largest after Mexicans & Filipinos, key emphasis on family unity - increased numbers of kin brought over), educated professionals & technicians

The Korean-American Familytraditional family - patriarchal, strong

influence of Confucianism (respect for & obedience to parents & elders, filial piety/ancestor worship);

married women did not work, subordinate to husband’s authority

education viewed as the main avenue for social mobility

New Korean Immigrantsprimarily West Coast (30% in California)

- in large urban areas - Los Angeles, New York, Chicago

larger families (live with parents until marriage), lower divorce rate than Americans (higher than in Korea)

high female labor-force participation rate - mostly in small businesses --grocery stores, green groceries, fast food services (unable to find jobs to match status in Korea);

New Korean Immigrants

double day for women; continued traditional socialization for boys & girls

strengthened conjugal ties, focus on family (positive dependency); strong extended kin ties

primary area of inter-group conflict - white suppliers, black ghetto residents

The Chinese-American Family

In the U.S., significant numbers for 130+ years; largest Asian group in U.S.

little research on Chinese-American family, no typical family

major features - stable family unit (low divorce & illegitimacy); close ties between generations; economic self-sufficiency

The Chinese-American Family

traditional family - patriarchal, patrilocal, patrilineal - father & eldest son primary authority; ancestor worship, filial piety (significance of tzu); concept of "face"

Acculturation - lessening of above, also reflected in the increase in interracial marriages among young

Chinese Immigration Patterns

"Mutilated"/"split" family (1850-1920) -primarily men (Chinese Exclusion Act, 1882, 1888 Scott Act)

Small producer family (1920-43) - second generation Chinese population (discrimination of 1924 Immigration Act - citizens with chinese ancestry not allowed to send for wives & families)

Chinese Immigration PatternsNormalization of Chinese family (1943-

65) - 1945 War Brides Act, 1948 Displaced Persons Act

Ghetto & professional Chinese family (1965-present) - ghetto - dual worker family, new immigrants in Chinatown (segregation work & family life); professional - middle-class, white-collar, suburbs, more modern & cosmopolitan - "semiextended" family points to continued importance of kin ties

Male Dominance in Peasant Families Four Features of

Peasant SocietyClearcut ideology of male dominance -

does not necessarily reflect the reality of the peasant situation particularly with respect to the role women play.

A preference toward males in inheritance rules and residence patterns.

Male Dominance in Peasant Families

Predominance of males in prestigious productive activities, namely agriculture, which does NOT necessarily indicate who controls or makes the most decisions regarding the allocation of products

Social segregation of the sexes with an emphasis on male authority within the household

Presence of Complementary Roles in the Peasant Family

Women are primarily associated with the domestic domain, which is of central importance in peasant society (source of female power)

Peasants are relatively powerless in their relationship to the larger society of which they are a part, and face-to-face interaction is significant within the community.

Presence of Complementary Roles in the Peasant Family

Ergo, informal relationships and forms of power are as significant as formal authorized relations and forms of power (this serves as a second basis of female power)

Males have greater access to jural and other formal rights and are occupied with activities overtly considered to be important. (This is the basis of the ideology of male dominance.)

Peasant Family StructureMen and women are equally dependent on

each other in important ways. (Source of the balance of power between the sexes.).

In summary, the first two components above, provide the basis for feminine power; the third insures the presence of an ideology of male dominance; and the fourth, maintenance of a balance of power between the sexes (complementarity) which is achieved by acting out the "myth" of male dominance.

Vietnamese American FamilyApproximately 600,000 currently in U.S.,

more than 1 million have fled to the WestTraditional society/culture - 4 classes:

scholars (most respected); peasant farmers; craftsmen; businessmen

village next in importance after family as a positive dependency network

patriarchal family, center of individual’s life

History of Immigration - Four Waves

Educated - end of the war, April ‘75, more educated, successful adaptation

Boat people - ‘78-’79 - ethnic chinese vietnamese business people

Escapees - via Thailand, Malaysia, walked across Laos etc.

Orderly departees emigrated in “79 after Viet. govt. allowed them to join relatives abroad

Traditional Vietnamese Extended Family - Ho

Truong Toc - head of family, oldest male, responsible for care of ancestors

Mother - no power, privileges, obey father, husband, eldest son; only area of equality, property & debts; had rights only as a mother, obeyed & respected by children

Piety for parents, most significant moral obligation

Traditional Socialization & Marriage

sex segregation in socialization, fa-son; mo-da; mother blamed for child’s misconduct

siblings, age-hierarchy significant; share all within family

boys, formal schooling, not for girlsboys - may marry at 16 (usually later),

girls, 13; arranged by family; emphasis on children; patrilocal residence; taboo to marry foreigners

Vietnamese Family in AmericaU.S. - Texas & especially California

(highest number of SE Asian refugees)significant values - care for family

members, family first before individual, self-sufficiency based on family;

compared with other Asian Americans, have highest percentage of extended families (55%)

Vietnamese Family in America

four family patterns - nuclear family; incomplete extended family; broken family (father or mother, some children, rest in Vietnam or dead); one person family

young population; only Asian group with high percentage of female-headed households

Vietnamese Family in AmericaChanges - more freedom/independence by

young; father less absolute control;women, significantly higher fertility than

other Asian Americans (fewer kids w/ more education);

Conflicts: Vietnamese vs American identity (“marginal man”), parents & children; role conflict between husband/wife; less respect for aged

Japanese American Family

Difficulties attached to stereotypes persist because are localized to California & Hawaii, & because little research done until recently

Significant immigration after 1890 - young male agricultural workers (discrimination similar to Chinese)

Japanese AmericansIssei - immigrants (1st generation,

restrictive rules); Nisei (2nd generation - American born, 1910-45); Sansei (3rd generation)

Issei - membership by situation - identity w/ group for social support, loyalty; society seen as a large family; group control of behavior

Japanese Americans - Isseiimportance of ie, traditional household -

residence important, arranged marriages, patriarchal, emphasis on eldest son

rank & status determined by age, sex, and period of service (seniority) - significance of enryo (restraint/reserve)

Japanese American Family

influence of Japanese culture decreases w/ each generation, 1/3rd Jap. women & increasing number of males marry out (5% Issei,15% Nisei, 50%+ Sansei);

relatively slow acculturation due to descrimination

Japanese American Family Values

emphasis on duties & responsibilities - filial piety (family unity);

socialization via dependence on group, avoid direct confrontation, “losing face”;

enryo - showing restraint, awareness of hierarchial status

amae - need to be loved/cherished, depend on & presume another’s benevolence