farmers’ constraints in rice production in south-east nigeria

Farmers’ Constraints In Rice Production In South-East Nigeria

Keywords: Farmers, constraints, rice, production, South East Nigeria.

ABSTRACT: The study was carried out in South East Nigeria to evaluate the socioeconomic attributes of rice farmers and identify the major constraints facing the rice enterprise in the area. The study relied mainly on primary data obtained by questionnaire and interview administered on a total of 158 farmers across four states that constitute the South East Agro-ecological area. Descriptive statistics was mainly used to analyze the data collected. Findings show that farmers in rice production were dominated by married, literate, male farmers. Major constraints to rice production include poor extension contact, lack of finance, high cost of agrochemical, lack of inorganic fertilizer, lack of processing facilities/ standard measure for rice, lack of credit, and delay in supply of improved rice varieties. It was recommended that the government should expose farmers to skills and knowledge required to overcome the constraints in rice production through the development of extension training/ teaching service, development of rural infrastructure, irrigation/storage/processing facilities and credit supply at affordable interest rates.

114-123 | JRA | 2012 | Vol 1 | No 2

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www.jagri.info

Journal of Research in

Agriculture An International Scientific

Research Journal

Authors:

Emodi AI.

Institution:

Department of Agricultural

Economics and Extension

University of Port Harcourt,

Port Harcourt, Rivers State.

Corresponding author:

Emodi AI.

Email:

[email protected].

Web Address:

http://www.jagri.info

documents/AG0026.pdf.

Dates: Received: 23 Jul 2012 Accepted: 28 Aug 2012 Published: 02 Oct 2012

Article Citation: Emodi AI. Farmers’ Constraints In Rice Production In South-East Nigeria. Journal of Research in Agriculture (2012) 1(2): 114-123

Original Research

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INTRODUCTION

According to West Africa Rice Development

Agency (WARDA, 2004), rice has established itself as a

preferred staple in Nigeria. Among the major cereals,

rice is the primary staple of more than hundreds of

millions of people in developing countries (Heinrichs,

2009). Rice production seems to be concentrated in

selected geographic areas in Nigeria extending from the

northern to southern zones with most rice growth in the

eastern and middle belt of the country (United States

Department of Agriculture and Foreign Agricultural

Service, USDA/FAS, 2003). It is predominantly

produced by small holders and on average, rice

producing households produce 4.6 tons of paddies per

year from an annual crop area of 3.3 ha (Erenstein et al.,

2003). Rice producing households do not have easily

distinguished socio-economic features that differentiate

them from non-rice producers.

In Africa, a large proportion of the rice

production is in Nigeria and Madagascar, who produced

together over 50% of the rice produced in Sub Sahara

African (SSA) in 2004 (Adolph and Chancellor, 2006).

According to Erenstein et al., (2003), Nigeria has the

capacity to be self-sufficient in rice production as

virtually all ecologies in the country are suitable for rice

cultivation. However, the SSA region is experiencing

profound socio-economic and political problems which

are having influence on rice production capacity of the

region. These include unemployment, food insecurity

and disruptive conflicts. The high rate of population

growth, relative to desire for food security, presents

many challenges in rice production. According to Tran,

(1997) various factors contributing to constraints in rice

production, such as physical, biological, socio-economic,

and institutional constraints, can be effectively improved

through participatory research and government attention.

Pests and diseases can cause significant yield loss in rice

crops and successful control is crucial to farmers’ ability

to produce rice profitably. Pest and disease incidence

damage vary widely, so that knowledge of pest ecology

and dynamics is therefore necessary to allow farmers to

take appropriate action to manage their rice crops

effectively (Defoer et al., 2002). Developing rice

varieties that meet farmers’ quality requirements,

resistant to pests, diseases, and that can tolerate stresses

is a major challenge. New rice varieties are needed that

can perform well under constantly changing farming

systems and environments (drought-prone environments)

(Kaaria et al., 2004).

In recent past, investment in the support services

to Nigerian agriculture has been neglected with the result

that this sector has not realized its full potential to

contribute to the prosperity and economic development

of Nigeria (United States Agency for International

Development, USAID, 2003). Meanwhile, increasing

population pressure and the accompanying need to

intensify agricultural production is leading to the erosion

of the natural resources on which agriculture depends.

The sustainability of production is threatened by a

vicious cycle of declining soil fertility and increasing

problems of pests, diseases and weeds. Moreover, the

lack of knowledge on how to add value through proper

storage, processing and marketing impedes agricultural

growth. The chief concern as relate to rice production

today is increased pressure in water and land resources.

According to WARDA (2004), the key biophysical

constraints are the availability of water and nutrients; in

some lowland areas, lack of adequate drainage is also a

major problem. The scarcity of water is perhaps the

biggest challenge to increase rice production world wide.

In order to fulfil potential high-yielding, modern rice

varieties need good water management and an adequate

supply of nutrients, particularly nitrogen. Inappropriate

management of irrigation has contributed to

environmental problems, including water adoption, water

quality reduction, water logging and salinization

(Rosegrant et al, 2002).

115 Journal of Research in Agriculture (2012) 1(2): 114-123

Emodi, 2012

In Erenstein, et al., (2003) rice producers’ survey

revealed that rice is typically the main crop for rice

producing households in terms of area allocation and

income. Where rice production is established, it is

widespread within the village/region and appears

relatively stable with a long history. This reflects that

rice production is attractive in survey areas, despite the

relatively limited returns and substantial policy changes

over the last decades. This also suggests that rice

producers may lack alternatives-in terms of remunerative

opportunities to generate cash and/or to use their labour

and land resources productively. In particular this seems

to apply to lowland and remote areas. Still, it needs to be

reiterated that the survey only addresses current rice

producers. It thereby does not address those that have

stopped with rice production.

In most sites however, there have been

significant declines in irrigated rice yields over the last

decade. Actual yields are also much lower than potential

yields. Research and extension support for irrigated

rice-based systems in the Sahel and Sudan savannah

zones are highly inadequate. The scope of adaptive on-

farm research and development is very limited. Farmers

make little, if any, contribution to the debate on the

major constraints and priority research and extension

themes. Current mechanisms of extension support for

irrigated rice production are rigid and emphasize a top-to

-bottom extension process. In general, extension staff are

not adequately trained and lack access to relevant

training materials and other resources. Major constraints

identified in the study sites are: high input costs and

limited access to farm credit, use of inappropriate crop

and resource management practices, due to general lack

of knowledge of improved technologies, limited access

to improved varieties (duration and yield), and persistent

use of poor quality seed, lack of appropriate small farm

machinery for harvest and post-harvest operations,

inadequate research and extension support, especially in

the Sahel and Sudan Savannah zones and localized

problems of soil degradation.

Lancon et al., (2003) confirmed that cleanliness

of imported rice is the overwhelming factor explaining

the expansion of imported rice consumption in Nigeria at

the cost of local rice market development and in spite of

an increasing tariff barrier. Along the same lines, the

lower price of local rice remains the major incentive for

imported rice customers to also maintain their purchase

of Nigerian rice. Beyond, customers’ preferences, the

survey also indicates that local rice marketing suffered

from higher transaction costs in urban market induced by

a scattered and irregular supply of product. These

constraints tend to turn rice retailers away from the local

rice marketing chain in favour of the imported rice

channels which offers extended facilities for managing

their business (credit). The prevalence of constraints

related to rice transaction management indicates that if

quality is a key word for the Nigerian rice sub-sector

recovery this is necessary but not a sufficient condition.

The exploitation of the “organoleptic” potential of

Nigerian varieties would also require a reduction of

transaction costs which partly depend on the marketing

of a larger volume, and hence an upward trend in

production.

It should be stressed that the negative growth in

rice prices in more recent years is a reflection of

deliberate government policies geared towards securing

cheap food items for urban dwellers.

IRRI (2003) revealed that no single technology

can meet the needs of all farmers. Instead, a range of

modern farming options needs to be offered. Modern

communication tools, such as information technology,

can be used to deliver technical options to farmers. The

rural poor are better helped if key constraints are targeted

and options identified so that farmers can adopt

alternatives that enhance their lifestyles. The complexity

of their needs has to be distilled into viable choices that

are apparent, readily available, and sensitive to their

environments.

Journal of Research in Agriculture (2012) 1(2): 114-123 116

Emodi, 2012

According to a survey carried out by Longtau

(2003), rice production data in Nigeria is mostly based

on recycled information from ADPs rather than formal

research. He further stated that a true picture of the rice

enterprise in Nigeria is therefore hard to come by; the

ADP data are based on large-scale production. However,

on the ground, there are hardly any large-scale rice

farmers in Nigeria. Rice producers are smallholder

farmers who are left entirely on their own to keep the

sub-sector afloat against so many odds. The threat to

local rice production by imported cheap rice is real, but

farmers are consistent in their response that local rice

with good milling characteristics actually attracts better

prices. WARDA (2004) revealed that the overall

effectiveness of the rice innovation system,

complementarities in skills, knowledge and expertise

needs to be strived for. Despite this recognition, a better

understanding of forces shaping institutional

relationships will help in carving out future R&D

strategies for pro-poor development. Impact studies

revealed that the relatively low adoption rate of NERICA

is mainly due to farmers’ limited access to seed, which in

turn is due to weak national capacities and a range of

social, institutional and policy related factors.

Organizational models need to be developed and tested

to improve the formal and informal seed sector, and their

interactions. Given that few analyses exist on which

intervention strategies can be shaped, the documentation

of local and national rice seed systems in Africa deserves

urgent attention. Also, the role of marginalized youth and

women in the generation and dissemination of

technologies, especially in post-conflict countries, needs

to be studied and strengthened.

In spite of the myriads of problems identified

above which can jeopardize the potentials of filling the

rice demand and supply gap in Nigeria, it is worrying to

note that adequate research works are yet to be carried in

Nigeria to comprehensively uncover the dimensions of

these problems empirically so that evidence based

policies could be made in order to address the threats

against rice supply in the country. It is against this

background that this work was designed to brace up to

this research gap challenge. Moreover, the rural poor are

better helped if key constraints are targeted and options

identified so that farmers can adopt alternatives that

enhance their lifestyle. The complexity of their needs has

to be distilled into viable choices that are apparent,

readily available, and sensitive to their environments.

The study therefore is sought to ascertain farmers’

constraints in rice production in southeast Nigeria.

The broad objective of the study was to ascertain

farmers’ constraints in rice production in southeast

Nigeria. Specifically the objectives were to describe the

socio-economic characteristics of farmers in rice

production in southeast Nigeria and to identify the

constraints faced by farmers in rice production in

southeast Nigeria.

METHODOLOGY

The study was carried out in South East

agro-ecological zone of Nigeria. The study population

constituted all farmers in rice production in four states

(Abia, Anambra, Ebonyi and Enugu) of southeast

agro-ecological zone of Nigeria. The four states were

purposively selected because of the existence of

improved rice technology and its geographical spread.

The sample size for the study comprised of purposively

selected rice farmers in the study area as follows: Abia

(12), Anambra (30), Enugu (56), Ebonyi (72). The

choice was based on availability of rice farmers in the

area. The sampling gave a total sample size of one

hundred and seventy (170) farmers for the study.

Primary data were obtained through

questionnaire and interview schedules for literate and

illiterate respondents. Only hundred and fifty eight (158)

farmers that properly completed their questionnaire were

eventually used in the analysis. The socio-economic

characteristics of the respondents were measured by


Emodi, 2012

asking them to choose the one appropriate to them from

the listed options. To elicit information on the perception

of agronomic activities in rice production among

farmers, 16 items (land acquisition, land clearing, land

stumping, ridge/mound making, nursery preparation,

planting, pest and disease control, weeding, water

management, fertilizer agro-chemical application,

trapping rodents, making scarecrows, harvesting,

threshing/winnowing/drying, storage, marketing) were

listed on a three point rating scale of “High”=3,

“Moderate”=2 and “Low”=1. The cut off point was 2.00.

To assess the constraints that impede rice production

among farmers in the study area, six possible

constraining variables were rated by the farmers on a

three point rating scale as “Very Serious Constraints”=3,

“Serious Constraints”=2 and “Less Serious

Constraints”=1. The cut off point was 2.00.

Descriptive statistics, consisting of frequencies,

percentage and mean scores were used for analysis.

RESULTS AND DISCUSSION

Socio- economic characteristics of farmers in the

study area

Table 1 shows that majority (59.5%) of the


Emodi, 2012

Socio economic characteristics Frequency (F) Farmers’ (%) (n=158) Mean(X )

Sex

Male 94 59.5

Female 64 40.5

Age (years)

20-29 years 28 17.7

30-39years 70 44.3 23years

40-49 years 33 20.9

50 years and above 27 17.3

Marital status

Married 139 88.0

Single 19 12.0

Educational level

No formal education 34 21.5

Completed primary School 43 27.2

Vocational technical school completed 9 5.5

Tertiary education(OND,NCE,HND,,B.Sc/B.A) 72 45.6

Household size

1-3 persons 53 33.5

4-6 persons 77 48.7 5 persons

7-9 persons 28 17.5

Farming experience(years)

21-30 33 20.9

31-40 94 59.5 35.5years

41-50 28 17.7

51-60 3 1.9

Source of information

ADPs 100 63.2

Market (input agency) 33 20.9

Mass media 8 5.1

Friends/Fellow farmers 17 10.8

Farm size(hectares)

1 36 23.1

2 94 59.2

3 28 17.7

Table 1: Percentage distribution of farmers’ by socio-economic characteristics

respondents were male, while about 40.5% were female.

This result implies that rice production in the study area

is dominated by men. This trend may be because the

production of rice is resource intensive which major of

women may not be able to afford. This agrees with

Adeola et al., (2008)’s findings, that rice production is

dominated by male farmers with only 5.0% female

farmers engaged in rice production.

Also, on the age of rice farmers, Table 1 shows

that about (44.0%) of the farmers were between the age

range of 30-39 years, 21.0% were within the age range

of 40-49 years, 17.7% were within 20-29 years, while

17.3% were within the age range of 50 years and above.

However the mean age was 23 years which implies that

rice farmers in the study area are within their active years

of farming, and are likely to enhance rice productivity.

These age categories were in line with those who were

referred to as economically active groups by Bekele

(2005). This also agrees with Adewale et al., (2007) who

reported that farmers within the age 15-64 years were

defined as economically productive population;

especially in rice production.

The marital profile of the farmers in Table 1

shows that 88.0% of them were married, while about

12.0% of them were single. The results indicated that

majority of the farmers were married. This confirms

Jibowo (1992) findings that vast majority of the rural

farmers consists of married people. According to

Echebiri and Mbanasor (2003), it was the practice among

farmers to marry and have a large number of children

who would constitute their farm workforce.

Table 1 shows that majority (51.3%) of farmers

completed tertiary education which enhances their access

to interact and generate new ideas to the changing

conditions in rice production. The average household

size was five persons with majority (49.0%) within 4-6

persons. Minimum of 17.5% had household size of 7-9

persons. The implication of this finding is that farm

labour would be readily distributed since relatively large

household size seems an obvious advantage in terms of

tasks in rice production.

On farming experience, the result showed that

majority (59.5%) of farmers had farming experience of

31-40 years, 20.9% of them had farming experience of

21-30 years, 17.7% of them had farming experience of


Emodi, 2012

Table 2: Mean distribution of constraints to rice

production as perceived by farmers

Constraints Mean (X )

Poor soil fertility 2.30

Lack of finance 2.78

Competition from weed 2.42

Disease/ infection problem 2.46

Land tenure problems 2.41

Poor storage facilities 2.44

Poor access to farm 2.44

High cost of agrochemical 2.73

Poor extension contact 3.00

Lack of inorganic fertilizer 2.72

High cost of transport 2.72

Lack of processing facilities/ standard measure for rice 2.77

Lack of tractor 2.61

High cost of hired labour 2.39

Lack of credit 2.95

Delay in supply of improved varieties 2.89

Cut off point = 2.00, very serious constraints=3, serious constraints=2,

less constraints=1

41-50 years, while 1.9% of them had farming experience

of 51 years and above. With a mean years of 35.5 years

of farming experience, it is obvious that farmers have

long years of experience in farming. According to

Obinne (1991), long years of farming put farmers in a

better position to make useful contributions on the issue

of improved rice technology.

A greater proportion (63.2%) of farmers ranked

the Agricultural Development Programmes (ADP) as

their most important source of information on improved

rice technologies, about 20.9% of farmers’ source of

information was from marketers (input agencies), about

10.8% of them received information on improved rice

technology from friends/fellow farmers, while minimum

of 5.1% sourced information from the mass media. This

finding supports the view of Emodi and Madukwe

(2008), that ADP is the channel through which

government policies on rice production were

implemented. Also result on Table 1 shows that majority

(59.2%) of farmers in the study area had farm size of 2

ha, while about 23.1% of them had farm size of 1 ha,

about 17.7% operated on farm size of 3ha. Relatively

small farm size could constitute a major constraint to

improved rice production (Agwu et al., 2008).

Constraints in the adoption of improved rice

technology as perceived by farmers

The data in Table 2 reveal the constraints in rice

production perceived by farmers. The findings show that

the farmers perceived all the constraints investigated as

major constraints in rice production. They include poor

soil fertility (X=2.30), lack of finance (X=2.78),

competition with weed (X=2.42), disease/ infection

problems (X=2.46), land tenure problems (X=2.45), poor

storage facilities (X=2.44), poor access to farm inputs

(X=2.44), high cost of agrochemical (X=2.73), poor

extension contact (X=3.00), lack of inorganic fertilizer

(X=2.72), high transport cost (X=2.34), lack of

processing facilities/ standard measure for rice (X=2.77),

lack of tractor (X=2.61), high cost of hired labour

(X=2.39), lack of credit (X=2.95) and delay in supply of

improved rice varieties (X=2.89).

Soil infertility and low use of chemical fertilizers

were the two major factors limiting growth in rice

production. Constraints in fertilizer use such as, high

import prices, extremely high marketing costs,

irregularity of supply due to very poor road

infrastructures, and the elimination of fertilizer subsidies

that is worsened by a lack of adequate credit facilities for

farmers (Daramola, 1989).

Post-harvest crop losses constituted a very major

constraint in rice production. Akande (2002), identified,

inadequate input supply, poor agronomic practices and

land tenure problems as constraints in rice production.

Pests and diseases can cause significant yield

loss in rice crops and successful control is crucial to

farmers’ ability to produce rice profitably. Pest and

disease incidence damage, vary widely according to

location and season so that knowledge of pest ecology

and dynamics is therefore necessary to allow farmers to

take appropriate action to manage their rice crops

effectively. According to Defoer et al., (2002), control of

diseases such as rice blast and sheath blight in

developing countries remains difficult to be achieved in

the Integrated Pest Management Unit (IPMU). It is also

anticipated that intensification of rice production will

lead to an increase in the significance of diseases,

particularly the fungal disease (rice blast), as production

constraints. Fungicide application is almost

non-existence in most of the African rice based farming

systems and therefore resistance in rice varieties is

considered to be the most effective way of combating the

disease.

Weeds seem to cause significant losses in all

rice-growing environments, although might be

particularly severe in rainfed and upland systems.

Developing rice varieties that meet farmers’ quality

requirements, resistant to pests, diseases, and that can

tolerate stresses is a major challenge.


Emodi, 2012

New rice varieties are needed that can perform

well under constantly changing farming systems and

environments (drought - prone environments), inefficient

and under resourced agricultural extension services and

an under developed private sector for seed multiplication

and sale are in many countries preventing farmers from

benefiting from improved varieties and associated

technologies such as soil and water management, control

of pests and diseases, and processing and marketing.

Adoption of improved germplasm and

technology options has also been hindered for many

years by the lack of coherent delivered messages through

extension services. This has been caused by a range of

factors, from lack of information reaching extension

agents to the wrong messages being delivered.

Therefore, strong linkages between farmers, extension

services and research are critical to speed up information

flows and diffusion of technologies (Kaaria et al., 2004).

CONCLUSION

Major constraints in rice production include poor

extension contact, lack of finance, high cost of

agrochemical, lack of inorganic fertilizer, lack of

processing facilities/ standard measure for rice, lack of

credit, and delay in supply of improved rice varieties.

Based on the major findings, the study

recommends that the government should expose farmers

to skills and knowledge required to overcome the

constraints in rice production through the development of

extension training/ teaching service, development of

rural infrastructure, irrigation/storage/processing

facilities and credit supply to rice farmers at affordable

interest rates.

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