fast food, street food: western fast food’s influence on ... · western fast food brands in...
TRANSCRIPT
FastFood,StreetFood:WesternFastFood’sInfluenceonFast
ServiceFoodinChina
QuinnA.Steven
AnhonorsthesisinthedepartmentofAsianandMiddleEasternStudies
DukeUniversity
Durham,NorthCarolina
2018
Guo-JuinHongDepartmentofAsianandMiddleEasternStudies
SupervisingProfessor
LeoChingDepartmentofAsianandMiddleEasternStudies
CommitteeMember
ChantalReidDepartmentofEnvironmentalSciences
CommitteeMember
i
ABSTRACT
ThephenomenalsuccessofWesternfastfoodbrandsinChinahasfascinated
researchersandbusinesspeoplealikesinceitsdawninthelate1980’s.Thetwolargest
WesternfastfoodbrandsinChina,McDonald’sandKentuckyFriedChicken(KFC),havebeen
heavilyresearchedtounderstandoriginsoftheirsuccess.However,acurrentgapinthe
researchistheimpactoftheseWesternbrand’sinfluencesonChinesequickservicefood
culture.Inthisthesis,Iwillexploretheconditionsthatallowedthebrandstobesosuccessfulin
China,thebrandsthemselvesandtheperceptionthattheirChineseclientelehaveofthese
brands,butthengoontousethatinformation,inconjunctionwithexistingresearchabout
nativeChinesequickservicediningvenues,toproposehowthesebrandsmayhaveinfluenced
Chinesequickservicediningculture.
BeforeIcanevenbegintoexplorethesebrands’presenceinChina,Imustfirstestablish
theiroriginsandbrandidentityintheUnitedStates.Intheintroductionofmythesis,Ifirst
contrastthedevelopmentsofMcDonald’sandKFC.McDonald’swasthefirstAmericanfast-
servicerestaurantandtheirmenucenteredonthehamburger,adishthatfirstgainednational
fameattheSt.LouisWorld’sFairin1904.1McDonald’spioneeredtheAmericanmodelof
quick-servicebyplacinggreateremphasisontake-awayfood,besteatenquickly,andreadyto
beeatenonthego,ratherthanfittingtheexistingdiningmodelofasit-downrestaurant.While
McDonald’swasmoremodern,KFCbuiltitsbrandonhome-style,Southerncooking,made
1Ryan,NancyRoss.“GreatAmericanFoodChronicles:thehamburger.”RestaurantsandInstitutions,ReedBusinessInformationInc.,February6,1989.Web.
ii
availabletowearydriversasaquickrest-stopmeal.FriedchickenoriginatedinSouthern
kitchensasaresultoftheWesternAfricancookingtraditionsbroughtbyAfricanslavesinthe
antebellumperiodbeforetheCivilWar.2WhileMcDonald’ssoldprimarilythehamburgerand
KFCsoldprimarilyfriedchicken,bothrestaurants’businessmodelsreliedonquick,standard,
reliable,andconvenientserviceforsuccess,andmaintainingthosestandardsconsistently
acrossalltheirrestaurantbranches.ThisstandsinstarkcontrasttofastservicedininginChina.
AlthoughChinahasalonghistoryoffastservicefood,thefirststreetfoodmarketisestimated
tohaveoperatedduringtheSongDynastyintheearly13thcentury,thesestreetfood
operationslackedthestandardizationandcommercializationofWesternfastfoodchains.
However,whilethedefinitionoffastservicethatChinaassociatedwithstreetfooddidnot
directlyalignwiththeWesternfastfoodmodel,itmayhaveprimedaChinesemarkettoreadily
acceptanewtypeoffastservicecuisine.
Inadditiontoitsexistingfast-servicefoodculture,aconfluenceofothermajorchanges
inChinacreatedtheidealmilieuforthesefastfoodcompaniestoflourish.First,shortly
followingMao’sdeath,hisvicepremier,DengXiaopingrosetopowerandenactedmajor
economicreformsincludingopeningChinaeconomicallytotheWest.ThismeantthatWestern
businesseswerefinallyabletooperateinChinabeginningin1978,andby1987those
businessesincludedKFC,whichopeneditsfirststoreinTiananmenSquarethatyear.The
secondeffectoftheseeconomicpolicychangeswastheriseoftheChinesemiddleclass,which
stemmedfromtheabilityofyoungChinesepeopletobeentrepreneurial.Thisnewmiddleclass
2Rice,KymS.andMarthaB.Katz-Hyman.“WorldofaSlave:EncyclopediaoftheMaterialLifeofSlavesintheUnitedStates[2volumes]:EncyclopediaoftheMaterialLifeofSalvesintheUnitedStates.”ABC-CLIO,2010,p.109-110.Web.
iii
suddenlyhadaninfluxofmoneytospendandanuncertainplaceinsociety,andsousedtheir
newmoneytohelpestablishtheirnew,highersocialstatus.DiningatWesternfastfood
restaurantswasonewaythatthenewmiddleclasscouldbe“seen;”iftheircoworkers,friends,
orfamilymemberssawthemdiningoutatrelativelyexpensiveWesternfastfoodvenues,it
madetheirwealthapparent.TheWesternfastfoodchainsremainedauniversalstatus-symbol
inChina,howeverthatstatusasaluxurywasentirelycontingentontheirperceptionasaclean,
high-quality,andservice-orientedvenue.ChinesecustomershadinterestintheWesterngoods
KFCandMcDonald’ssold,butonlybecausetheyrepresentedWesternculture,notnecessarily
becausetheyenjoyedthetasteofthefood.Tokeepcustomerscomingback,therestaurants
adaptedinwaysreminiscentoftheirorigins:McDonald’screatednewfoodsbyhybridizing
WesternandEasternflavors,whileKFCadoptedsomeofChina’straditionalstreetfoodsassold
themintheirrestaurantsforahighercost.Therestaurantsalsoadoptedrestaurantfloorplans
thatbettersuitedtheirChinesecustomers’diningpreferencesandservicestylesthatmetnew
needssuchasocialeventsorfamily-stylemeals.Itwastherestaurants’decisionstoadaptto
theChinesepaletteanddiningneedsthatleadtotheircontinuedsuccess.
TheinfluencethatChinesediningandfoodculturehavehadontheWesternfastfood
chainsenteringChinaiswell-documented,thereislittleformalresearchonthereciprocityof
thatexchange;havetheseWesternfastfoodchainsbeenabletoinfluenceChinesefood
culture?Inthesecondchapter,Iwillbegintoexaminethisquestionbyfirsttryingto
understandwhatthewords“fast”and“service”meaninatraditionallyChinesecontext,and
howthosemeaningsmayhaveshiftedorfitaWesternfastfoodmodel.Oncethetwowords
aredefinedandtheirrelationtoWesternfastfoodareestablished,Iwilllookatonecasestudy
iv
ofLanzhouLamian,atraditionallyChineserestaurantfranchise.Whilethereareothernative
ChinesefastfoodcompaniesthathavebegunsincetheentranceofWesternfastfood
companies,IchosetolookatLanzhoulamianbecauseithaddifferedfromWesternfastfood’s
modelinallaspectsbutoneuntil2010.Lanzhoulamianwasadishcreatedinthe1800’sbya
HuiMuslimchefthathadbecometheidentifyingfoodofthecityofLanzhouandhighly
acclaimedacrossthecountry.In2010,thecityofLanzhoucreatedanofficialbrandfor
“LanzhouBeefLamian”andlicensedittoacompanynamedEasternPalace,whichcausedgreat
uproarfromtheHuicommunitywhocontinuedtooperatethestoresthattheirancestorsfirst
opened,buthadtheirstores’statusessuddenlydelegitimized.Whilebrandinginfoodisnota
foreignconcepttoWesternbusinesses,restaurantbrandshadnotreallyexistedbeforethe
entranceofWesternfastfoodbrands.Therehasnotbeenenoughresearchinthisareato
provethatbrandingthedishandrelatedstoreof“LanzhouLamian,”stemsfromapressureto
createanofficialbrandcausedbyanearlierintroductionoftheconceptbrandingrestaurants
thatoriginatedwiththeWesternfastfoodbrands,buttheWesternbrands’potentialtohave
thatkindofinfluencecannotbeignoredeither.
ThisparticularcasehelpscreateboundariesforhowWesternfastfoodmadehave
inserteditselfintothedefinitionofquickservicerestaurantsinChina:itcouldhavehadaslittle
influenceassimplyencouragingthecreationofabrand,orgonesofarastoreinventservice
stylesandarchitecturalideas.Itexemplifiestheimpactthatanoutsideinfluencecanhaveona
traditionthatisthousands-of-yearsold.Otherinfluencesmayhavesimilarlybeenintroduced
thenintegratedintoChinesefoodcultureandcreatedthecomplexexistingChinesefood
culture.ByrecognizingthattheintroductionoffastfoodtoChinaisanopportunitytoshow
v
howadefinition,suchas“quickservice,”canexpand,itprovidesanopportunitytobetter
understandculturaldevelopmentandacceptanceofnovelintroductions.Intheconclusionof
mythesis,Iwillbelookingforwardtothenextpotentialfrontierforanexpansionofourcurrent
understandingsoffoodculturethroughtheintroductionoftechnology.InChina,becauseofthe
continuingriseofthemiddleclassandtheirincreasingabilitytospendmoneydiningout,
companiesandrestaurantsaredevelopingtechnologiestomakeiteasiertoserveanever-
growingcustomer-base.Thosetechnologiesincludephoneapplicationstoorderaseatedmeal
atarestaurantevenbeforearriving,onlinedeliveryservices,andonlinecustomerreviewsites,
allofwhichmovemostofacustomer’sinteractionwitharestaurant,besidestheactualdining,
online.
vi
FastFood,StreetFood:WesternFastFood’sInfluenceonFast
ServiceFoodinChina
QuinnA.Steven,B.A.DukeUniversity,2018
Supervisor:Guo-JuinHong
vii
TABLEOFCONTENTS
INTRODUCTON.........................................................................................................9
StreetFood:QuickServiceinChina..............................................................14AllAmericanBurger’s:McDonald’s..............................................................19TheCountry-StyleChicken:KFC...................................................................21GlobalExpansionintheEndofthe20thCentury..........................................23DengXiaopingandChina’sEconomicReform..............................................24AColonelandAClownArriveinChina.........................................................26
CHAPTERONE:WESTERNFASTFOODINCHINA...................................................29
TheRiseoftheChineseMiddleClass...........................................................29 EntranceofWesternFastFoodinChina......................................................36 KentuckyFriedChicken......................................................................36 McDonald’s........................................................................................39 Perception’sSignificanceinAcceptance......................................................42 FadorFixture...............................................................................................47CHAPTERTWO:EXPANDING“FASTSERVICE”......................................................53
First,Whatis“Fast?”...................................................................................55Second,WhatisGood“Service?”................................................................59FoodFight:LanzhouLamian.........................................................................63
CONCLUSION:FASTBECOMESFASTER,BUTWHEREWILLSERVICEGONEXT?...69
1
INTRODUCTION
Food:itisoneofthefewuniversalneedsofallhumansthatlinksustogether.From
sittingaroundafire15,000yearsagotoaroundadiningtablein2018,theconvivialactof
groupdininghasbeenessentialtothedevelopmentofhumanculture.BeforeIexaminethe
influencescuisineshavehadononeanotherortheevolutionoffoodculture,Imustfirst
explorethedevelopmentoffoodcultureitself.Cookingfoodiswhatdifferentiatedhumans
fromtheirapeancestors.AccordingtothecollectedresearchbyNPRbloggerChristopher
Joyce,beforetheadventofthediscoveryoffire,humans’ancestors’dietsconsistedmostlyof
rawtubersandvegetablematter,occasionallyrawmeatbutthatwasmoredifficulttocomeby
giventheirlimitedhuntingfacultiesbeforetheinventionoftools,allofwhichmeantlimited
caloriesthatcouldbededicatedtosupportingahigh-functioning,largebrain.1When
approximately15,000yearsagofirewasfirstusedtocookfoods,itsparkedachangeinnot
onlyhumandietsbuttheirphysicalappearancesaswell.Firemeantthathumanscouldcook
theirfoodsbeforeconsumingthem,makingtheirdigestioneasierandlessenergyintensive,
andallowsmorecaloriestobereleasedtothebody,whichmeantlesstimeneededtobespent
grazingforfood.2
DuringtheeraofHomosapiens,groupsofhumansweresomewherebetween50and
150memberslarge,andsoinformationaboutdanger,food,water,andshelterhadtobe
1Joyce,Christopher.“WhenFireMetFood,theBrainsofEarlyHumansGrewBigger.”NPR:TheSalt,October24,2012.Web.2Ibid.
2
communicatedoverlargerterritoriesandtomoreindividuals,andthus,languagewascreated.
Researchersbelievedfoodwasacontributingfactortowhylanguagewasdeveloped;groups
neededwaystocommunicatewhentheyfoundfoodsources,howmanyindividualsthose
resourcescouldfeed,andwheretheywere,butlanguagealsohelpeddiffusethetension
associatedwithsharingfood.3Oncehumansconqueredtheirnaturalprotectiveinstincts
surroundingdining,firebecameMan’sfirstdiningroomtable,thefirstplacewheretheycame
togetherandsharedstories,food,andexperiences,andallofwhicharestillsharedduring
mealsallacrosstheworld.4Alongwiththediscoveryoffirecamethediscoveryoftoolsthat
allowedhumanstobebetterhuntersandtodevelopnewmethodsforcookingfood.Roasting
wasthefirstandmostprimitivecookingmethod,andatfirstitlookedmuchmorelikeburning
foodthatachievinganicegolden-browncolor,followedsoonafterbyboilingonceMancreated
anearlyvesseltoholdwaterthatcouldsurviveafire.5
OncethefoundationalmethodsofcookingwerecreatedandHomosapiensbeganto
traversetheglobe,establishingdifferenttribesandeventuallycountries,eachgroupbeganto
establishdifferentusesandtraditionsforthesecookingstyles.Thesecuisinesdevelopedoutof
locality;thetraditionalfoodsofanyregionlargelydependedonthetypesoffoodandfood
acquisitionmethodsavailableinthatregion.6Eventhoughfoodandtheculturethatdeveloped
aroundfoodaretwoofthemostvitaltenantsofculturetohumansurvival,theyhaveboth
3BarillaCenterforFoodandNutrition.“Theculturaldimensionoffood.”TheEuropeanHouse:Ambrosetti,p.7.Web.4Ibid.5Ibid.6Whalqvist,MarkL.etal.“Regionalfoodcultureanddevelopment.”AsianPacJClinicalNutrition,2007,(Suppl1),p.5.Web.
3
beenverymalleableandadaptableasconditionsandinfluenceschange.Beforethedawnof
agriculture,astribesofhumansgainedaccesstonewresources,technologies(meaningfishing,
foodstoragemethods,cookingmethods,etc.),andnewmeansofcommunicatinginformation,
theiromnivorouspalettesallowedthemtoadapttothenewfoodstuffsavailabletothem.7
Foodsalsoquicklybecameimbuedwithstatus,oftendependingontheiravailabilityor
nutritionalvalue.Statuscouldprimarilybeestablishedusingfoodthroughtwomeans:quantity
offoodorthroughthespecificfooditemsacquired.IntheMiddleAges,forexample,feasts
wereassociatedwiththearistocraticclass,whilehungerwasoftenendemicofthelower
classeswhoeitherhadtopayfealtytotheirlordsbygivingthemaportionoftheircropsor
weresimplyrelegatedtolowerqualitylandsduetotheirlowersocialstatus.8Differentcooking
stylescouldalsoserveasmarkersofsocialprestige.Boiling,forexample,couldrepresenta
moreevolvedpreparationmethodbecauseofitsuseoftools,comparedtoroastingwhich
simplyrequiresfire.However,boiledfoodsaremorefrequentlyassociatedwithintimate,home
meals,predominantlymadebywomen,whereasroastedfoodsareoftenservedduring
festivitiesandpreparedbymen,inwhichcaseroastingactuallyrepresentsthehigherstatus
preparationmethod.9Thisisduetothesubordinaterolethathome-cookingbywomen,
becauseofitsunderstandingascommonplaceratherthananeventinmostcultures,playsto
cookingdonebymen.10Asculturesdeveloped,sodidcomplexfoodtraditionsandrelationships
7Whalqvist,p.2.8Hammond,J.L.andBarbaraHammond.TheVillageLabourer1760-1832.LongmanGreen&Co.,1912,p.100.Web.9BarillaCenterforFoodandNutrition,p.8.10Fürst,ElisabethL’orange.“CookingandFeminity.”ElsevierScience,Women’sStudiesInternationalForum,Vol.2,No.3,1997,p.441.Web.
4
withfood,oftenrootedintheintimate,dailyinteractionshumanshadwiththefoodtheywould
consume.
Ascountriesindustrializedanddevelopedeconomically,andasmoreindividualsmoved
tocitiesandawayfromfarms,foodbecamelesscentraltoanindividual’slife.Whileitwasstill
necessaryforsurvival,itwasnolongernecessarilyanindividual’slivelihood,nordidtheyneed
toproducefoodforsubsistenceanymore,theycouldaffordoutsourcefoodpreparationtoa
thirdparty.11Atfirst,thisoutsourcingwouldtakeplacestillwithinthehomethroughthe
employmentofdomesticservantsorslaves.Itbecamesurprisinglycommoninthe19thcentury
forhouseholds,includingmiddleincomehouseholds,tohaveadomesticservant,nota
housewife,cookingforthefamily.12Inmodernday,outsourcingmoreoftenhappenswhen
individualsdineoutatrestaurantsoronpreparedfoodsthanbyhavingtheirservantscookfor
them.13Inthemid-to-late19thcentury,inresponsetothemovementofmanymiddleclass
individualstosuburbsaroundmajorcitycenters,lunchroomsandplatehousesemergedto
providedmid-daymealsformiddleclassmenwhoworkedincities,butdidnothavethetimeto
commutehomeforlunch.14Asmorepeople,bothlowerandmiddleclass,begantocommute
fromsuburbanhomesordistanthomeswithinacity,theneedgrewfordiningspacesthat
couldcatertotheirneedsforlunch,andsoothervendorsbegantoofferquickmealsaswell.
11Kirkman,JohnM.“TheEmergenceandFunctionofFamilyRitualsintheAmericanFamily.”UtahStateUniversityPress,1999.p.1312Kwik,JessicaChristine.TraditionalFoodKnowledge:RenewingCultureandRestoringHealth,UniversityofWaterloo,p.44.13Kwik,p.45.14Aspray,William,etal.“AmericaEatsOut:AnInterdisciplinaryStudyofAmericanEatingHabitsfromColonialtoModernTimes.”AmericanaE-JournalofAmericanStudiesinHungary,Vol9,No.2,Fall2013.Web.
5
Coffeeshops,luncheonettesandlunchcountersindrugstores,andcafeteriasofferedavariety
ofdiningoptionsatawiderangeofprices.15AccordingtoanarticlefromtheConsumerist,one
oftheearliestquickservicerestaurantswasWhiteCastle,whichopenedin1920.Itlooked
morelikeadinerthanatraditionalfastservicerestaurant,butWhiteCastle’sproprietorsWalt
A.AndersonandBillyIngrampioneeredthehamburgerbunandofferedadealfordinerswho
tooktheirsliderstogo,bothofwhichlaidthefoundationformodernfastfoodrestaurants.16
Diningoutforlunchbecameincreasinglypopularinthefirstthreedecadesofthe20th
century,untilin1929theDepressionhit,causingmanyofthenewlyopenedrestaurantsto
shuttertheirdoorsasAmericanstightenedtheirpursestrings.17AfterWorldWarII,duringthe
1950’s,economicgrowthpickedupandAmericansbegandiningoutwithrenewedgustoand
begantoincludediningoutfordinnerinadditiontodiningoutforlunch.18Duringthewar,
womenhadenteredtheworkforceaswell,limitingthetimetheycouldcommittopreparing
mealsathomeandcreatinganopeninginthemarketforconveniencefoods.19Surpluscanned
foodprovisionsfromWorldWarIIweresoldtosupermarketsbymanufacturerstryingnotto
wastetheirproducts,andweremarketedtomiddleclassciviliansasaconvenientfoodstuffthat
wouldsuittheirnew,busylifestyles.20In1953,Swanson&Sonsintroducedthe“TV-dinner,”a
pre-roastedturkeythatsimplyneededtobeheatedfromfrozentobeeaten,andcamein
15Ibid.16"TheWhiteCastleStory:TheBirthOfFastFood&TheBurgerRevolution–Consumerist".Consumerist.July14,2015.Web.17Aspray,William,etal.“AmericaEatsOut:AnInterdisciplinaryStudyofAmericanEatingHabitsfromColonialtoModernTimes.”18Ibid.19Ibid.20“EatingforVictory:FoodRationingandthePoliticsofDomesticity.”TheAnnalsofIowa58(1999),444-446.Web.
6
packagingthatfacilitateddininginfrontofthetelevision.21WhilethestorybehindtheTV-
dinnerwasthatSwanson&Sonswantedtoincreaseturkeysalesduetoasurplusofturkey
meatintheirstock,thissecondary-levelissueleadtoanewdiningstylethatrevolutionized
Americanfamilydining.22TheintroductionoftheTV-dinnercoincidedwiththeinventionof
fastfoodrestaurantsthelikesofMcDonald’sandKFC,allofwhichcreatedgreaterdistance
betweenconsumersandtherawfoodproductsthatwentintothemealstheyconsumed.
EversinceManfirstdomesticatedfire,hehascontinuallysearchedforwaystoimprove
hisabilitytofindandpreparefood.InPaleolithicera,thatmeantinnovatingfishingorcooking
utensils,whileinmodernday,thatmeansdevelopingnewintersectionsofcuisines,complex
cookingmethods,andever-bettermethodsofstorageandservice.Humansareconstantly
innovatingandfoodcultureisconstantlyexpanding,butitisdifficulttounderstandwhycertain
traditionsarecarriedthroughthemillenniaandothersareleftinthepast.Bylooking
specificallyattheentranceoffastfoodintoChina,Ihaveauniqueopportunitytoexaminethe
entranceofarelativelynewcuisinetoanancientfoodcultureandlearnmoreaboutwhatleads
toculturalexpansionratherthanculturalrejection.
StreetFood:QuickServiceinChina
OneoftheoldestculturalhistoriesoffoodexistsinChina,whereformalizeddiningfirst
wasfirstrecordedintheZhouDynastybetweenthe1046BCand256BC.23Formalizeddining
21BarillaCenterforFoodandNutrition,p.19.22BarillaCenterforFoodandNutrition,p.19.23ChineseInternetInformationCenter.“TheHistoryofChineseImperialFood.”ChineseImperialCuisines.Web.
7
wasmostlyrestrictedtoimperialbanquetswhentheEmperorwouldhostprinces,lords,and
dukes,andwasnotyetcommonamongtheChinesemasses,asacomponentofpoliticsin
China.24AtthispointinChina’shistory,casualgroupdiningwasstilluncommon;itwasnotuntil
theeconomicandagriculturalsuccessesoftheSongDynastythatcommonpeopleinChina
couldaffordtohavethreemealsaday,someofwhichwereeveneatenoutsidethehomeat
restaurants.25
ThemostfamousdiningestablishmenttocomefromtheSongDynastywasnoodlenight
markets.Peopletraditionallypreparedthethreeprinciplemealswerepreparedandeatenin
thehome,howeverlightsnacksbecameincreasinglypopularduringthisDynasty,andthese
snackswerepurchasedatshopsandmarkets.BasedonrecordsoflawsinBeijing,despitea
curfewimposedduringtheSongera,thestreetBianling,wheretheNightMarketwaslocated,
wasallowedtoremainopenfrom11PMto1AM.26Asaresult,theNightMarketbecamethe
hubofChinesenightlifeduringthisera;atanygivenNightMarketyoumightfindfortune-
tellers,streetperformers,gamesofgambling,artsandcrafts,clothing,andBuddhisticonsfor
sale,andofcourse小吃(xiaochi,meaningsnacks).27AttheirstandsintheNightMarkets,
merchantsandlocalelitescouldbemoreinnovativewiththefoodstheysoldthanimperial
chefscouldbewhencookingfortheemperor.Thenightmarket,inadditiontotrade,
24Anderson,EugeneNewton.TheFoodofChina.NewHaven(Conn.):YaleUniversityPress1988,p.29.Print.25Anderson,p.69.26Lu,Yongxiang.AHistoryofChineseScienceandTechnology,Volume3.Springer,Oct20,2014,p.64.27Ibid.
8
exchanges,andinfluencesfromothercountries,contributedsignificantlytothedevelopment
ofelaborate,regionalspecialtiesinChina.28
Chinesecuisinewassubdividedinto“FourMajorCuisines,”川(chuan),鲁(lu),粤(yue),
and淮扬(huaiyang),whichrepresentWest,North,South,andEastChina.29Northerncuisine
developedfromsomeoftheleastfertilelandinChina,withlowprecipitationandashort
growingseason,conditionswhichcouldnotsupportricepatties,butcouldsupportothergrains
suchaswheat,millet,andmaize.Mongolian,Muslim,andBuddhistcuisinesallheavily
influencedNortherncuisine,somuchsothatNortherncuisineisconsiderednottobeatrue
regionalcuisine,butamoreglobalizedone.30Easterncuisineisthecuisineoffiveprovinces,
Jiangsu,Anhui,Shanxi,Zhejiang,andFujian,reliesheavilyonaquaticagricultureandfishing,
andriceisitsstaplegrain.Thecuisineisknownforitsdelicateflavors,mildsauces,andbalance
ofsugarandsalttoaccentuatethenaturalflavorsofthedish.31Westerncuisineisbestknown
forSichuancuisine,whichisnotoriouslyspicy.InWesternChina,thefoodisnottheonlything
thatishot,thetemperatureissimilarlyswelteringandhumid–Sichuancuisine’ssignature
spiceissuggestedtocoverthesmelloffoodthatspoiledintheheat,asarethepreservedfoods
thatarecentraltothecuisine.32Finally,Southerncuisineisknownforitsfreshandsaltwater
fishdishesflavoredwithfermentedblackbeans,garlic,seafoodsauces,andpastesandnotably,
fruitslikeorangesandmangoes.Themostwell-knownSoutherncuisineisCantonesecuisine,
28Anderson,p.69.29“EightCuisinesofChina–Shandong&Guangdong,”TravelChinaGuide,Web.30Simoons,p.45.31Simoons,p.48.32Simoons,p.53.
9
specificallyCantonesesnackfoodsincludingtheirnoodledishes,wontonsoups,anddimsum.33
AlthoughChinabecameunifiedintoonesinglecountryduringtheQingdynasty,theregions
remainedfiercelyloyaltotheirregionaltraditionsandcuisines,whichiswhatprotectedthe
cuisines’integritythroughtheages.
China’sfoodculturecontinuedtogrowascookingmethodsbecamemorerefinedand
asforeigningredientsandculturalinfluencescametoChinaalongwithmerchantships.34The
riseofChina’sfoodculturewasnotwithoutsetbacks;asagriculturebecameincreasingly
commoninChina,itledtomassdeforestationandthereforegreaterfloodingandothernatural
disasters.35Inrecentmemory,oneofthemostdevastatingexamplesofthesenaturaldisasters
occurredinthelate1950’s,whenChinawasstruckbyseverefamineduetoflooding,insect
infestations,anddrought.Althoughfarmershadonlyalittlefoodtosubsistoffof,the
Communistgovernmentstillsetquotasforcropproductionthatignoredthesenatural
disasters.36Iffarmersfailedtomeetthesequotas,theywereaccusedofhoarding,profiteering,
andcounter-revolutionaryactivities.Socialinteractionsweretenseeverywhere,peoplewere
starving,butthecommonpeopleofChinacouldnotcriticizethegovernmentfortheirstrict
rulesonfoodproductionforfearofbeingdenouncedascounter-revolutionariesthemselves.
DespitethedifficultyChinesepeoplefacedindailylifeunderMao’sregimeandthelackof
33Simoons,p.54-57.34Anderson,p.69.35Anderson,p.78-79.36Lin,JustinYifuandDennisTaoYang.“OntheCausesofChina’sAgriculturalCrisisandtheGreatLeapFamine.”JAIPress,ChinaEconomicReview,Vol9,No.2,1998,p.125.Web.
10
traditionalfoodavailable,villagesinruralChinacametogethertoinnovaterecipesoutof
whatevertheyhadavailable,someofwhichstillpersisttothisday.37
Therations,collectivizedfarms,andcollectivizeddiningenforcedbytheCommunist
PartywerecomponentsofmultipleeconomicandsocialcampaignsmeanttocatapultChina
fromitsimperialhistoryintothemodernera,buthadtheoppositeeffectandfurtherstifled
China’sdevelopment.WiththelaunchofcampaignsliketheHundredFlowersCampaign38and
theAnti-RightistCampaign39,theCommunistPartysilencedintellectualsand“rightists”who
criticizedtheparty,oftenbysendingthemtoforcedlaborcampsorkillingthem.It
simultaneouslyinstilledfearintheremainingChinesepopulation,whosimplywentalongwith
theParty’sdecreesgoingforwardinanefforttopreservethemselves,whilealsoremoving
thosewiththeexperienceandknowledgethatwouldhavehelpedmovethecountryforward.
Asaresults,theenormousinvestmentsChinamadeingrainandsteelproductionduringthe
GreatLeapForwardresultedinlittletonomeasurableeconomicorindustrialimprovements
becauserunningtheiroperationshadlittletonoexperienceoreducation.Chinadidnotleap
forward,instead,Chinabecameisolatedfromtherestoftheworld.Itslackofinnovatorsand
abilitytoadaptleftChinaanditwasalmostasifChinaweresuspendedintimeatthestartof
theGreatLeapForward,whichultimatelyleftitworseoffthanitbegan.
37Barclay,Eliza.“ChowUnderMao:SurvivingChina’sCulturalRevolutiononLocalFood.”NPR:TheSalt,Jan19,2012.Web.38Aperiodin1956duringthePeople’sRepublicofChinawhentheCommunistPartyinviteditscitizenstoopenlycriticizetheparty.39AmovementthatwascausedbytheHundredFlowersCampaignwhichresultedinthepersecutionofintellectuals,officials,students,artists,anddissidentswhowerelabeledbythePartyas“rightists,”actingagainstthebettermentofthePeople’sRepublicofChina.
11
TheAll-AmericanBurger:McDonald’s
Intheearly1920’s,asChinabegantotransformpolitically,Americabegantoexperience
amajorculturalandeconomicshiftthatwouldtransformitsfoodculture.Theprocessbegan
withWhiteCastleandrestaurantsontheEastCoastofAmericawhostartedtodevelopa
curbsidefoodservicesystemtomeetthegrowingdemandforpreparedfood.Inacurbside
system,waiterswouldrunsandwichesandtheiraccompanyingdrinksouttotherestaurant’s
customers,whoparkedjustoutsidetherestaurantalongthecurbside,thendroveoffoncethey
receivedtheirmeals.40InSouthernCalifornia,entrepreneursbuiltrestaurantswithonly-
parkinglotserviceareaswherehungrycustomerscoulddriveuptobeservedbyoneofthe
carhopswithoutevenleavingtheircars;thiswascalleda“drive-in.”Therestaurantstyle
proliferatedacrossthestateandCaliforniaquicklybecamethelandofthedrive-in,the
predecessortothemodernfastfoodchain.41
Asfarasdrive-inownerswereconcerned,thenameofthegameatthewasspeedof
service.Thefastertherestaurantscouldservetheircustomers,thehighertheturnover,andthe
moreeachdrive-inwouldprofit.Thesedrive-insputtheircarhopsinrollerskates,innovated
theearlyformsofthedrivethroughorderingdevice,andbegantotailorthefoodsforon-the-
godining.OneoftheseCaliforniandrive-inswasMcDonald’s.ThisMcDonald’swasnotthe
today’smultinationalcorporationofthesamename;theMcDonaldbrothersopenedthefirst
McDonald’sjustoutsideofPasadenain1937andserveduphotdogs,notburgers,bothdrive-in
styleandtocustomersseatedintheirsmallseatingarea.In1940,theMcDonaldbrothers
40Love,JohnF.“McDonald’s:BehindtheArches.”BantamBooksInc.,November1986,p.11.41Love,p.11-12.
12
relocatedtoSanBernardinoandopenedtherestaurantthatwouldlatergarnertheattentionof
theinfamousRayKroc.42
Bythemid1940s,McDonald’ssalesweretopping$200,000annually,servedtwenty-five
menuitems,hadatleast125coverseachevening,andbecamethego-toteenhangoutspot.
Thissystemcaughttheeyeofotherpotentialrestauranteurs,whonaturallyenteredthemarket
togettheirshareoftheprofits.43By1948,drive-inswereeverywhereinCalifornia,whichput
pressureontheMcDonalds’operationbecausethisresultedinhighturnoverratesforcarhops
andstiffcompetitionforcustomers.44Timesofstressoftenleadtoinnovation,andthiswasone
ofthoseturningpoints.Inreactiontotheeconomicstresssustainingaratherlargemenu
createdfortherestaurant,theMcDonaldbrotherstrimmedtheirmenudowntoonlytheir
mostpopularproducts,burgers,softdrinks,andFrenchfries,andsoldthemforonlyadimeor
two.45Thebrothersshockedeverybodywhentheyslashedthepriceoftheirburgerfrom30
centsto15cents;tomitigatetheircustomers’worriesthatthereductioninpricewould
translatetoareductioninquality,theMcDonaldsdesignedtherestaurantsocustomerscould
easilyseethepristine,modern,stainlesssteelkitcheninside.46“TheMcDonaldbrothershad
clearlydevelopedavastlydifferentsystem,tailor-madeforapostwarAmericathatwasfaster
paced,moremobile,andmoreorientedtoconveniencesandinstantgratification,”(Love,19).
Whilemakingtheirmenumoreefficient,theMcDonaldbrothersalsostreamlinedtheirmethod
ofservicebyeliminatingcarhops,rearrangingthekitchentofacilitatespeed,andbyreplacing
42Love,p.12.43Ibid.44Love,p.13. 45Love,p.14.46Love,p.15.
13
dishwarewithdisposablepaperbags,cups,andwrappers.Thus,the“SpeedyServiceSystem”
wasborn.47
TheMcDonaldbrothersmayhavebeentheoriginalgeniusbehindthisnewrestaurant
concept,butitwasRayKrocandhisdesiretofranchisethebrandnationwide,andlater
worldwide,thatmadeMcDonald’sthemegacorporationitistoday.McDonald’swasnot
America’sfirstfranchisedbusiness,butitdifferedfromtheothersbecauseofthetypeof
franchiseeitrecruited.Krocgaveopportunitiestoonlythemostambitious,mosttenacious
prospectivefranchisees,thosewhoremindedhimofhimself,andwhohefeltcouldmaintaina
standard,highlevelofqualityandpreservetheMcDonald’sbrand.48Byempoweringambitious
entrepreneurstobuildtheirownfortunesthroughtheMcDonald’sbrand,McDonald’s
contributedtothedevelopmentofmanyyoungAmerican’s“AmericanDream.”
TheCountry-StyleChicken:KFC
WhenKentuckyFriedChickenfirststarted,itwasitselfahumbleroperation;Harland
SandersbeganKFCasroadsidecafétoaccompanySanders’ServiceStation,hisfamily’sgas
station.Ashewasoperatinghisservicestation,Sandersoftenwasaskedbydriverspassing
throughiftherewereanythingintheareatoeat,whichsparkedinhimtheideatoexpandhis
servicestationtoSanders’ServiceStationandCafé.49AttheCaféguestswerewelcomedinlike
theywerefamilytotheSanders’familymeal.At11AM,theypreparedfoodslikeham,biscuits,
47Love,p.15.48Love,p.56.49Ozersky,Josh.ColonelSandersandtheAmericanDream.UniversityofTexasPress.p.20.
14
friedchicken,andotherfamilyfavoritesforgueststoenjoyaround12PM.50TheCafébecame
theprimarysourceofincomeandcontinuedtoincreaseinpopularityonceitwasfeaturedin
DuncanHines’“AdventuresinGoodEating,”adiningguideforAmericantravelers.51By1937,
theoriginalCaféwassucharaucoussuccessitexpandedfromsixseatsto142seatsand
Sandersopenedtwomore,oneinAsheville,NC,andoneinRichmond,Kentucky.52
Beginningin1950,Sandersbegantrulydevelopinghispersonalbrandandcreatinga
characteronwhichKentuckyFriedChickenwouldlaterbaseitscompanybrand.Themodern
imageofSandersisoneofhimwearingawhitesuit,amoustacheandgoatee,andsportingthe
title“theColonel,”buthewasnotalwaysthisway.HarlandSandersbeganintroducinghimself,
jokinglyatfirst,as“ColonelHarlandSanders,”despiteneverbeingcommissioned,tohis
associatesin1950andthenamestuck.53Harlandranwithitandheevenbleachedhisbeard
becausehewasnotyetoldenoughtohaveanaturallywhitebeardalltohelpbuildhisbrandas
apaternal,Southerngentleman.54ThereweretworequirementsforKFCtobecomethefast
foodgiantitistoday,1),toconstructamethodforthemassproductionofafoodwithsucha
particularcookingmethodasfriedchicken,and2)tofranchisebylicensingtheColonel’ssecret
recipeforfriedchicken,thatway,theColonelcouldbeeverywhereatonce.Byutilizinga
pressurecookertocookchickenfasterandmorestandardlythanonecouldinacast-ironpan,
50Ozerzky,p.21.51Ozersky,p.24.52Ozersky,p.26.53Ozersky,p.32.54Ibid.
15
theColonelsuccessfullytookoneofAmerica’shomeliestdishesandcreatedafastfood
empire.55
WhileMcDonald’swasbuiltonburgers,aninnovationthoughttohavebeenintroduced
attheChicagoWorld’sFair,KFCsoldsomethingrootedinAmericanhistory–friedchicken.
WhenpeoplewerebroughtoverfromWestAfricaduringtheAmericanslavetradeandsoldas
slaves,theybroughtalongwiththemacookingtraditionofseasoningchickenwithspicesthen
fryingitinlard.56EvenwhennoteveryAmericancouldaffordtoraisehogsorcattle,eventhe
poorestpeopleinAmericacouldaffordtoraiseachickenortwo.57Friedchickenwasfirst
cookedbyhouseslaves,whoknewtherecipethemselves,butsoonbecameatraditionthat
spreadamongtheAmericanruralpoorasaheartybuthumble,andinexpensive,meal.58In
manyfamilies,friedchickenbecameatraditionalSundaymeal,somethingthatsignifieda
specialoccasionworthsacrificingayardbirdfor,notsimplythesnackfoodithassincebecome.
GlobalExpansionintheEndofthe20thCentury
Inthe20thcentury,fastfoodrestaurantssuchasMcDonald’sandKFCfirstopenedtheir
doorsandwouldgoontotransformmodernfoodculture.Thisnewstyleoffoodservice
developeditsownculturalnarrative,establishingitselfasadistinctlyAmericancuisine.Asthe
restaurantsloweredtheirpricestofitthebudgetsofallAmericancustomers,notjusttheupper
class,theyhadtofindsomewaytocutcostssofoodqualitydiminishedforthesakeof
55Ozersky,p.36.56Ozersky,p.22.57Ibid.58Ibid.
16
trimmingmarginsandcentralizingsupplychains.59Asthesebrandsgrewintomassive
economiesofscale,theywereabletogrowboththeirempiresandtheirportion-sizesuntilthey
becameunrecognizablefromtheiroriginalstate.Undertheleadershipofbusinesspeoplelike
RayKrocandHarlandSandersthesefastfoodchainsbecameubiquitousintheUnitedStates,
andsoonafterbeganlookingforwaystoexpandglobally.
DengXiaopingandChina’sEconomicReform
“Thebasicpointis:wemustacknowledgethatwearebackward,thatmanyofourways
ofdoingthingsareinappropriate,andthatweneedtochange.”60
Beforethemid1970’s,whenChairmanMaoZedongwastheleaderofthePeople’s
RepublicofChina,business,travel,andtheflowofinformationinandoutofChinawerehighly
restrictedbythegovernment,whichminimizedtheflowofinterculturalexchange.However,
afterMao’sdeathin1976,hisvicepremier,DengXiaoping,usheredinanewandconflictingera
ofeconomicandsocialdevelopmentwiththeFourModernizations.Theessentialideaofthe
FourModernizationsplanwastomodernizeChinathroughfourmajorindustries:agriculture,
businessandindustry,scienceandtechnology,andthemilitary.WhileChinahadtriedto
institutesignificanteconomicreformsduringtheMaoisterathroughprogramssuchasthe
GreatLeapForward,DengXiaopingproposedinstitutinga“socialistmarketeconomy”–a
59Love,352.60Marks, Steven. The Information Nexus: Global Capitalism from the Renaissance to the Present. Cambridge University Press, 2016, p. 220.
17
carefulbalancebetweenamarketeconomyandasocialized,plannedeconomysothatfor
China,“Socialism[did]notmeansharedpoverty.”61
DuringhistimeasleaderofChina,DengXiaopingsetthreegoalsandlivedtorealizetwo
ofthem:first,todoublethe1980grossnationalproduct(GNP),whichChinaachievedinthe
lateeighties,second,toquadruplethe1980GNPbytheendofthemillennia,whichChinadid
by1995,andfinally,toincreasethepercapitaGNPtomatchthatofmedium-developed
countriesby2050,whichhebelievedwouldmeanChinawouldhaveachievedmodernization
andrelativeprosperity.62AsMao’sruleended,Chinaonceagainopenedupdiplomatic
relationswiththeUnitedStatesaftermorethantwodecadesofbeingclosedtotheoutside
world.In1977,afterMaoZedong’sdeath,PresidentJimmyCartervisitedChinainanattempt
tobegindiscussionsofnormalizingChinese-Americanrelations.Thetwosideswereatan
impasseoveronetopicinparticular,andthatwastheUnitedStates’diplomaticrelationship
withTaiwan,acountrythatseparatedfromMainlandChinaatthebeginningoftheCommunist
Revolution.MainlandChinawantedtheUnitedStatestoceasetrade,especiallytradeof
militaryweapons,withTaiwantoincentivizeTaiwantorejoinwithMainlandChinaandform
one,single“China.”63
TheUnitedStatesdidnotdisputethattheclaimforoneChina,howevertherewas
significantpushbackfromtheAmericanpublicandtheTaiwaneselobbyinWashingtonD.C.
61Gittings, John. The Changing Face of China : From Mao to Market. New York: Oxford University Press, 2005, p. 272.62Kobayashi,Shigeo,etal.“The‘ThreeReforms’inChina:ProgressandOutlook.”JapanResearchInstitute,SakuraInstituteofResearch,Inc.No.45,Sept1999.63Vogel,EzraF.“DengXiaopingandtheTransformationofChina,”TheBelknapPressofHarvardUniversityPress,2011,p.255.
18
againstendingdiplomaticrelations.64Ultimately,theUnitedStatesagreedtoendalmostall
officialtieswithTaiwan,withtheexceptionoftheabilitytotradealimitednumberofmilitary
weapons,infavorofestablishingdiplomaticrelationswithMainlandChina.WhiletheChinese
wouldhavepreferredtohavealltiesbetweentheUnitedStatesandTaiwancutbefore
acceptingthediplomaticterms,pressurefromtheimpendingthreatofaSovietinvasionfrom
theSouthmeantthattheChinesefeltobligatedtobemoreflexible.Whenhewasquoted
saying,“ItisinbothofourgreatinterestsindealingwiththeSovietUnionifwecannormalize
relations,"DengXiaopingrecognizedtheneedforUSandChinesecooperationforprotection
againstSovietforces.OnDecember16th,1978,Chinaagreedtocommenceformaldiplomatic
relationswiththeUnitedStatesbeginningonJanuary1st,1979,andthusChinawasopenedto
Americanbusiness.65OneofDengXiaoping’smostimpactfuldecisionsfortheWesternworld
washisdecisiontoopenChina’seconomytoforeigntrade,adecisionwhichstillreverberates
throughtheWestascompaniescontinueworkingtoestablishandgrowtheirfootholdsin
China.
AColonelandAClownArriveinChina
WhenKFCandMcDonald’sfirstenteredChinainthelate1980’sandearly1990’s
respectively,theyrepresentedeverythingthatDengXiaoping’snewlypassedreformsallowed
Chinaaccessto.TheywereWestern,theyweremodern,theywerenovel,theyrepresented
capitalism,consumerism,andluxuryinawaythatChinahadnothadaccesstoforalmostthirty
64AsiaforEducators.“TaiwanandUS-ChinaRelations,”ColumbiaUniversity,2009.65Vogel,p.268-271.
19
years.Wasittheirnoveltyandlackofcompetitionthatallowedthesecompaniestoachieve
suchphenomenalsuccessinChina?DuringaconversationIhadwithamarketingteammember
oftheBurgerKingAsiaandthePacificmarketingteam,wediscussedthetopicofbrand
positioningandperception.IaskedthequestionhowismarketingBurgerKinginAsia,
specificallyChina,differentfromhowitismarketedintheWest?Hesaidtomethatitwas
importanttomaintainanairofluxuryandqualityaroundthebrandbecausetheprices,for
manypeopleintheregion,werepremiumprices.HecontinuedonthatBurgerKing’smost
significantcompetitionintheEastwasnotMcDonalds,Wendy’s,KFC,oranyoftheotherfast
foodrestaurantsconventionallyconsidereditscompetition,BurgerKing’sgreatestcompetition
inChinaisstreetfood.StreetfoodcouldsignificantlyundercutanypricethatBurgerKingcould
setduetothelackofoverheadcosts,cheap,localsourcing,limited,ifany,laborcosts,andlack
ofcorporateoversight.
Asanintern,IheardBurgerKingreferredtoasa“QuickServiceRestaurant”chain
aroundtheoffice,butitwasthisconversationthatinspiredmetobegintothinkaboutthe
definitionof“fastfood”versus“quickservice.”Irealizedthatboth“streetfood”and“fast
food”couldfitwithinthedefinitionofa“quickservicerestaurant.”Effectively,theyboth
providealimitedmenu,aremeantasquick,convenient,cheapdiningoptions,oftenforpeople
onthego,(anythingelsethatcouldbeacomparison).Thereasonstreetfoodissuchafierce
competitoragainstthemassivefastfoodcorporationsisbecauseitalreadyoccupiedthespace
Westernfastfoodonlyjustrecentlyenteredinthelate1980’s.Ichosetomorecloselyexamine
KFCandMcDonald’sinthisthesis,ratherthanBurgerKing,becauseoftheexistingdatabaseof
researchavailableonthosetwocompanies’presencesinbothAmericanandChina,andthe
20
limitedavailableinformationonBurgerKinginChina.Thisstudyaddstothecurrentliterature
basebyexaminingtheimpactonfoodculturethatanenteringculturalinfluencehasusingfast
foodasanexampletobetterunderstandhowfoodcultureevolves.OneofthequestionsIwill
beaddressinginthisthesisistheplaceWesternfastfoodhasincontextofthelargerdefinition
of“quick-service”inChina?Furthermore,howwillitcontinuetoeffectChinesefoodculture,
foodways,andfoodpreferencesintothefutureorwillrisingfoodsafetyconcernsandlossof
noveltyinanincreasinglyglobalizedworldmeanthemeteoricriseoffastfoodinChinawill
drawtoahalt?
21
CHAPTERONE
WesternFastFoodinChina
TheRiseoftheChineseMiddleClass
WiththeopeningofChinatotheWestcameamyriadofculturalexchanges.In1979the
firstChineseinternationalstudentsarrivedintheUnitedStates,policieswereputinplaceto
improvetheexchangeofscientificfindings,andDengXiaopingmadehisfirsttriptotheUnited
StatesafteragreeingtotheformaldiplomaticrelationshipbetweentheUnitedStatesand
China.Eachday,theChinesenewsgaveupdatesofDeng’svisit,andattheendofthetripthe
governmentcompliedadocumentarymovie
thatgavetheChinesepublicinsightinto
Americanlife.DengXiaopingsupportedthe
productionofthesefilmsbecausehehoped
thatitwouldshowtheChinesepeoplehow
backwardsChinahadbeenduringtheMao’s
regimeandwouldmakeChinamore
acceptingofDeng’seconomicandpoliticalreforms.1Thevideospositivelyportrayedtheimage
ofAmericanindustryandAmericancities,butitalsogavetheChinesepublicinsightinto
AmericanlifestylesandAmericanfashion.2Thereleaseofthesevideoscoincidedwiththe
1Vogel,p.275.2 Vogel, p. 272-274.
Figure1:DengXiaopingwithacowboyhatgiftedtohimduringhistriptoAmerica.Photo:ChinaDaily
22
emergenceofamiddleclass,resultingfromDengXiaoping’seconomicreforms,andAmerican
lifestylesandgoodsbecameaspirationalforthenewmiddleclass.3Oncethevideosaired,all
things“American”almostimmediatelybecamealltherage,despitethefactthatChinahadyet
toundergothepoliticaloreconomicchangesrequiredtosupportanAmericanlifestyle.4Before
ChinacouldprogressforwardandachievetheeconomicdevelopmentoftheUnitedStates,it
firsthadtoovercometheeconomicchallengescreatedduringCommunistChina.
OnOctober1st,1949,MaoZedongofficiallyestablishedthePeople’sRepublicofChina
(PRC),asa“democraticdictatorship.”TheideabehindtheestablishmentofthePCRwasto
uniteallChinesepeopleinanefforttorebuildChinaundernewCommunistleadership,byfirst
collectivizingagriculture,property,andfactoriestobenefitthestateratherthantoenrichany
singleindividual.5Before1949therewereafewgroupsofmiddleclassindividuals,namely
privateentrepreneursandintellectuals,whoownedaround4millionprivatefirmsorsmall
businesses,butafterthestartoftheCommunistrevolutiontheyquicklydisappeared.6During
theCommunistera,whenChinabecamethePeople’sRepublicofChina(PRC),“class”became
anincrediblysensitivetopicandonethatcouldmeanlifeordeath.AccordingtoMaoist
ideology,therewereonlythreesocialstratainCommunistChina:workers,peasants,and
intellectuals(intheMarxistnotionof“intermediatestratum”)thatdoesnotalignwiththe
3Wang,HelenH.“TheChineseDream:TheRiseoftheWorld’sLargestMiddleClassandWhatItMeansforYou.”BestsellerPress,2010,p.88.Web.4Vogel,p.282.5Busky, Donald F. Communism in History and Theory: Asia, Africa, and the Americas. Greenwood Publishing Group, 2002, p.11.6Li, Cheng. “Introduction: The Rise of the Middle Class in the Middle Kingdom.” China’s Emerging Middle Class: Beyond Economic Transformation. Brookings Institution Press, 2010, p.7.
23
Westernconceptof“middleclass,”whichdefinesclassbasedmostlybylevelofeconomic
security.7
InMaoistChina,thelowerclassesandpeasantswerepraisedfortheirhumblewayof
lifeandtheirtirelessworkethic,whiletheupperclasseswerepersecuted,demonized,and
evensenttoforcedlaborcamps.IntheeyesoftheCommunistParty,thesetwogroupswere
classifiedasthe“exploitingclass”(theupperclass)andthe“exploitedclass”(thelowerclass).8
Inordertotoppletheformerpowerregime,theCommunistPartyengagedin“classstruggle,”
whichmeantfirstdesignatingeachindividual’spoliticalstatusaccordingtotheirland,capital,
property,income,andotherconditions.Onceclassstatuseswereestablished,thePartybegan
exploitingtheseclassestoidentify“counter-revolutionaries,”alsoknownasthosewhowould
opposeaCommunistRevolutioninChina.9Thelandlord,richpeasant,andbourgeoisclasses
wereidentifiedandthrownintothe“BlackFile,”meaningthattheirpropertywasconfiscated
andtheywereforcedtothelowestlevelofsocietyaspunishmentfortheir“counter-
revolutionaryactions,”andsomewereevenkilledorsenttoLaogai(prisoncamps).10In1949
about10-15millionChinesecitizenswereassignedthelandlordorrichpeasantclass,andby
theendofthe1970s,only10-15%ofthoseindividualsstillsurvived.11Itwasnotuntilthe
1970s,whenDengXiaopingbecameleaderofChina,thattheMarxist-Leninistrevolutionary
7Li, Cheng, p.7. 8Wu,Harry.“Classicide-GenocideinCommunistChina,”JournalofInterdisciplinaryStudies,Vol18,Issue½,2006,p.125.9Ibid.10Ibid.11Wu,p.125-126.
24
theoriesthatinspiredclassstruggleweredisregarded,andaneweraofcapitalismand
privatizationenteredChina,andmeantthatitwasonceagainsafetobemiddleclass.12
WhenDengXiaopingopenedChinatotheWest,onlythendidtheterm“middleclass”
begintoenterChineseacademicwritings,butstillothertermssuchas“middlestratum,”
“middle-incomestratum,”and“middle-incomegroup,”werepreferredtotheterm“middle
class.”Partofthescholarlyaversiontotheterm“middleclass”wasbecauseChinesescholars
feltthatitwasinappropriatetermtodescribetheruralindustrialistsandurbanentrepreneurs
whoweretraditionallyoftheunderprivilegedoruneducatedsocialstrata.13Thislinguistic
conflictcouldinpartbeduetothevaguenatureoftheterm“middleclass,”whichhasavariety
potentialbasisfordefinition,includingabilitytopossessWestern-stylegoods,theindividual’s
self-identification,incomeclassification,andprofession.14Despitenotfittingthepreviously
understooddefinitionsofmiddleclasstheywerenotinitiallyprivilegedorhighlyeducated,
ruralindustrialistsandurbanentrepreneursdevelopedtheindustriesthatlaythegroundwork
fortheriseofthemiddleclassinChina.Theirentrepreneurialspirit,inadditiontothe
developmentofstockmarkets,housingreforms,urbanization,expansionofhighereducation,
andincreasingglobalizationleadtotherapiddevelopmentofthemiddleclass.15
Inadditiontothemultipleeconomicorsocialsituationsthatcouldbeusedto
characterizethemiddleclass,therewereaplethoraofsocialfactorsthatcouldpredisposea
Chineseindividualtoenteringthemiddleclassincludinghighereducation,privateorstate
12Wu,p.135.13Li, He. “Emergence of the Chinese Middle Class and its Implications.” Asian Affairs: An American Review, 33:2, 67-83, 2006, p. 71. 14 Li, He, p. 69. 15 Li, Cheng, p. 7.
25
employment,whethertheyworkedinamonopolyornon-monopolyindustry,age,gender,and
accesstoamoredevelopedcity.16AstudyconductedbyZhangHaidongandYaoYelinof
ShanghaiUniversitysuggestedthataccordingtotheirstatisticalanalyses,youngerpeoplewere
morelikelytoaccessthemiddleclassthanolderpeople,specificallyduetothereformsmadein
the1990sthatmadethemarketenvironmentmorefavorableforyoungpeople.Oneofthe
reasonsforthiswasthedifferenceintheireducationlevels;youngerpeopleingeneralhad
accesstogreatereducationalopportunitiesthanthoseofpreviousgenerations.17Likewise,
thosewhowereemployedafterDengXiaoping'seconomicreformsweremorelikelytohave
accesstothemiddleclassthanthosewhowereemployedbeforetheeconomicreforms.18
Peoples’educationlevels,careers,anddegreeofwealthweremoreempiricalwaystodefine
themiddleclass,buttheconsumerswhoachievetheseempiricaldegreesofstatus,thatisto
saythosewhowereeducatedandwealthy,lookedtoexternal,sociallyrelevantwaysto
reaffirmtheirclassstatus.
TomanyChineseindividuals,onewaytodemonstratetheirstatusasamemberofthe
middleclasswastopossessWestern-stylegoodssuchascars,ortodinepubliclyatWestern
fastfoodrestaurants.19ThistendencywasdescribedbyeconomistandsociologistThorstein
Veblenas“conspicuousconsumption,”definedasawayofspendingmoneyinordertodisplay
theirwealthtoothermembersofsociety,andofteninanefforttoemulatethemorerespected
16Li,He,p.71.17Haidong, Zhang and Yao Yelin. “Marketization and Market Capacity: The formation of Middle Class in China – An Empirical Study in Shanghai, Beijing, and Guangzhou.” Development and Society, Vol. 45 No. 3, 2016, p. 399.18Ibid.19Watson, p. 49.
26
membersoftheircommunity.20Thisideaofconspicuousconsumptionisparticularlyrelevant
whenconsideringthoseindividualswhowantedtodefinethemselvesasmiddleclassafter
DengXiaoping’seconomicreformation.Sinceallkindsof“upperclass”statuswereavoided
duringthetimeofthePeople’sRepublicofChina,therewaslimitedpotentialforindividualsto
inheritmiddleorupperclassstatusfromtheirparents.Asaresult,theyhadtoestablishtheir
statusforthemselvesoncetheregimechangedandonewayofdoingsowasthroughtheir
publicconsumptionofgoods,forexamplebrand-namecommodities.Middleclassconsumersin
Chinabelievedthattheirpeersjudgedthembasedontheirconsumption,andoftenthey
confusedconsumeristactivitieslikeshoppingordiningwithculturalorsocialactivities.21Rather
thantrulystudyingorunderstandingWesternculture,theyinvestedinWesterncommodities
thatgavethemtheappearanceofbeingfamiliarwithforeigncultures,andtodistinguish
themselvesfromthelowerclasses.Themiddleclassoftendefined“beingcultured”asowning
WesterngoodsbecausetheWestrepresentedhavingmodernandhigh-qualitytaste.The
Chinesemiddleclasscallthelifestyletheypursuethe“小资”(xiaozi)lifestyle,meaningthe
“chasingmoderntaste,livingstandards,andthearts,”whichisdefinedbytheconsumptionof
Westerngoods,attendingWesternclassicalmusicconcerts,Broadwayshows,watchingforeign
films,drinkingcoffee,andthelike.22
20 Veblen, Thorstein. The Theory of the Leisure Class. Project Gutenberg, p. 30. 21Xin, Wang. “Desperately Seeking Status: Political, Social and Cultural Attributes of China’s Rising Middle Class.” Baylor University, Modern China Studies, Vol. 20 No. 1, 2013, p. 36. 22Peng,Yuzhu.“Sharingfoodphotographsonsocialmedia:performativeXiaozilifestyleinYoung,middle-classChineseurbanites’WeChat‘Moments’.”JournalfortheStudyofRace,NationandCulture,12Dec2017.Web.
27
Thosewhocomprisethemiddleclassusedthesesocialsignifierstoreaffirmtheirclass
statusbecausealthoughtheymettheempiricalrequirementsformiddleclass,theterm
“middleclass”isflexible.“Middleclass”statuscouldbeestablishedthroughoccupation,
income,oravarietyofculturalidentifiers,noneofwhicharestandardized.Asaresult,
individualsfeltinsecureintheirmiddleclassstatusevenwhentheymayqualifyashaveagreat
enoughincometoqualifyasmiddleincome,butmaynotbeculturedenoughtobetruly
“middleclass.”23Inmanyways,being“middleclass”isaWesternconcepttomanyChinese
people,whobelievethatbeingmiddleclassrequirestheeconomicsignifiers,suchashavinga
nicehome,highincome,oranicecar,aswellasbeingmanneredandlivingatastefullifestyle.24
Westerngoods,becauseoftheirhighercost,perceivedhigherquality,andbecausetheywere
fromtheWest,wereuniversallyrecognizedas“bourgeoisie,”andthereforetheclass-conscious
middleclassbelievedthesegoodsaffirmedonesstatusthroughtheirconsumption.25
AlthoughChinastillneededtodevelopcertainsocialandeconomicinfrastructuresto
makelifeinChinamoresimilartothatoflifeintheWest,Americancompaniespreparedto
enterthemarketassoonasChinapoliticallyandeconomicallyopened.In1978,Boeingand
Coca-ColaweretwoofthefirstcompaniestobeginplanningtosellgoodsinChina;Coca-Cola
evenmadeplanstoestablishtheirownproductionplantwithinChinatosimplifytheirsupply
chain.26In1987,atrulyAmericaninstitutionopeneditsdoorsinChina:afast-foodrestaurant.
ThefirstWesternfastfoodrestauranttoopeninChinawasKFC,soonfollowedbyMcDonald’s,
23Wang,HelenH,p.xiv-xv.24Wang,HelenH,p.xv.25 Xin, Wang, p.37. 26Liu,Chunhang.Multinationals,Globalisation,andIndigenousFirmsinChina.Routeledge,Jul26,2012,p.6.Web.
28
thenthefloodgatesopenedwideandabevyofWesternfast-foodrestaurantsenteredthe
market.ThesestoresrepresentedeverythingthattheChinesehadseeninthevideosfrom
DengXiaoping’striptoAmerica.Therestaurantswerecleanandstylizedinawayunlike
traditionalChineserestaurants.27WhenthesefastfoodrestaurantsfirstenteredChina,they
representedtheAmericanlifestylethattheChinesehadbecomesoinfatuatedwith,andaway
fortheChinesetoaccessapieceoftheAmericanlifestylewithintheirowncountry.
EntranceofWesternFastFoodinChina
KentuckyFriedChicken
Figure2:1987GrandOpeningofKFCBeijing,Source:Thatsmag.com
27Watson,p.44.
29
In1987,KFCopenedathree-story,12,000squarefoot,500seatrestaurantandbegan
servingfriedchickentotheChinesemasses.28This,however,wasnotKFC’sfirstentranceinto
theEastAsianmarket–theyfirstbegan,andfailed,inHongKong.In1973,fourteenyears
beforefirstenteringChina,KFCopeneditsfirstelevenstoresinHongKongandtheybrought
withthemtheircomplete,traditionallyWesternmenu.However,theymisjudgedtheneedsof
themarket.Aftertwoyears,thestoresfailedtobeprofitablesoKFCclosedthelocationsand
retreatedfromHongKongtorethinktheirstrategyforEastAsia.AccordingtoKFC’sanalysisof
thefailure,theyhadnotconsideredthelocalmarketwhencreatingamenuandtherefore
failedtodevelopasuitablebusinessstrategy.29WhenKFCre-enteredAsia,openinginChina
almost15yearslater,theyfoundlocalpartnerstodirectKFCChina’sdevelopment30.Together
withtheirpartners,KFCdevelopedtwoprimarystrategiesthatrevolutionizedtheirbusinessin
China:tobuildKFCasalocalbrandinChina,andtolocalizetheirmenu.
KFCwasthefirstAmericanfastfoodchaintoenterChina,andbeingfirstgavethema
bevyofbenefitssuchasfreepublicityfromorganicmediacoverageandthefreedomtopickthe
bestlocationswithoutcompetition.Theyleveragedthatpowerandfortheirfirstlocationthey
choseTiananmenSquare,thepoliticalheartofChina’scapitalcity,Beijing,achoicewhich
broughtimmediateattentiontotheirbrand.AftertheyfirstopenedinBeijing,KFCcontinuedto
growtheirbrandandtheirmarketsharebypurchasingpropertyinsecondarycitieswithmore
inexpensivelandsotheycouldexpandquickly.AsKFCopenedmorerestaurants,theirbrand
28Drewery, Hayden. “West Meets East: KFC and Its Success in China.” Armstrong Undergraduate Journal of History 1, No. 2, 2016. 29 Liu, Warren. KFC in China: Secret Recipe for Success. John Wiley and Sons, 2008, p19. 30Liu,p.20.
30
greworganicallyandgainedpopularityacrossthenation.Soon,theyfoundthemselves
positionedtobeanidealbusinesspartnerformanymalldevelopers,furtherincreasingtheir
ubiquity.OnceKFCestablishedclusterednetworksofrestaurantsaroundChina,theywereable
tobeginbuildinganeconomyofscalefromthegroundup.31KFCchosetheirproduction
partners,suppliers,andbuilttheirownstorageandtransportationnetwork,whichthen
allowedthemtocarryoutacomplex,large,andregionallyspecificmenu.32ByseedingKFC
restaurantsacrossthesmallercities,partneringwithmallsandlocalentrepreneurs,and
developingsupplynetworkswithinChina,KFCbuiltitselflikeanew,nativeChinesecompany
ratherthananenteringAmericanmega-corporationsimplycapitalizingonanewmarket.
Theirsecondstrategy,tolocalizetheirmenu,aidedKFCindevelopingitselfasalocal
brandbecauseitmadetheirmenumorefamiliartotheirChineseclientele.KFCkeptsomeof
thetraditionalAmericandishes,liketheirsignaturefriedchicken,buttheyalsoincorporated
thelocaldishesthatwouldbemorefamiliartotheircustomerbase.Theytooktraditional,
home-styledishes,likecongee(粥,zhouinChinese),33andcommonstreetfoods,like油条
(youtiao),34andcreatedasenseofhomefortheircustomers,butinanew,modernrestaurant.
Thisstrategyoftakinghome-cookedfoodsandmakingthemfastfoodswasverysimilartohow
theColonelfirstintroducedfriedchickenasafastfooditeminAmerica.Byadaptingtoa
31Ibid.32Bell, David, and Mary L. Shelman. “KFC’s Radical Approach to China.” Harvard Business Review, November 1, 2011. Web. 33Ariceporridgedishtraditionallyeatenforbreakfast.34Afrieddoughstickeatenasabreakfastorsnackfood.
31
ChinesepalateratherthantryingtoimposeaWesternone,withinthecontextoftheirmodern,
Westernrestaurant,KFCwasabletointegratenaturallyintoChineseculture.35
McDonald’s
Figure3:1990,McDonald'sOpensinShenzhen,China.Source:http://abcnews.go.com/Business/photos/photo-photo-shows-mcdonals-opened-in-shenzhen-26889162
McDonald’ssuccessinChinawasneveraboutitsburgersorfries,orevenaboutits
mascotMr.RonaldMcDonald,rathertheirsuccesshasalwaysbeendependentonhowwell
theycouldselltheMcDonald’sbrandtothepeopleofChina.BeforeChinaevenopeneditselfto
Westernbusinessestodirectlyenter,theybeganexportagreementswithsomeWesternfirms,
McDonald’sbeingoneofthem.In1983,McDonald’sbegantocultivatetheirrelationshipwith
ChinabyusingapplesfromChinatosupplytheproductionofalltheapplepiessoldinJapan
andin1986theybeganworkingcollaborativelywithChinatocentralizepotatoprocessingto
35 Drewery, Hayden. “West Meets East: KFC and Its Success in China.”
32
supplyfryproductionthePacificregion.Inthisway,McDonald’slaythegroundworkfortrade.
McDonald’swaitedforthetwobarrierstotrade,China’sclosuretoWesternbusinessandlack
ofarobustmiddleclass,toresolvebeforetheyenteredthemarket.36McDonald’shadprevious
experiencewithinternationalmarketsandlearnedthebestwaytogrowwastoworkalongside
aninnovative,localpartner,whotheygavealmostfree-reigntorunthebusiness.This
benefittedMcDonald’sintwoways,1)thelocalbusinesspartnersbetterunderstoodthelocal
culture,socouldcraftappropriateadvertisingcampaignsandbetterunderstandlocalneeds,
and2)itpreventedMcDonald’sfromappearingasahuge,American,multinationalcorporation
attemptingtoconquertheglobalmarket.In1990,withthehelpofalocalpartner,McDonald’s
openeditsfirststoreinShenzhen,China.
McDonald’sfirstexpandedtoEuropeandJapan,andlearnedfromthoseexperiences
thatMcDonald’sstoresweremostsuccessfulwhenitwastruetoits“American-ness,”thatis
whenitretaineditsoriginalmenuandstoredesigns37.Therefore,tobecomethepowerful
culturalandeconomicforceithasbecome,McDonald’semployedadevelopmentstrategy
almostcompletelydifferentfromKFC’s.RelativetoKCF’smodelofadoptingChinesecuisines
andtheirownandtryingtobecomea“native”brand,McDonald’senteredthemarketasan
unapologeticallyAmericanrestaurant.NomatterwhereMcDonald’sopensontheglobe,they
retaintheircoreWesternmenuofburgersandfries,andtheyincludeWesternitems,
36Love,JohnF.McDonald’sBehindtheArches.BantamBooks,1986,p.449.37Love,p.437.
33
influencedbylocalcuisine,ratherthantraditionallyChinesefooditems.Themenuadaptations
rangefromratherminoradjustmentsinsauce,for
exampleinGreece,theBigMacistoppedwithTzatziki
sauceandwrappedinapita,tothecompletere-
imaginationofanitem,forexamplethe“kaofan
burger”inHongKong,whichisafriedchickenpatty
onabunmadeofrice.38However,nomatterhow
muchMcDonald’sadaptedtheirmenu,theymadesuretoretaintheiroriginalmenuitemsas
wellbecauseMcDonald’sexecutivesbelievedthatbyfillingtheirmenuwithlocalitems,
McDonald’swouldloseitsbrandidentity.39Withoutalocalappearanceormenu,McDonald’s
hadtorelyheavilyontheirlocalpartners’guidancetocreateanimageofarestaurantthat
looksAmerican,sellsAmericanfood,andhasanAmericanservicestyle,andyetisconsidereda
localbrand,notanAmericanone.40
InChina,McDonald’sisarestaurantlikeanyother,customerssitandenjoyanextended
mealwithfriendsorfamily,the“fast”aspectoffastfoodisinthemeal’sinitialserviceto
customers.41ThisdrasticdeparturefromtheWesternservicestyle,leadMcDonald’storethink
theirstaffingneedsandrestaurantdesignstobettermeettheirChinesecustomers’needs.The
diningandservicestylesmaydifferbetweenthetwonations,butMcDonald’scarriesthesame
family-orientedreputationglobally.WhenChinesepatronsdineatMcDonald’sitisoftenwith,
38Crawford, Alice, et al. “McDonald’s: A Case Study in Glocalization.” Journal of Global Business Issues, 2015, p.12.39Love,p.437.40Ibid,p.433.41Watson,p.41.
Figure4:McDonald'sKaoFanBurgeradvertisedonabillboard.Source:travelerdaily.com
34
ifnotbecauseof,theirchild.42McDonald’sworkstowelcomethesefamiliesbyhiringfemale
“receptionists”whohelptakecareofthechildrenandtalkwiththeparentstohelprelieveany
stressofcaringforchildrenwhilstdining.McDonald’seventriedtoinstitutetheirsignature
“service-with-a-smile,”whichissocentraltotheirAmericanbrand,ultimatelyfailedinChina
becauseitwassuchadeparturefromconventionalChineseservice.WhileAmericanconsumers
expectsmilingservice,consumersinHongKong,Taiwan,China,andKoreafoundsmiling
disconcertingbecausetheyexpectedanexpressionof“seriousness,”toconveydetail-oriented
workanddetermination,whilesmilinggavetheconsumerthesensetheywerebeingcheated.43
Ultimately,thecounterworkersinChineseMcDonald’sstoresdidawaywithexcessivesmiling
andinsteadfocusedonprojectingqualitiesrespectedbytheircommunities:competence,
directness,andlevel-headedness.44This,inadditiontotheiradditionalstaffingmeasuresand
servicestyles,helpedMcDonald’sbuildtheimagethattherestaurantisaplaceforfamiliesto
comeandfeelwelcome,andwhererestaurantstaffthemselvesaremeanttofeellikemembers
ofthefamily.45
Perception’sSignificanceinAcceptance
EvenbeforetheserestaurantsarrivedinChina,Chineseentrepreneurswhohad
witnessedthesuccessofWesternfastfoodrestaurantsintheWest,andtranslatedthattotheir
regionsofChinabycreatingcopy-catrestaurants,atalowerpricepoint,thatwerefoundedon
42Watson,p.65.43Watson,p.32.44Watson,p.91.45Crawford,p.15.
35
thesameidealsofintroducingtheEasttotheWest.WitheachauthenticMcDonald’sorKFC
thatopened,aclusterofsatelliterestaurantsopenedupinthesurroundingareawithnearly
thesamenamesthatadvertisedsimilarproductsbutatalowercost.McDonald’sChinesename
is麦当劳(maidanglao)whilethefraudulentMcDonald’sstorecallsitself麦当乐(maidangle).
Thesecopycatrestaurantshavebenefitsanddrawbacks.Ononehand,theprimedtheChinese
populationfortheauthenticAmericanbrandswhentheyenteredthemarketinthefollowing
yearsandhelpedtocreatebrandawareness,howeverontheotherhand,becausetheywere
notmanagedbythecompaniesorregulated,theycouldhaveanykindofserviceorproduct
thattheywanted,andcouldhavedamagethebrand’simagebeforetheyevenhadachanceto
establishthemselves.Itturnedouttobebeneficialtotheoriginalrestaurantsbecausedespite
theproliferationofcounterfeitfastfoodeateries,theywerealldiscretelyownedbyavarietyof
smallbusinessownersandlackedtheorganizationnecessarytogrowintomegacorporationlike
therestaurants,whoweresimplyexpandingtheirreachoverseasratherthanestablishinga
completelynewbusinessventure.
Figure5:AuthenticMcDonald'sinChina,Source:http://cy.001.com/jingyingguanli/37960.html
Figure6:Knock-offMcDonald'srestaurantwithwrongcharactersinsign
36
Counterfeitinggoods,knownas“Shanzhai,”(山寨),isoneofChina’smostfamous,or
ratherinfamous,marketswheregoodsareoftenthatproducedinthefactoryfacilitiesandby
thesubcontractedworkersthatproducetheauthenticproducts.46“Shanzhai”referstothe
homeofbanditsinthemountains,andthebandits,ratherthanbeingvilified,wereseenasa
RobinHoodcharacterwhostealfromtherichandpowerful.47ThenarrativesofShanzhai’s
rootsareoftensetinancientChinawherepeasantsroseupagainstdespoticrulesandbecome
theirownkingsinthemountains.48ByusingShanzhaitocharacterizecounterfeitgoods,it
suggestscounterfeitingitemsisforgivablebecausetheystealmoneyfromwealthy,
multinationalcompanies,toprovidesimilargoodstothelowincomeChinesemasses.49
Counterfeitingculturehasanunexpectedbenefitforthecompaniestheyknock-off.Despite
theirinauthenticity,Shanzhaiitemsassistinthedisseminationoftheauthenticgood’sbrand
andtheShanzhaibrandintothelocalculture.50
However,forpeopletorecognizethecounterfeitproducts,theymustalreadybeaware
oftheauthenticproducts.Tobeidentified,counterfeitsmustreflectsomesymbolsthat
potentiallyinfringeontheintellectualpropertyrights(IPR)oftheoriginalproducts,becausethe
IPRlegitimizewhatis“real”andgivesthegoodstheirvalue.51SincetheShanzhaiproductsshirk
legaldoctrines,globalizedIPRlaws,stateregulations,andtaxcodes,theycanbesoldatalower
46Yang,Fan.FakedinChina:NationBranding,CounterfeitCulture,andGlobalization.IndianaUniversityPress,2016,p.69.47Ibid.48Yang,p.70.49Phau,Ian,andMinTeah.“TheDevilwears(counterfeit)Prada:astudyofantecedentsandoutcomesofattitudestowardscounterfeitsofluxurybrands.”JournalofConsumerMarketing,Vol.26Issue1,p.19.50Yang,p.70.51Yang,p.10.
37
pricethantheoriginalgood,howeverthelowerpricetagandlessenedproductionoversight
canleadhaveconsequences.52Althoughcounterfeitshelpreinforcebrandawareness,theycan
alsodamagethebrandimageintwoways:1)iftheyareofinferiorquality,andtheyarethe
customer’sfirstintroductiontothebrand,theycanlowerthebrand’sperceivedquality,or2)if
theyareofasimilarquality,theycandevaluetheoriginalproductandstealawaypotential
profitsfromtheoriginalcompany.53,54Ifthegoodsareofaninferiorquality,theycouldcause
potentialdamagetotheconsumer.Infood,counterfeitsoforiginalproductscouldbeproduced
throughtheuseofcheaper,inferiormeats.Oneexampleofthiswasin2013,acriminalring
suppliedhot-potrestaurantsinShandongandWuxiwithrat,fox,andminkmeatwhichthey
retailedasmuttonsince2009.55Thisscandaland11othermeat-relatedscandalsinvolvingpigs
andchickenswerereportedonbyChina’sPublicSecurityMinistry.56Counterfeitfastfood
restaurants,becausetheyarenotregulatedbythemajororganization’sadministrationand
becausetheydonothaveahighlyregulatedsupplychain,areevenmorevulnerabletothese
kindsoffoodsafetyscandalsthantheirauthenticcounterpart.
OneofthemostcriticalfactorsinfastfoodretailinginChinaisthepublicperceptionof
thefoodretailer’sbrand.Muchlikeotherluxurybrands,bothMcDonald’sandKFCare
consideredluxurydiningexperiences,andareconsideredexpensivebytheaverageChinese
citizen.KFCandMcDonald’sstatusprimarilycamefromtheircleanliness,standardizationof
52Yang,p.68.53Chaudhry,A,andA.Zimmerman,ProtectingYourIntellectualPropertyRights.ManagementforProfessionals,p.11,2013.54Ibid,p.12.55Kaiman,Jonahan.“Chinafakemeatscandal:tellingyourratfromyourmutton.”TheGuardian,May3,2013.Web.56“Chinamedia:Fakefoodscandals.”BBCNewsChina,6May2013,Web.
38
quality,andservice,allofwhichwereadeparturefromthelessregulatedChinesequickservice
restaurantsandseenasvaluable.Despitethelackofgovernmentoversightonfoodservice
priorto2015,asfranchises,theserestaurantsfacedstringentregulationbytheiroverseeing
company,whichsetforthqualitystandardsthatexceededthoserequiredbythe
government.57,58ThishigherqualitystandardmadeKFCandMcDonald’sworththehigherprice
permealandgrantedthesebrandstheir“luxury”status,butwiththeserestaurantbrandscame
counterfeits,whichthreatenedtodamagetheirspotlessreputations.
WhilefastfoodrestaurantsarenotadirectsubstitutefortraditionalChinesestreet
foods,theyexpandtheunderstandingof“quickservice,”byestablishingthemselvesassimilar
butdifferentfromstreetfood.BecausefastfooddoesnotshareinChina’slongfoodhistory,it
lacksthesamefoundationincultureandtradition,andismuchmorereliantonbrand
perceptionforitssuccess.Therearefourcriticalfactorstotheperceptionoffastfood:thatfast
foodisexpensive,modern,clean,andnovel.Byworkingtodevelopthisbrand,whilestill
servingfoodquickly,fastfoodcompanieswereabletobuildanewnichewithinChina’squick
servicefoodcultureunlikeanypreexistingChinesefoodtradition.
57ApprovedbyClever,Jennifer.“China’sFoodSafetyLaw(2015).”StandingCommitteeofthe11thNationalPeople’sCongress,2009,amendedbyStandingCommitteeofthe12thNationalPeople’sCongressatthe14thsession,2015.58Zhu,Lin,etal.“Socialmediaandcultureincrisiscommunication:McDonald’sandKFCcrisesmanagementinChina.”PublicRelationsReview,2015,p.488.
39
AFadoraFixture
DiningatthesechainsisunlikediningateithertheirAmericanfastfoodcounterparts,or
anydiningscenariothatpreviouslyexistedinChina:peoplewouldcometotherestaurant,pay
amoderatelyexpensiveprice,beservedtheirmealquickly,andthen,ratherthanleavingthe
restaurantpromptlylikeanAmericanwouldatafastfoodrestaurant,Chinesepatronswillsit
andenjoytheirquickservicemeal,slowly.59Ataboutanaverageof30块(kuai,theChinese
characterformoney)permeal,1/6thofaworkingclassfamily’smonthlyincome,fastfood
mealswerealuxurythatnotallChinesepeoplecouldafford,andbecameaneventforspecial
occasions.60
Whilethecostisprohibitivetosome,someyoungpeoplechoosetodineatMcDonald’s
specificallybecauseofitspredictablecost,comparedtoluxuryChineserestaurantswherethe
pricesareunpredictableandcouldleadtoanembarrassingincidentwhenthebillarrives.61For
mostindividualsintheChinesemiddleclass,spending30块permealisexpensive,but
spending30块permealatMcDonald’sisfairlystandard;itwouldbeaboutasdifficulttoorder
somethingmoreexpensiveasitwouldbetoordersomethinglessexpensive.62Ifasomebody
wereafraidofappearingcheaptothepersontheywerediningwith,thenMcDonald’smightbe
anidealvenueatwhichtodinebecauseitplacesanupwardcaponthebillwithoutthehost
havingtorefusetopurchaseanextravagantspecialtydish.Asaresult,fastfoodrestaurants
becamepopularfordiningeventssuchasdatesorbusinessmeetingsbecauseoftheir
59Watson,p.29.60Watson,p.30.61Ibid.62Ibid.
40
standardizationincost;theyofferthesamefeelingofbeingaspecialeventbutwithanatural
limitonhowextravagantthatspecialeventcouldbe.63
BeyondjusttheirinnatenoveltythatoriginatedfromtheirbeingAmericanbrands,
thesefastfoodrestaurantsplacedenormousemphasisondevelopingtheirservers’customer
serviceskills,whichthencontributedtotheluxuryfeeloftherestaurants.Beforethe
introductionoffastfood,itwasuncommonforrestaurantworkerstoreceiveextensivetraining
innotjusttheirbasicserviceskills,butintheirmannerofservice.BothKFCandMcDonald’shad
trainingprograms,McDonald’shadHamburgerUniversity64andKFChadatraininginstitute,
thattaughttheirserverstobefriendlytotheircustomers,offersmilesandpleasantriessuchas
“Thankyou,”alongwiththemealstheyserved,andteamworkskillsthatwouldallowthe
serviceteamtoworkmoreeffectivelytogether.Perhapsthemostimportantaspectofstaff
trainingattheseestablishmentswastheirextensivehygienetraining.65
High-qualityservicewasnotrestrictedtohygieneandgreetingsattheserestaurants,to
accommodatetheirChineseclientele’sneeds,thecompanieschangedtheirhiringprocesses
andrestaurantofferingsaswell.Forexample,childreninChinawerefoundationaltothe
developmentofWesternfastfoodbrandsbecausetheylovedtherestaurants’appearancesand
offerings,whiletheirparentsusedtheopportunityofdiningattheserestaurantstointroduce
theirchildrentoWesternculture.66McDonald’s,becameaplacetocelebratebirthdayparties,
anniversaries,weddings,andotherspecialevents.67Inadditiontotheirglobalmascot,Ronald
63Watson,p.42.64Watson,p.31.65Shelman,MaryL.“KFC’sRadicalApproachtoChina.”HarvardBusinessReview,Web.66Watson,p.63.67Ibid.
41
McDonald,McDonald’sinChinadevelopedafemalemascot,AuntMcDonald,whojobwasto
attendbirthdaypartiesandentertainthechildren.68McDonald’salsohiredfemalereceptionists
whohelpedparentsbywatchingtheirchildrenwhiletheydinedattherestaurant.69Thiswas
onlyoneofmanynewdevelopmentsincustomerserviceinChinathathelpcreatethe
welcomingandhigh-classatmospherethatwaslaterattributedtotheseWesternbrands.
Ifthefastfoodcompanieshadfailedtoestablishsuchdefinedbrands,hadnotbeen
consideredtobesoquintessentiallyAmerican,orifChinawerenotprimedbyalongcultural
historyofstreetfoodtoacceptquickservicerestaurants,thefastfoodrestaurantsmaynot
havehadsuchsustainedgrowth.Inrecentyears,ithasbecomeapparenthowfragilethese
brandsare.KFCinparticularhassufferedfrommultipleoccurrencesoffoodsafetyconcerns
andoutbreaksofillnessstemmingfromissuesinboththeirsupplychainandthehygieneof
thoseservingfoodattheirrestaurants.In2012,scandalbrokewhenlocalChinesemedia
outletsuncoveredthatthesuppliersforKFCandMcDonald’schickenwereinjectingtheanimals
withexcessiveamountsofantibiotics.70Onlytwoyearslater,anothersupplier,ShanghaiHusi
FoodCo,wasfoundoutbyatelevisionreporttobesupplyingtherestaurantswith
contaminatedmeat,eitherfreshmeatthathadbeencontaminatedbyexpiredmeatormeat
thathadfallenonthegroundandnotbeencleaned.71The2014scandalseverelydamagedthe
68Ibid.69Ibid.70Jourdan,AdamandLisaBaertlein.“Yum,McDonald’sapologizeasnewChinafoodscandalhits.”Reuters,Jul21,2014.Web.71Solomon,Brian.“McDonald’s,KFCSnaggedbyNewFoodSafetyScandalinChina.”Forbes,2014,Web.
42
brands’formerlypristinereputations;theseluxuryrestaurantswerenolongerseemingly
impervioustofailuresorflaws.
Althoughtherestaurantscontinuedtopromotetheirhighqualityfoodandhygienic
restaurants,theirmessagingwasundercutbycustomers’andnewsoutlets’socialmediaposts
thatcontradictedtheirstatements.InChina,socialmediahasemergedasoneofthemost
importantwaystoforcompaniestocommunicatewiththeirconsumers,especiallyintimesof
crisis;itallowscompaniestorespondtosituationsinrealtime,butitalsoincreasesthevitality
ofcrisesandmakesinformationeasiertodisseminate.WhenKFCandMcDonald’sbothfaced
foodsafetycrisesin2012,bothcompaniestooktosocialmediatoresolvethecrises,buttook
twocontrastingapproaches.In2012,McDonald’swasfoundinahiddencamerainvestigation
byChinaCentralTelevisiontobesellingexpiredfoodatoneoftheirmostprominentstores:the
McDonald’sfranchiseontheSanlintun.72Onlythirtyminutesafterthestorybroke,McDonald’s
issuedanapologythroughsocialmedia,statingthattheoffendingfranchiseehasbeen
suspended,andonly90minuteslater,McDonald’sofficialmicroblogissuedaformalapology.
Theseapologieswereforwardedover17,394timesandreceived13,286comments,mostof
whichwerepositiveandpraisedMcDonald’sfortheirquickresponseandwillingnesstoaccept
responsibilityfortheiractions.73WhenKFCfacedsimilarscandal,theChinaEconomicNet
reportedthatoneofKFC’spoultrysuppliersraisedchickentomaturityinonly45daysbefore
sendingthemtoslaughterforuseinKFCcooking,theydecidedtodenyculpability.74Rather
thanadmittingtoanywrongdoing,KFCtriedtojustifytheiractionsastheindustrystandard,
72Zhu,p.489.73Ibid.74Ibid.
43
anditwasnotuntilovertwomonthslater,whenevidencewasprovidedthatprovedthe
allegationstrue,thattheChairmanandCEOofYum!ChinaissuedanapologyonKFC’sofficial
microblog.ThepopularresponsetoKFC’shandlingofthecrisiswasoutrage.75Theirconsumers
commentedresponsestotheapologysuchas,“NexttimeIgetsick,I’mgoingtoKFC.Getmy
antibioticfix[ed]fromtheirchickens–savemeatriptothehospital!”whichdemonstrated
theirfeelingthatKFCdamageditshealthyandcleanreputation.76Despiteanymanagementor
proceduralchangesKFCmadetorepairtheirrelationshipwiththeircustomers,theirreputation
hasyettorecoverfromthescandals.77
Attheirsimplest,whentheadvertisements,fancyrestaurantdisplays,novelty,and
prestigearestrippedaway,McDonald’sandKFCarenomorethananewstyleofquickservice
food.Bylookingatspeedofservicealone,fastfoodmightappearsimilartostreetfoodsor
otherquickservice,traditionalChinesefoods,howeveronecannotsimplyignorethefactors
thatseparatethetwo.Whilefastfoodisservedquickly,itisconsumedslowly,whichisastark
departurefromthewayinwhichstreetfoodisconsumed.Bothdiningstylesmayrequirefast
service,butthespeedatwhichfoodaloneisserveddoesnotdefineitsservice.Atfastfood
restaurants,serviceworkersundergoextensivecustomerservicetraining,carefortheir
customers’children,andevenassistinweddingceremonies,allofwhichareunhearddegrees
ofserviceforatraditionalChinesefoodvendor.Sohowexactlydoesonedefinethe“service”of
75Ibid.76Ibid.77Filloon,Whitney.“TenJailedinChinaforSupplyingExpiredMeattoMcDonald’s,KFC.”Eater,2016,Web.
44
quickservice?Moreover,inwhatwayhastheintroductionofWesternfastfoodalteredthe
meaningof“fastservice”andtheconsumerexpectationof“fastservice”fortraditionalChinese
restaurants?TotrulyunderstandtheimpactthatWesternfastfoodhashadontraditional
Chineserestaurants,onemusttakeamorenuancedapproachtounderstanding“fastservice”
andthepotentialrangeofrestauranttypesthatcouldbeconsidered“fastservice.”
45
CHAPTERTWO
Expanding“Fast-Service”
Inthepreviouschapter,IexaminedtheentranceofWesternfastfoodbrandsinChina,
thecircumstancethatsurroundedandprecededtheirentrancetherelationshipChinese
customershavewiththebrands,andultimatelyfoundthatthesebrands’successesare
inextricablylinkedtotheirbrand’sperceptionasahigh-quality,luxurygood,withlittlebrand
loyalty.Eventhoughthesebrandselicitlimitedloyaltyfromtheircustomers,theyhavehad
unprecedentedsuccessinChina.In2017,KFCreported5,138operatinglocationsinChinaand
McDonald’shadapproximately2,500restaurantswithplanstodoublethatnumberby2022.1,2
Likeanyforeignintroduction,however,thesebrandsbringwiththemculturaltraditionsoftheir
Americanhomeland,mostapparentlytheirdifferentcuisines,servicestyles,andstandardsof
cleanliness.McDonald’sandKFC,despitethesevariancesfromtraditionalChinesefoodservice
andculture,havestillembeddedthemselvesintoChinesefoodculture.Amongthemiddle
class,theserestaurantsbecamehabitualdiningspots,placestorelax,andplacestospendtime
withtheirfamilies.Theyhavesosuccessfully“glocalized”thatmodernChinesechildrenwhen
surveyeddonotidentifyeitherbrandas“foreign.”3Inpart,theirsuccessfulintegrationwasdue
totheirwillingnesstoadoptmoretraditionalChineseflavorprofilesandtoaccommodate
differentserviceneedsspecifictotheirChinesecustomers.Inthischapter,Iposethequestion
1“YumChina.”YumBrands,Web.2“McDonald’sbumpsupestimateforstoresinChinaby2022.”Reuters,August8,2017,Web.3Bell, David, and Mary L. Shelman. “KFC’s Radical Approach to China.”
46
ofwhetherthisexchangewasreciprocal?WhileWesternbrandsadoptedaspectsofChinese
culturetobecomemoresuccessful,didtheWesternculturetheyintroduced–servicestyles
anddiningstyles–influencethedevelopmentofnativeChinesefast-servicerestaurantbrands?
AroundthetimeofMcDonald’sandKFC’sintroduction,restaurantslikeLanzhouLa
Mian(Figure2)begantoformallyestablishthemselvesasbrandsandbegantofranchise,much
liketheearlyfast-foodrestaurantsfranchisedinAmerica.Whiletheserestaurantsretained
theirmoretraditionallyChineseappearanceandmenus,otherfastservicerestaurantsbeganto
openaswell,forexampleDico’s(Figure9)andZhenKungfu(Figure10),whichhadan
appearancesimilartothatofaWesternchainrestaurant,butwerecompletelyChinese,from
menutomanagement.ThischapterwillexplorewhatinfluencetheintroductionofWestern
fastfoodhashadonChinesefoodculture,specificallyhowitmayhavealteredtheexpectation
ofserviceandofspeedofservice.First,IwillexaminehowtheintroductionofWesternbrands
likeKFCandMcDonald’shaveexpandedthedefinitionof“fastservice”inChinabeyondjust
fastfoodorcanteenstyledining,andcreatedanewnichewithinthediningculturefortheir
particularservicestyle,thatofa“fastfoodrestaurant.”Todoso,Iwilldefinewhatthe
expectationsanddefinitionsfor“fast”andfor“service”areinChinaandcomparethistothe
Westernexpectations,therebyillustratinghowWesternfastfoodchainshaveexpandedupon
thepreviousunderstandingofa“fastservice”restaurant.ThenIwilllookatthemoretangible
influencesthroughacasestudy;Westernfastservicerestaurantsmayhaveimpactedthe
customers’expectationsforthesewords,buthowhasthatinfluencemanifestedintraditionally
Chineserestaurants?Inthepreviouschapter,IlookedatwhataspectsofChineseculturethe
47
Westernchainsadopted,andinthischapterIwillexaminetheinverse–whatattributes,ifany,
oftheseWesternfastfoodchainshavebeenadoptedbyChineserestauranteursandwhy?
First,Whatis“Fast?”
Inthischapter,Iwillexploretheexpansionsofthedefinitionsof“fast,”“service,”and
“fastservice,”inChinaafterWesternfast-foodenteredtheircanonoffoodculture.Aroundthe
timeofWesternfast-foodbrands’entranceintoChina,localentrepreneursandfirmsbeganto
developnativeChinesechainrestaurantsthatmarrysomeoftheintroductionsfromWestern
fastfoodwithmoretraditionalChinesepracticestocreateahybriddiningstyle.Iwouldliketo
examineboththedefinitionsof“service”and“fast”pre-entranceandpost-entrance,whether
ornotitwaseffected,andifcustomers’expectationsforthesetermschanged.Forexample,
whiletheWesternfast-foodchainshaveextensiveservicetraining,Chinesefoodservice
purveyorshaveneverbeforeenforcedsuchpractices.WiththeintroductionofWesternbrands
toChina,hastheconsumers’expectationforqualityofserviceinfoodservicesettings
changed?Iwouldsimilarlyliketoexaminethealterationsmadetothedefinitionof“fast,”and
“fastservice,”post-entranceandiftheentranceofWesternbrandshasaffectedtheir
definitions,howhasitdoneso?
Beforeexploringhowthedefinitionoffasthaschangedwithrelationtofood,onemust
firstunderstandhowspeedisevaluatedbasedontheculturalconceptualizationoftime.In
ChinaandinAmerica,thesedefinitionsstandincontrast.Americansociety,muchlikeGerman,
Swiss,orBritishsociety,ismonochronic,meaningthatAmericansprefertodooneactionata
48
timeandwithinatightschedule,andseethisasthemostefficientwaytooccupytheirtime.4In
America,timeislinear,constantlymovingforward,andhighlyvaluedasarepresentationofan
individual’searningpotential.5Thecentralideaofthisvaluationoftimeisthatthemorehours
spentworking,themoresuccessfulanindividualwillbecome,inpartbecauseofthegreater
amountofmoneyitallowsonetomake.Whentimeisspentdoingsomethingseenashavingno
value,Americansoftenviewthisaswastedtime.
InChina,individualsdeeplyrespectthevalueofothers’time,andmakegreateffortsto
bepromptorevenearly,butalsoensurethattheyarenotrushingameetingoncetheyhave
another’stime.Accordingtoananecdotalessaybycross-culturalresearcherRichardLewis,
peopleinChinacarefullynurturethepersonalrelationshipssurroundingameeting,ratherthan
treatingtheinteractionasmerelytransactional.6Similarly,qualitativeresearchconductedbyat
OceanUniversityinChinasuggeststhatinmodernChina,thereisadifferenceinhowtheolder
generationmanagestimecomparedtotheyoungergeneration.Intheoldergeneration,the
“cultofidlelife,”canstillbeobservedinmanyordinaryChinesepeople’slives,especially
amongtheoldergenerations,butinthemajorcitiesespecially,moreandmoreyoungChinese
peopleareadoptingaquickerpaceoflife.7Thesameresearchexaminedtheinfluencemajor
schoolsofphilosophyandreligionhaveonanation’sperceptionoftime.TheChinesevaluation
4Ibid.5Hall, Edward T. “Monochronic and Polychronic Time.” In Larry A. Samovar, Richard E. Porter (Eds.), Intercultural Communication: a reader, 9th edition, p. 314. Web. 6Lewis,Richard.“HowDifferentCulturesUnderstandTime.”BusinessInsider,June1,2014,Web.7Li,Mengyu.“TheUniqueValuesofChineseTraditionalCulturalTimeOrientation:InComparisonwithWesternCulturalTimeOrientation.”InterculturalCommunicationStudies,Vol17,No.1,2008,p.70.Web.
49
oftimestemsfromtheintersectionofthreephilosophicalorreligioustraditions:Buddhism,
Taoism,andConfucianism.InConfucianism,timeorientationismultidimensional;itispast-
focused,whichallowsforgreaterconsiderationofChina’slongphilosophicalandethicalhistory
andconsidersthecurrentsituationinlightofthosepasseddowntraditions.Moreover,in
Confucianism,timeisconsideredflexibleandpractitionersemphasizethe“rightoccasion”or
“rightopportunity”whendealingwithanaffairorevent,whichisfacilitatedinpartbythe
flexibleconceptualizationoftime.8
Taoismadvocatesforrelativismandthelimitlessnessoftime,butthemostimportant
tenantofTaoismis“Tao,”theprinciplethatestablishesthatthereisnocleardivisionbetween
lifeanddeathorpastandpresent,theyaresimplyrelative.9Anexampleusedtoillustratethis
conceptinTaoismisthelifespanofatreecomparedtothelifespanofahumancomparedto
thelifespanofafly.Whiletothefly,its24-hourlifespanmayseemlong,toahumanitisonly
amoment,likewisewhileahuman’s100-yearlifespanmayseemlong,toatreethatmaylivea
thousandyears,thehuman’slifeisshort–thetimeofeachoftheselifespansisrelativetothe
individualperceivingit.10
InBuddhistphilosophy,timeispartofourconsciousnessandappearsduringthe
processofknowing,andisaproductofahuman’sinteractionswithmatters.11Asaresult,time
issubjectivebecauseitisdependentontheacknowledgementofindividuals’consciousness,
8Li,Mengyu,p.67.9Ibid.10Li,Mengyu,p.68.11Bunnag,Anawat.“Theconceptoftimeinphilosophy:AcomparativestudybetweenTheravadaBuddhistandHenriBergson’sconceptoftimefromThaiphilosophers’perspectives.”KasetsartJournalofSocialSciences,2017,p.2Web.
50
andisalsothereforerelative,becauseitreliesonindividuals’perceptions.Furthermore,
Buddhistphilosophysuggeststhattimedoesnotreallyexist,itisonlyaconceptwitharelative
truthdependingoneachoftheworldexperiencesofeachindividual’sconsciousness.12Even
thoughpeopleinChinadeeplyrespectoneanother’stime,traditionalChineseculture
conceivestimeassubjective,relative,andflexible,whichiswhyevenabriefexchangehas
spaceforpleasantriesandthecultivationofrelationships.
AtrestaurantslikeMcDonald’sandKFCinChina,their
servicestyleadaptedtobettersuitthiscarefulbalanceof
neithertakinguptoomuchoftheircustomers’timeorbeing
disrespectfullybluntintheirinteractionswithcustomers.
Whilecustomersareservedquickly,bothMcDonald’sandKFC
providethenecessaryaccommodationstomeettheneedsof
theircustomers,betheyindividualsorfamilies,toallowthem
todinewithoutfeelingrushedordelayed.Basedonmy
researchinthelastchapter,afewexamplesofthese
accommodationsincludelargerstoresizes,greaternumbersofseats,hostessestohelpwith
children,andmostrecently,tablesthatbetteraccommodatefamily-styledining.
China’srelativeunderstandingoftimeisperfectlyexpressedbytheirpatternsfordining.
WhethercustomersmaketheefforttodineoutataWesternfastfoodrestaurantlikeKFCor
McDonald’sortheydineastreetfoodstall.Ineithersituationtheyexpectfastservice,slow
12Bunnag,p.5.
Figure7:Family-stylediningtableatmodernChineseMcDonald's.Source:SouthChinaMorningPost
51
serviceisseenasawasteoftime,butthetimetotheytaketoconsumethefoodmayvary
dependingonthecompanytheykeep,theirenvironment,orothercircumstantialeffectors,
withoutfeelinglikewastedtime.Bothmealstechnicallyfitwithinthesingularnicheof“fast”
service,howevertheyoccupyverydifferentspaceswithintheChineseconsumers’ideaof
dining–oneprovidesthenecessaryfacilitiesforacustomertositandsavorthemealwhilethe
otherisstrictlyforspeed.Thespeedofserviceisrelativelystandardacrossthesetwodining
formats,soitisthe“service”aspectof“fastservice”thatmoresignificantlydistinguishesthe
two.
Second,WhatisGood“Service?”
Inthefastfoodindustry,thefoodsatisfiesthecustomers’hunger,buttheservice,more
oftenthannotdetermineshowacustomerviewstheexperience.Goodservicecanmake
amendsforlow-qualityfoodoranincorrectorder,butbadservicewillleaveasourtasteinthe
customer’smouth.Thedefinitionof“service,”though,changesdependingonthecultural
expectationofdifferentcountries.InAmerica,“goodservice”isusuallyatermassociatedwith
friendly,attentiveservice,somethingnotnecessarilyexpectedinothercountries,including
China.13DuringCommunistEraChina,serviceworkerswererankedatthebottomofthesocial
hierarchy.Asaresult,serviceworkerswereknownfortreatingthegeneralpublic,who
regardedthemassolowly,withcontempt,weredifficulttoworkwithorgettheattentionof,
13Min,Hokey.“Benchmarkingtheservicequalityoffast-foodrestaurantfranchisesintheUSA:Alongitudinalstudy.”Benchmarking:AnInternationalJournal,Vol.18Issue2,p.299.
52
andoftenrudetotheircustomers.14Aswagesandworkingconditionsimprovedinthe1980s
withDengXiaoping’seconomicreforms,servicebegantoimprovesometoo,butstillwas
unrecognizablebytheAmericanstandardofservice.15WhenKFCandMcDonald’sfirstopened
inChina,theyhadtohaveadvocatesforthecompanyexplaintocustomersthattheservice
workers’smileswerenotmockingthe,theyrepresentedhowexcitedtheworkersweretoserve
theirclientelebecausethestyleoftheirservicewassodifferentfromthenorm.16
WhenChinesecustomersoftheseWesternfastfoodrestaurantswerepolledabout
whichaspectsofcustomerservicetheyconsideredtobemostimportant,servicequalityand
customersatisfactionwerethetwomostimportant.Inthiscontext,servicequalityand
customersatisfactionaredefinedprimarilybythecustomer’sexperiencewiththeir
environmentandtheirsocialinteractionwiththeoperatorsoftherestaurant.Thesefactors,
interactionandphysicalenvironment,areprioritizedeventooutcomequality,meaningthe
qualityofthefooditemtheyareserved,tomanyChineseconsumersatrestaurants.17When
customersevaluatetheinteractionandphysicalenvironmentofarestaurant,theylookat
speedofcustomerservice,easeofobtaininginformationandservice,andtheserver’s
experience,andknowledgeabouttheproductandservice.18Asearlyas1971,Western
newspapershaveinterestinChinesecustomers’expectationsofservice:customersinChina
expectedpatient,thoughtfulservicefromtheirservicepeople,wheretheserverconsidersthe
14Watson,p.32.15Ibid.16Watson,p.2817Chow,IreneHau-siu,et.al.“ServicequalityinrestaurantoperationsinChina:Decision-andexperiential-orientedperspectives.”HospitalityManagement,Vol26,p.706.Web.18Chan,TzehChyi.“WinningtheheartsoftheChineseconsumer:Capitalizingonfivetrendstodrivegrowthandhighperformance.”Accenture,2013,p.13.Web.
53
consumer’sbestinterest.19Considerationforthecustomer’stimeandpatronagetiesbackto
theChineseunderstandingoftimebecausebehaviorthatreflectsthisrespectforthecustomer
ispartofthepolitenessnecessaryforservicenottoseemabrupt.Eventhoughmany
restaurantsinChinaofferfastserviceoffood,thewaitingtimesbeforeservicecanbelong.
WhenarestaurantbecomeswellknowninChinaforhigh-qualityfood,thefoodiesofChinaline
uptodinethere,enduringuptoanhourlongwaitduringtheweekandevenlongerwaittimes
overtheweekend.Toensurethattheircustomersarecontenttowaitforservice,
restauranteursinChinabecamecreativewithhowtooccupytheircustomersduringthat
waitingperiod.Whileitisnotnecessarilya“fastservice”chainrestaurant,awell-knownhot-
potrestaurantchainacrossChina,HaiDiLao(海底捞),usedthewaitingtimebeforeserviceto
treatcustomerstoacomplimentaryhandmassagetohelppassthetime.20Otherlocations,and
otherquickservicerestaurants,offerfreesnacks,Internet,gamesofChinesecheckers,poker
games,andevena“noodledance”show,whichlooksmuchlikeaChineseribbondance,but
withwheatnoodlesstretchingupto10metersinsteadofribbons.21Theshowsorservices
providedtocustomerswhiletheywaitaddtothecustomers’overallsatisfactionbyproviding
valuetotheircustomers’overalldiningexperience.
Ultimately,customersexpectahighdegreeofcompetencyandacomplete
understandingofthebrandorproductthatserversrepresentbecause,whenpolled,customers
reportedthatreceivingsomethingotherthanwhatwasordered,orhavingtoaskaservice
19Topping,Seymour.“CustomersinChinaGettingaBetterDeal.”TheNewYorkTimes,May31,1971,Web.20Burkitt,Lauren.“ChineseHotPotChainHaiDiLaoMakesMovetoUS.”TheWallStreetJournal,May22,2013.Web.21Nan,Chen.“Smartphoneappscutdownwaitatrestaurants.”ChinaDaily,Feb3,2015.Web.
54
personmultipletimesforthesameservicemadeconsumersthemostfrustratedcomparedto
otherpotentialfailuresinservice.22BecauseofthestandardizationacrossWesternfastfood
chainrestaurantandtheextensivetrainingthattheirserviceworkersreceive,restaurantslike
McDonald’sandKFCsatisfytheirChineseclientele’sexpectationforcompetency.23
Despitehighdegreesofcustomersatisfaction,Westernfastfoodrestaurantsdonot
havehighdegreesofcustomerloyalty.Customersatisfactionandperceivedservicequalityare
directlyrelatedtointeractionsindividualshaveatonerestaurant,whilecustomerloyaltyis
moresignificantlyinfluencedbytheconsumer’sperceptionofthecompanyasawhole.24
ModernChineseindividuals’customerloyaltyisdrivenbyfactorsbeyondjustwhatismost
financiallyaccessible.Consumersprioritizecompaniesthathaveopenandhonest
communicationswiththeircustomers,thatrespondtocustomerfeedbackbyadjustingtheir
productsorservicemethods,andthatshowacommitmenttocorporatesocialresponsibility.25
Essentially,Chineseconsumersareloyaltocompaniesthatactinthebestinterestoftheir
communities,notjusttheirowncompany.Inlightoftheseexpectations,itbecomesapparent
whyMcDonald’sbrandrecoveredmorequicklythanKFC’swhennavigatingfood-safety
scandalsin2014;McDonald’swascompletelytransparentwiththeircustomers,apologized,
andeveninvitednewscrewsintotheirkitchens,whileKFCdeniedanywrongdoinguntilitwas
proven.26TherewereenoughfundamentalsimilaritiesbetweentheWesternfastfood
restaurants’servicestylesandChineseconsumers’expectationsforcompetentserviceforthe
22Chan,p.13.23Watson,p.21.24Chan,p.12.25Ibid.26Moorman,Adam.“FortheLoveofLamian.”BeijingReview,No.40,October6,2011,Web.
55
restaurantstosatisfytheircustomerswithonlyminoradjustments.However,totrulybecomea
Chinesebrandthatgarnerscustomerloyalty,theWesternbrandsmustbetterunderstand
consumers’expectationsformembersoftheircommunityandstrivetomeetthose
expectations.
FoodFight:LanzhouLamian
Withboththedefinitionsandexpectationsfor“fast”and“service”establish,Icannow
explorehowthesedefinitionsmanifestintraditionalChineserestaurantsandmorecompletely
characterizethe“fastservice”nicheoffoodservice.Tobetterunderstandhowthese
definitionsmanifestintraditionalChineserestaurants,withoutsimplyaskingbroad,difficultto
answerquestions,IwouldliketouseLanzhoulamianasacasestudyofalocalfooditemthat
hasbeenbranded,commodified,andmadeintoanationalchainrestaurant.Forthissectionof
thethesis,mysourcesaremostlyinformalsources,customerandbloggertestimonialsonline,
andmagazinearticlesbecausetherehasbeenlimitedscholarlyresearchconductedonthe
effectofthatWesternfastfoodhadonfoodcultureinChina.
Lanzhoulamian(兰州拉面)isatypeofhand-pullednoodlefromthecapitalofthe
Gansuprovince,Lanzhou.Noodle-makingisoneoftheChina’soldestfoodtraditions–
archeologistshavefoundrecordsofnoodlesinbooksfromtheEasternHanDynastyover2,000
yearsago,andnoodlesfoundintheLajiasiteontheYellowRiverthatdatebackover4,000
years.Intheearly1800’s,duringtheQingDynasty,aHuiMuslimchefcreatedthisparticular
recipefornoodlesoupthatbecameoneofthemostpopulardishesinLanzhou;localsconsume
56
lamianforbreakfast,lunch,ordinner,andsometimesallthree.27Lamianisaparticulartypeof
noodledish,similartoJapaneseramen,“La”(拉)meanstopull,whichishowthedoughis
stretchedintolong,thinnoodles,and“mian”(面)meansnoodle,whichisthecentral
componentofthesoupdish.Thenoodlesarestretchedandpulled,folded,rested,andrefolded
untiltheybecomethin,chewystrips,thenarequicklycookedinsoup.28In2010thecity
governmentofLanzhoucreatedanofficialbrandfor“LanzhouBeefLamian”andbegan
licensingitsusetoacateringcompanycalledEasternPalace,whohavesinceopened400
officiallamianrestaurants.EasternPalacewasnotthefirstproprietortosellLanzhouLamianon
abroaderscale,theHualongHui,aMuslimethnicminoritygroup,operatedover10,000
restaurantswhenthelicensingagreementcameintoplace.29Ratherthancreatingtheirown
brand,HualongLamian,theHuiprotestedtherestaurantsEasternPalaceopenedandfought
rabidlyfortheirrighttosellLanzhouLamian.Whataboutthisfoodstuffchangedwhenitwas
brandedthatmadethebrandsovaluabletothepurveyorsasabrand?AsMcDonald’sand
KFC’ssuccessesdemonstrated,brandingmatters.
ButhowdidthecityofLanzhoucreateabrandfortheirvarietyoflamian?Thereare
variationsofnoodlesoupsalloverChina,thereisnospecialservicetrainingforserviceworkers,
andyet,evenjustbyestablishinganauthentic“brand,”forthelamianfromLanzhou,officials
disruptedtheLanzhoulamianstatusquo.Asestablishedinthepreviouschapter,despitethe
27Moorman.“FortheLoveofLamian.”28Lander,Nicholas.“Theancientartofnoodles.”FinancialTimes,Sept20,2013.Web.29Huang,Zheping.“With100,000-pluseateriesserving“Lanzhoulamian”can’tbeignored–especiallybyLanzhou.”Quartz,Aug10,2015.Web.
57
prevalenceandacceptanceofShanzhai30culture,Chinese
consumersarebrand-sensitiveforanumberofreasons
includingfortheirhealthandsafety,forstatusgainedby
purchasingabrandnameitem,andtoensuretheauthenticity
oftheitemorservicetheypurchase.31Thesefearsstemfrom
China’shistoryofproducingcounterfeitgoods;thereisstigma
bornewithpurchasingcounterfeititemsoftenbecauseoftheir
inferiorquality,inauthenticity,andlowerpricetag.Ifonehas
thecapacitytobuyanauthenticbrandeditem,theywouldchoosetodosoratherthansacrifice
qualityandsafetyforalowerpricetag,thereforethepurchaseofcounterfeititemshasbecome
asymbolofthelowerclasseswhomaynothavetheextracapitaltopurchaseauthentic
goods.32Anexampleofthiskindofcounterfeitingisthecopy-catWesternfastfoodchainsthat
openedaroundthetimeofthesebrands’entrancesandbecameanalternativetotheauthentic
Westernchainsforpeoplewhocouldnotaffordtheirmore-luxurypricing.33Thisbegsthe
question,ifsomebodyisabletodineatanauthenticLanzhourestaurant,butdoesnotpaya
premiumfortheauthenticproductoverthecounterfeit,doesitstilldifferentiatethemby
degreesofstatus?Thatistosay,issomebodywhodinesatanEasternPalaceLanzhoulamian
30“Shanzhai”(山寨)isatermusedtodescribethecultureofcounterfeitingproductsinChina,whichisgenerallyviewedasakindofRobinhoodstorywherecounterfeitersmakecheaperversionsofluxurygoodssothatthosegoodsaremoreaccessibletolowerincomeindividuals.31Williams,JacquelineandXiuzhongXu.“ChinaCravesForeignGoods.StudentsinAustraliaSupplyThem.”NewYorkTimes,May2,2017.Web.32PhauandTeah,“TheDevilwears(counterfeit)Prada:astudyofantecedentsandoutcomesofattitudestowardscounterfeitsofluxurybrands,”p.19.33Yang,Fan,FakedinChina,p.69.
Figure8:ALanzhouLamianrestaurantinChina,Source:TripAdvisor
58
restaurantofahigherclassthansomebodywhodinesataHualongHui-operatedrestaurant?
ThisiswhereLanzhoulamiandivergesfromtheenteringWesternfastfoodchainsinallbuta
fewways.Firstly,diningataLanzhoulamianrestaurantwasneverastatussymbolinChina.
Secondly,therecipeforanyLanzhoulamianrecipeisessentiallythesameandconsistsoffive
keycomponents:yiqing(一清),erbai(二白),sanhong(三红),silu(四绿),andwuhuang(五黄).
Theyiqing,whichmeans“oneclear”isthesoup’sclearbroth;erbai,whichmeans“twowhite,”
arethewhiteradishesinthesoup;sanhong,meaning“threered,”isthedarkredchilithatgives
thesoupitssignaturespice;silü,meaning“fourgreen,”representsthegreengarlicstemsand
corianderleaves;andfinally,wuhuang,meaning“fiveyellow”isfortheyellowwheatnoodles.34
WhileboththeHuiandEasternPalacelamiannoodledishesmaybeauthenticintermsoftheir
ingredientsandservice,theHuimayfearthatbecausetheirstoresarenolonger“official”
Lanzhoulamianrestaurants,thattheywillsufferthissamestigmaofbeingacounterfeitbrand.
EventhoughtheHuioperatestwenty-fivetimesthenumberofLanzhoulamianstoresthat
EasternPalaceoperates,andpeopleinChinahavebeendiningattheserestaurantsfor
decades,theystillcouldpotentiallysufferfromlosingtheirauthenticity.35
BrandingisarelativelyrecentintroductiontoChina;beforethe1970s,therewerevery
fewChinese,brand-namecompaniesexcludingahandfulofbanksorautomotiveproducers.In
1978,whenChinaunderwenteconomicreformandopenedtoforeignbusinesses,both
WesternandnativeChinesebrandsproliferated.Thefirstbrandedfast-foodrestaurantinChina
34Moorman.“FortheLoveofLamian.”35Ibid.
59
wasMr.Lee,foundedin1988,36oneyearaftertheentranceofKFC,followedbyDico’s37and
CNHLS(Wallace)in1994,twoyearsafterMcDonald’s
openedin1992.38ThereislimitedresearchonifWestern
fastfoodchainshadaneffectonChinesefood-brand
development,orifdevelopingthesekindsoffranchised
brandsaresimplyaproductofChina’soveralleconomic
developmentandgreaterformalizationofbusinesses.
However,futureresearchintothepressureWestern
brandsplacedonlocalChinesebusinessestoestablish
themselvesaslegitimatebrandsandcapitalizeonthe
brand-feverthatsweptthroughChinacouldbevaluableto
morecompletelyunderstandtheimpactWesternfastfood
chainshadonthefoodindustryandChinesefoodcultureinamoreglobalsense.
Otherthanthenewly-officialbrandingofthisancientdish,hastheinfluenceofWestern
fast-foodbrandsaffectedthedevelopmentoftheserestaurants,ortheirperceptionbylocals,
inanyotherway?Westernfast-foodbecameastatussymbolfortheemergingChinesemiddle
class,buthavetheselocalbrands,andifnot,whynot?Theevolutionoffastservicefood
cultureiscomplexandmultifaceted,butwithregardtofastfoodinChina,thetopichasalmost
exclusivelybeenstudiedbylookingatWesternfastfoodrestaurantsandthecausesoftheir
36Caldwell,MelissaL.andJamesD.Watson,TheCulturalPoliticsofFoodandEating:AReader,Cambridge,MA:BlackwellPub,p.83.37“Dicosfast-foodrestaurantclosestwooutletsinXiamen|What’sonXiamen,”What’sOnXiamen,Jul9,2009.Web.38“No2HuaLaiShi,”ChinaDaily,Jul28,2014.Web.
Figure9:Dico'srestaurantinChina,Source:http://www.ipeen.com.tw/comment/721808
Figure10:ZhenGongfurestaurantinChina,Source:https://listings.echinacities.com/zhuhai/detail/7270-Zhen-Kungfu
60
success.Althoughthereislimitedavailableacademicresearchontheeffecttheinfluence
WesternfastfoodhashadonChinesefoodculture,Ibelievemyresearchdemonstratesthat
thetopicsdeservesfurtherexploration.QuickservicefoodinChinamightinitiallyappeartobe
dichotomous,WesternfastfoodversusChinesestreetfood,butinreality,thereisaspectrum
ofcuisinesandservicestylesinChinesefastservicecuisine.Ratherthanonlyexistingin
contrasttotraditionalChinesefastservicerestaurants,Westernfastfoodchainscontributedto
theexpansionofthedefinitionof“fastservice”foodinChina.
61
CONCLUSION
FastBecomesFaster,butWhereWillServiceGoNext?
Figure11:FleetofDeliveroodrivers,Source:"HowtoorderdeliveryonChina'sMeituanApp,"That'sMagShanghai.
Now,almost30yearsafterKFCfirstenteredChina,Westernfastfoodrestaurantshave
becomesowidespreadandglocalizedthattheyhavelostmuchoftheirnovelty.These
restaurantsstillrepresentluxuryandWesternculturetomanyChineseindividuals,but,
especiallyasthemiddleclasscontinuestogrowanddevelopsdeeperrootstotheirclassstatus
throughotherculturalsymbols,theserestaurantsdonotcommandthesamepowerthrough
62
theirbrandsthattheydidintheearly1990’s.1Eventhoughtheirbrandsmightnotreceivethe
sameattentionastheyoncedid,fastfoodhasstillimpactedChinesefoodcultureinwaysnot
yetfullyexplored.WithgreaterresearchintothedevelopmentofnativeChinesefastfood
brands,changestoquickserviceandcustomerexpectations,andcontinuedresearchonthe
growthoftheseWesterncompanies,wecanbuildamorecompleteunderstandingoftheir
impact.Asstatedearlierinthisthesis,foodcultureneverstopsdeveloping,sowhilethis
researchonWesternfastfoodbrandsdeservestocontinue,wemustcontinuelookingfornew
frontiersinfoodculture.Inmyresearchon“fastservice,”IfoundwhatIbelievetobethenext
technologythatwillrevolutionizethatterm:smartphonesandtheinternet.
AsChinacontinuestomodernize,develop,andutilizetechnologynationwide,itis
inevitablethatthesetechnologieswillincorporatedinallfacetsofdailylifeincludingdining.
Oneparticularlynotableinstanceoftechnologyindiningistherapidlygrowingfooddelivery
industry.Attheendof2017,theonlinefooddeliverymarketreachedatotalvalueof
approximately$31.9billion(204.6billionyuan),a23%increasefromthepreviousyear.2
Approximately300millionChinesecitizensuseonlineservicestoorderfood,andaccordingtoa
reportbytheChinaDaily,thatonlyaccountsforasmallpercentageofthetotalfoodcatering
market.3AlthoughdeliveryhasexistedfordecadesinChina,itwasnotuntiltheageof
smartphonesthatthedeliveryindustryflourishedandsincethenithasbecomeoneofChina’s
1Liu,Coco.“AretheChinesefallingoutoflovewithMcDonald’s.”SouthChinaMorningPost,Nov2017.Web.2Xinhua.“China’sfooddeliverymarketgrows23%.”ChinaDaily,Jan22,2018,Web.3Ibid.
63
mostcompetitiveonlinemarkets.4Myquestionnowis,willsmartphoneandInternet
technologies,likefastfood,bethenextcatalystforwidespreadchangeinfoodserviceinChina?
Theseapplicationsarepopularforareason;theymakeorderinginfoodconvenientand
easy,andoftencheap.Theservicesoperatethroughapplicationsonusers’phones,whichshow
foodprovidersnearthecustomer’slocation,allowthemtofiltertheirsearch,showthem
menus,allowthemtoorderthroughtheapp,andevenallowcustomerstotracktheirorders,
untilthefoodarrivesattheirdoor,removinghumancontactalmostcompletelyfromthe
orderingprocess.5ThedeliverydriversmostlyworkforoneofChina’sfivedeliverybrands:
El.eme(饿了么),Deliveroo,Baidu-Waimai(百度外卖),MeituanDianping(美团点评),or
WeChat.6Usually,deliverydriversforanyofthesefivecompanieshavesixorderstodeliverin
anhouroverawidearea,sothedriversareknownforracingthroughthestreetsathighspeeds
onmotorbikes,onlytodismountwhentheyarriveattheirdestinationandrunupmanyflights
ofstairs.Ifthedeliveriesarrivelate,theblameisplacedonthedeliverydrivers,whoreceive
ratingsmuchlikeUberdriversdothatreviewtheirperformanceandcanaffecttheirjobstatus.7
Thedrivers’speedisnottheonlyfactorthatcanaffectcustomers’reviews.Accordingtoa
reportbytheWallStreetJournal,customersoftenaskdeliverydriverstopick-upotheritems,
forexamplecigarettesorsanitarypads,andwillreviewthempoorlyiftheyarrivewithoutthe
4Gao,Yuan.“China’sHottestInternetSectorisOld-FashionedFoodDelivery.”BloombergNews,August4,2017.Web.5Tao,Li.“Dinneratyourdoor:insideChina’sUS$37billiononlinefooddeliveryservicesmarket.”SouthChinaMorningPost,Sept16,2017,Web.6Lin,LizaandWayneMa.“OlympicAthletesHaveNothingonChina’sLunch-DeliveryGuys–Driversgunscooters,sprintupstairstomeetbrutalquotas;‘challengingwork’.”TheWallStreetJournal,March28,2017.Web.7Lin.“OlympicAthletesHaveNothingonChina’sLunch-DeliveryGuys–Driversgunscooters,sprintupstairstomeetbrutalquotas;‘challengingwork’.”
64
additionalitems.Forallintentsandpurposes,thedeliverydriversandtheircompaniesarethe
foodserviceproviderstotheircustomers,nottherestaurantsfromwhichthecustomer
ordered.8
WhenChina’sseemingly-exponentialeconomicgrowthbegantoslowin2014and2015,
theChinesemiddleclassbegantofeeltheneedtotightentheirpursestringsandbemore
economicalabouttheirpurchases,whichincludedtheirdininghabits.Tosavemoney,Chinese
customersturnedtotheonlinefooddeliveryapplicationwithgrowingfrequencybecausethey
oftenoffereddiscountswhendininginatrestaurantsororderingdelivery,makingdiningout
lessexpensive.9Thesediscountsattractedmoreandmorecustomerstoengagewith
restaurantsonlinefirst,thenchoosewheretheywoulddineoutbasedonthedealofferedand
theonlinereviews,ratherthanrelyingonjusttheirownpersonalknowledgeorphysical
advertisements,becausetheynowhadgreateraccesstoinformationaboutdealsallovertheir
city.10OneofthesideeffectsoftheserestaurantaggregatorsisthatWesternfastfood
restaurants’saleshavesufferedsincetheirinception.11EventhoughKFCandMcDonald’sare
popularlyorderfordeliveryinChina,theyfacestiffcompetitionfromthethousandsofother
restaurantsthatcrowdtheseonlinemarketplaces.Toremaincompetitiveastechnology
becomesmoreintegratedintothediningexperience,Yum!Chinaiscurrentlyindiscussionto
8Lin.“OlympicAthletesHaveNothingonChina’sLunch-DeliveryGuys–Driversgunscooters,sprintupstairstomeetbrutalquotas;‘challengingwork’.”9Baertlein,LiseandDonnyKwok.“Hungry?China’sfooddeliveryappsbiteintoYumrevival.”Reuters,October9,2015.Web.10Baertlein.“Hungry?China’sfooddeliveryappsbiteintoYumrevival.”11Ibid.
65
buyDaojia.com,asmallerfooddeliveryservicesfirm.12Whiletheirlongtermgoalsaretoopen
20,000KFCrestaurantsinChina,theexecutivesatYum!Chinainterestindemonstratesthe
perceivedvalueofdeliveryservicesinChina’schangingdiningculture.
Thirdpartydeliveryasthenewmediumforfoodservicehasthepotentialtochange
completelycustomers’metricsforgoodorfastservicebyreplacingtraditionalservice
interactionswithfeaturesonanonlineapplication.Whenindividualsuseafooddeliveryservice
toorderfooddirectlytotheirhomes,ratherthandiningout,theymakesomanyoftheprior
metricsusedtomeasurespeedandserviceobsolete.Forexample,customersorderingdelivery
maynotbeinfluencedbytherestaurant’sappearance,whichhadbeenoneofthemost
significantinfluencesincustomersatisfactionintraditionalfoodservicesettings,becausethey
donotinteractwiththerestaurant.Likewise,mayremovetheaspectof“beingseen”from
diningbecausebyorderingin,onecannotbeseendiningoutortreatingotherstomealsat
upscalerestaurants.Whiledininginitselfmaybeastatussymbolbecauseitmeansonehasthe
abilitytopurchasefoodratherthancookforthemselves,deliveryapplicationsoftenmake
orderingininexpensiveandwidelyaccessible,soitisuncleariforderingdeliveryisseenasa
symbolofstatus.13Finally,whenindividualsorderdinner,theirconceptualizationof“fast
service”maychangebecauseofhowmuchfurthertheirmealmusttraveltoarriveattheir
homeratherthantheirtablewithinarestaurant.Currently,thereislittletonoresearchon
consumers’expectationsforfooddeliveryserviceandspeedinChina,sothisislargelymyown
12Reuters.“YumChinaMayBeSnappingUpThisDeliveryFirmfor$200Million.”Fortune,November25,2016.Web.13Tao,Li.“Dinneratyourdoor:insideChina’sUS$37billiononlinefooddeliveryservicesmarket.”
66
speculationbasedonmypreviousresearch.However,Ibelieveitisimportanttoconsiderhow
deliveryrelatestotheexpandeddefinitionsandexpectationsof“fastservice”tounderstand
howitmightfitintothatnicheoffoodculture.
TechnologyintegratingintodiningisnotrestrictedtodeliveryaloneinChina,itishas
becomeamarketplacefordiscountdiningvouchers,restaurantreviewsandrecommendations,
andhasevenbecomethenewwaytoorderfoodinarestaurantorbeforeevenarrivingata
restaurant.Sinceitslaunchin2003,Dianpingbecamethego-toonlinevenueforrestaurant
reviews,information,reservations,anddiscounts.Mostsignificantly,theapplicationhasno
Englishoption,itonlyoperatesinMandarinChinese,meaningitisintendedforaChinese
audienceandnottoaccommodatevisitingWesterntourists.BecauseofDianping’smassive
userbase,approximately260millionactiveusers,therestaurants’profilesandofferingson
Dianpingactasimportantadvertisements.14OnlinereviewsitesinChinahavechangedthe
landscapeformarketingforlocalrestaurants:therestaurantreviewsandphotosuploadedto
theapplicationbycustomerscreateabrandfortherestaurantthatrepresentsthem,either
positivelyornegatively,withoutallowingtheproprietortocuratetheirbrand,andthen
broadcastthatbrandtoamuchbroaderaudience.15Whilearestaurant’sproductandin-
restaurantservicestillcarrysignificance,theyarenolongertheonlymetricsbywhich
customersevaluatetherestaurantsdesirability.16
14Hersey,Frank.“Meituan-Dianpingreport:Only4%ofdiningrevenuecomesfromdelivery.”Technode,July12,2017.Web.15Escobedo,Joe.“HowtobeNo.1onDianping,China’sVersionofYelp.”Forbes,Oct31,2016.Web.16Ibid.
67
AstechnologycontinuestointegrateintoChinesefoodservice,itwillcontinueto
changetheexpectationforservice,speed,andeveninfluencefoodcultureinwaysthatcannot
yetbepredicted.Withtechnologycomesefficiencyandthereforspeedofservice,butwhat
wouldhappentocustomers’perceptionofarestaurants’servicewhentechnologyis
integrated?Aswepreviouslyestablished,inChina,competency,speedofcustomerservice,
easeofobtaininginformationandservice,andtheserver’sexperience,andknowledgeabout
theproductandservicearethemostimportantconsiderationsindeterminingqualityof
service,socouldtheseservicesbesubstitutedwhenacustomerinterfaceswithtechnology?
SomerestaurantsinChinaareexploringthisterritory,forexample,KFChasintroducedtablet
orderingatsomeofitslocationsthatonlyrequiresascanofone’sfacetopay,butrealpeople
deliverfoodtotheircustomers.17Otherrestaurantsfurtherintegratetechnologyintotheir
diners’experiencesbyreplacingtheirserverscompletelywithphoneapplicationsorrobots.18
EventhoughtechnologyandrobotsmaymeetaChineseclientele’sexpectationsforserviceon
paper,cantheymakeupforthelackthepleasantriesandhumancontactofamoretraditional
serviceexperience?
Chinahascontinuedtobeoneofthecountrieswherecompaniestestoutinnovationsin
technology,thenexpandthosetechnologiestootherexistingmarkets.Theprimaryexampleis
onlinedelivery.WhiledeliverywasavailableoutsideofChinaformanyyears,itwasmostly
carriedoutbyindividualoperatorswhoworkedfortherestaurants,ratherthanoutsourcedto
17Mullen,JethroandSerenitieWang.“PaywithYourFaceatthisKFCinChina.”CNNTech,September1,2017.Web.18Correa,Cynthia,“RestaurantinChinaReplacesServerswithPhoneApp.”Eater,December30,2015.Web.
68
anonlinethirdparty.Theideaofhavingafleetofdeliverydriverstocatertoawideaudience,
ortohavedeliverybeaprimarymethodfordining,organizedthroughanonlineormobile
platform,didnottrulyarriveintheWestuntiltheemergenceofaggregatorslikeUberEats,
Grubhub,orPostmates.19AfterseeingwhatsuccesstheyhadwithaggregatorsinChina,and
afterhavingadeclineinin-storesalesintheUnitedStates,McDonald’sbroughtdeliveryback
withthemtotheUSandbeganapartnershipwithUberEatsinanefforttoboosttheirsales
nationwide.20BothintheWestandinChina,fastfoodchainsseeefficient,widespreaddelivery
serviceasthenextstepforwardinthefoodserviceindustry,eitherthroughpartnershipsor
developingtheirowntechnology.Thepressurefortakingtheleadindeliveryserviceshaslead
companiestoinnovatenewstoretypes,newmethodsofdelivery,newstaffingprocedure,and
newadcampaignsintheWest.Beyondjustmovingorderingfoodfromin-storetoonline,
companiesareintegratingtechnologyintofoodserviceinamultitudeofdifferentways.For
example,Domino’sPizzarecentlylaunchedapilottest,inconjunctionwithFordMotors,ofa
self-drivingdeliverycarthatcooksapizzaonthewaytothecustomer.Insteadofneedingto
waitforapizzatobecookedin-store,giventoadeliverydriver,andbroughttothecustomer,
theycompliedthosethreestepsintoone,leavingloadingthecarwithrawpizzaastheonly
humaninteractionwiththepizzabeforedelivery.21Otherfastservicerestaurantsare
consideringopeningkitchen-onlyrestaurantsthatactasahubfordeliverydrivers.Therewould
19Hirschberg,Carsten,etal.“Thechangingmarketforfooddelivery.”McKinsey,Nov2016.Web.20Tu,JanetI.“McDonald’striesdeliveryviaUberEatstoboostbusiness.”TheSeattleTimes,May31,2017.Web.21Durbin,DeeAnn.“Deliverywithoutdrivers:Dominos’,Fordteamupfortest.”ChicagoTribune,August29,2017.Web.
69
benocustomerinterfaceattherestaurant,itwouldsimplyserveasaplacetoquicklyproduce
foodthatdeliverydrivers,potentiallythirdpartydrivers,woulddeliverdirectlytotheirawaiting
customers.22
Withtheremovalofhumansfromtheservicesideoffoodservice,fastserviceagain
shiftsinitsmeaning.“Fast,”nolongerhastheneedsforhumaninteractionsthatcouldextend
theperiodoftimecustomersarecomfortablewaiting,nordoesitmakespaceformanual,
multi-stepactionsinfoodservice.Inafoodserviceindustryrunbytechnology,“fast”maynow
assumeautomationandstandardization.Ratherthanhopingone’spizzaarrivesin30minutes
oranhour,withthehelpofdrones,self-drivingcars,andmobilecookingunitsorsatellite
kitchens,deliverytimescouldbeguaranteed.“Service”maynolongerbedeterminedbasedon
humaninteractionsoraccommodations.Instead,goodservicewillbedeterminedbyhow
intuitiveacompany’sapplicationis,howappealingtheonlineimagesoftheirfooditemsare,
howquicklythoseitemscanbemadeanddeliveredtothecustomer,andhowintegratedthe
paysystemisintheorderingprocess.Thesetrendsarestilljustnowemerging,beingtested,
andenteringnewmarkets,sotheoveralleffecttechnologyhasonadiner’sexperiencehasyet
tobeseen.Wecanberelativelysure,however,theunderstandingoffastservicewillchangein
Chinaandbeyond,justaswhenWesternfastfoodexpandedthedefinitionofwhatafast
servicediningexperiencecouldbe.
22Tristano,Darren.“Growthof‘Ghost’RestaurantConceptsProvesDelivery-OnlyTrendHasLegs.”Forbes,April13,2017.Web.
BIBLIOGRAPHY
Anderson,EugeneNewton.TheFoodofChina.NewHaven(Conn.):YaleUniversityPress,1988.AsiaforEducators.“TaiwanandUS-ChinaRelations.”ColumbiaUniversityPress,2009.Aspray,William,etal.“AmericaEatsOut:AnInterdisciplinaryStudyofAmericanEatingHabitsfromColonial
toModernTimes.”AmericanaE-JournalofAmericanStudiesinHungary,Vol9,No.2,Fall2013.Baertlein,LiseandDonnyKwok.“Hungry?China’sfooddeliveryappsbiteintoYumrevival.”Reuters,October
9,2015.Barclay,Eliza.“ChowUnderMao:SurvivingChina’sCulturalRevolutiononLocalFood.”NPR:TheSalt,Jan19,
2012.BarillaCenterforFoodandNutrition.“Theculturaldimensionoffood.”TheEuropeanHouse:Ambrosetti,p.7.Bell,David,andMaryL.Shelman.“KFC’sRadicalApproachtoChina.”HarvardBusinessReview,November1,
2011.Bunnag,Anawat.“Theconceptoftimeinphilosophy:AcomparativestudybetweenTheravadaBuddhistand
HenriBergson’sconceptoftimefromThaiphilosophers’perspectives.”KasetsartJournalofSocialSciences,2017.
Burkitt,Lauren.“ChineseHotPotChainHaiDiLaoMakesMovetoUS.”TheWallStreetJournal,May22,
2013.Busky,DonaldF.CommunisminHistoryandTheory:Asia,Africa,andtheAmericas.GreenwoodPublishing
Group,2002.Caldwell,MelissaL.andJamesD.Watson,TheCulturalPoliticsofFoodandEating:AReader,Cambridge,MA:
BlackwellPub.Chan,TzehChyi.“WinningtheheartsoftheChineseconsumer:Capitalizingonfivetrendstodrivegrowth
andhighperformance.”Accenture,2013.Chaudhry,A,andA.Zimmerman,ProtectingYourIntellectualPropertyRights.ManagementforProfessionals,
2013.“Chinamedia:Fakefoodscandals.”BBCNewsChina,May6,2013.Chow,IreneHau-siu,et.al.“ServicequalityinrestaurantoperationsinChina:Decision-andexperiential-
orientedperspectives.”HospitalityManagement,Vol26.ApprovedbyClever,Jennifer.“China’sFoodSafetyLaw(2015).”StandingCommitteeofthe11thNational
People’sCongress,2009,amendedbyStandingCommitteeofthe12thNationalPeople’sCongressatthe14thsession,2015.
Correa,Cynthia,“RestaurantinChinaReplacesServerswithPhoneApp.”Eater,December30,2015.
Crawford,Alice,etal.“McDonald’s:ACaseStudyinGlocalization.”JournalofGlobalBusinessIssues,2015.“Dicosfast-foodrestaurantclosestwooutletsinXiamen|What’sonXiamen,”What’sOnXiamen,Jul9,
2009.Drewery,Hayden.“WestMeetsEast:KFCandItsSuccessinChina.”ArmstrongUndergraduateJournalof
History1,No.2,2016.Durbin,DeeAnn.“Deliverywithoutdrivers:Dominos’,Fordteamupfortest.”ChicagoTribune,August29,
2017.“EatingforVictory:FoodRationingandthePoliticsofDomesticity.”TheAnnalsofIowa,58,1999.“EightCuisinesofChina–Shandong&Guangdong,”TravelChinaGuide.com.Escobedo,Joe.“HowtobeNo.1onDianping,China’sVersionofYelp.”Forbes,Oct31,2016.Filloon,Whitney.“TenJailedinChinaforSupplyingExpiredMeattoMcDonald’s,KFC.”Eater,2016.Fürst,ElisabethL’orange.“CookingandFeminity.”ElsevierScience,Women’sStudiesInternationalForum,
Vol.2,No.3,1997.Gao,Yuan.“China’sHottestInternetSectorisOld-FashionedFoodDelivery.”BloombergNews,Aug4,2017.Gittings,John.TheChangingFaceofChina:FromMaotoMarket.NewYork:OxfordUniversityPress,2005.Haidong,ZhangandYaoYelin.“MarketizationandMarketCapacity:TheformationofMiddleClassinChina–
AnEmpiricalStudyinShanghai,Beijing,andGuangzhou.”DevelopmentandSociety,Vol.45No.3,2016.
Hall,EdwardT.“MonochronicandPolychronicTime.”InLarryA.Samovar,RichardE.Porter(Eds.),
InterculturalCommunication:areader,9thedition.Hammond,J.L.andBarbaraHammond.TheVillageLabourer1760-1832.LongmanGreen&Co.,1912.Hersey,Frank.“Meituan-Dianpingreport:Only4%ofdiningrevenuecomesfromdelivery.”Technode,July
12,2017.Hirschberg,Carsten,etal.“Thechangingmarketforfooddelivery.”McKinsey,Nov2016.“TheHistoryofChineseImperialFood.”ChineseInternetInformationCenter.Huang,Zheping.“With100,000-pluseateriesserving“Lanzhoulamian”can’tbeignored–especiallyby
Lanzhou.”Quartz,Aug10,2015.Jourdan,AdamandLisaBaertlein.“Yum,McDonald’sapologizeasnewChinafoodscandalhits.”Reuters,Jul
21,2014.
Joyce,Christopher.“WhenFireMetFood,theBrainsofEarlyHumansGrewBigger.”NPR:TheSalt,October24,2012.
Kaiman,Jonahan.“Chinafakemeatscandal:tellingyourratfromyourmutton.”TheGuardian,May3,2013.Kirkman,JohnM.“TheEmergenceandFunctionofFamilyRitualsintheAmericanFamily.”UtahState
UniversityPress,1999.Kobayashi,Shigeo,etal.“The‘ThreeReforms’inChina:ProgressandOutlook.”JapanResearchInstitute,
SakuraInstituteofResearch,Inc.No.45,Sept1999.Kwik,JessicaChristine.TraditionalFoodKnowledge:RenewingCultureandRestoringHealth.Universityof
Waterloo.Lander,Nicholas.“Theancientartofnoodles.”FinancialTimes,Sept20,2013.Lewis,Richard.“HowDifferentCulturesUnderstandTime.”BusinessInsider,June1,2014.Li,Cheng.“Introduction:TheRiseoftheMiddleClassintheMiddleKingdom.”China’sEmergingMiddleClass:
BeyondEconomicTransformation.BrookingsInstitutionPress,2010.Li,He.“EmergenceoftheChineseMiddleClassanditsImplications.”AsianAffairs:AnAmericanReview,33:2,
2006.Li,Mengyu.“TheUniqueValuesofChineseTraditionalCulturalTimeOrientation:InComparisonwith
WesternCulturalTimeOrientation.”InterculturalCommunicationStudies,Vol17,No.1,2008.Lin,JustinYifuandDennisTaoYang.“OntheCausesofChina’sAgriculturalCrisisandtheGreatLeapFamine.”
JAIPress,ChinaEconomicReview,Vol9,No.2,1998.Lin,LizaandWayneMa.“OlympicAthletesHaveNothingonChina’sLunch-DeliveryGuys–Driversgun
scooters,sprintupstairstomeetbrutalquotas;‘challengingwork’.”TheWallStreetJournal,March28,2017.
Liu,Chunhang.Multinationals,Globalisation,andIndigenousFirmsinChina.Routeledge,Jul26,2012.Liu,Coco.“AretheChinesefallingoutoflovewithMcDonald’s.”SouthChinaMorningPost,Nov2017.Liu,Warren.KFCinChina:SecretRecipeforSuccess.JohnWileyandSons,2008.Love,JohnF.McDonald’sBehindtheArches.BantamBooks,1986.Lu,Yongxiang.AHistoryofChineseScienceandTechnology,Volume3.Springer,Oct20,2014.Marks,Steven.TheInformationNexus:GlobalCapitalismfromtheRenaissancetothePresent.Cambridge
UniversityPress,2016.“McDonald’sbumpsupestimateforstoresinChinaby2022.”Reuters,August8,2017.
Min,Hokey.“Benchmarkingtheservicequalityoffast-foodrestaurantfranchisesintheUSA:Alongitudinalstudy.”Benchmarking:AnInternationalJournal,Vol.18Issue2.
Moorman,Adam.“FortheLoveofLamian.”BeijingReview,No.40,October6,2011.Mullen,JethroandSerenitieWang.“PaywithYourFaceatthisKFCinChina.”CNNTech,September1,2017.
Web.Nan,Chen.“Smartphoneappscutdownwaitatrestaurants.”ChinaDaily,Feb3,2015.Web.Ozersky,Josh.ColonelSandersandtheAmericanDream.UniversityofTexasPress,2012.Peng,Yuzhu.“Sharingfoodphotographsonsocialmedia:performativeXiaozilifestyleinYoung,middle-class
Chineseurbanites’WeChat‘Moments’.”JournalfortheStudyofRace,NationandCulture,12Dec2017.
Reuters.“YumChinaMayBeSnappingUpThisDeliveryFirmfor$200Million.”Fortune,November25,2016.Rice,KymS.andMarthaB.Katz-Hyman.“WorldofaSlave:EncyclopediaoftheMaterialLifeofSlavesinthe
UnitedStates[2volumes]:EncyclopediaoftheMaterialLifeofSalvesintheUnitedStates.”ABC-CLIO,2010.
Ryan,NancyRoss.“GreatAmericanFoodChronicles:thehamburger.”RestaurantsandInstitutions,Reed
BusinessInformationInc.,February6,1989.Phau,Ian,andMinTeah.“TheDevilwears(counterfeit)Prada:astudyofantecedentsandoutcomesof
attitudestowardscounterfeitsofluxurybrands.”JournalofConsumerMarketing,Vol.26Issue1.Solomon,Brian.“McDonald’s,KFCSnaggedbyNewFoodSafetyScandalinChina.”Forbes,2014.Tao,Li.“Dinneratyourdoor:insideChina’sUS$37billiononlinefooddeliveryservicesmarket.”SouthChina
MorningPost,Sept16,2017."TheWhiteCastleStory:TheBirthofFastFood&TheBurgerRevolution–Consumerist."Consumerist.July
14,2015.Topping,Seymour.“CustomersinChinaGettingaBetterDeal.”TheNewYorkTimes,May31,1971.Tristano,Darren.“Growthof‘Ghost’RestaurantConceptsProvesDelivery-OnlyTrendHasLegs.”Forbes,April
13,2017.Tu,JanetI.“McDonald’striesdeliveryviaUberEatstoboostbusiness.”TheSeattleTimes,May31,2017.Veblen,Thorstein.TheTheoryoftheLeisureClass.ProjectGutenberg.Vogel,EzraF.“DengXiaopingandtheTransformationofChina,”TheBelknapPressofHarvardUniversity
Press,2011.Wang,HelenH.“TheChineseDream:TheRiseoftheWorld’sLargestMiddleClassandWhatItMeansfor
You.”BestsellerPress,2010.
Whalqvist,MarkL.etal.“Regionalfoodcultureanddevelopment.”AsianPacJClinicalNutrition,2007,(Suppl
1).Williams,JacquelineandXiuzhongXu.“ChinaCravesForeignGoods.StudentsinAustraliaSupplyThem.”New
YorkTimes,May2,2017.Wu,Harry.“Classicide-GenocideinCommunistChina,”JournalofInterdisciplinaryStudies,Vol18,Issue½,
2006.Xin,Wang.“DesperatelySeekingStatus:Political,SocialandCulturalAttributesofChina’sRisingMiddle
Class.”BaylorUniversity,ModernChinaStudies,Vol.20No.1,2013.Yang,Fan.FakedinChina:NationBranding,CounterfeitCulture,andGlobalization.IndianaUniversityPress,
2016.Zhu,Lin,etal.“Socialmediaandcultureincrisiscommunication:McDonald’sandKFCcrisesmanagementin
China.”PublicRelationsReview,2015.