A Resource forFederal LightingImprovementProjects

June 1998

Federal Lighting Guide

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Table of Contents

Overview

Financing

Energy EffectiveDesign & Specification

Codes & Standards

Procurement

Commissioning

Operations & Maintenance

Appendix A - References

Appendix B -Training & Certi fication

Appendix C -Analysis & Design Tools

Appendix D - Executive Summaryon Lighting Quality & P roductivity

Appendix E - Energy EffectiveLighting Recommendations

...part of the Technical Assistance team, within theUnited States Department of Energy’s Federal EnergyManagement Program (FEMP). The TechnicalAssistance program provides the technical and train-ing foundation for all of FEMP’s efforts to identifyand implement technically sound and cost-effectiveenergy efficiency, water, and renewable projects atFederal facilities. The mission of the FEMP Lightsprogram is to: Provide support to Federal EnergyManagers to significantly increase the quantity aswell as quality of energy-efficient Federal lightingprojects through the use of systematic outreach,targeted education, appropriate tools and effectivetechnical resources.

Comments and suggestions are welcome for futureupdates of this binder. FEMP recognizes the signifi-cant potential of lighting energy savings and ancillarybenefits in Federal buildings. The Federal LightingGuide is provided as partial fulfillment of the FEMPLights mission, as support to the Federal EnergyManagers in the field who are making EnergyConservation Measures a reality.

Dean McCauley,USDOE, FEMP Lights Program Manager

Acknowled gements

Authors: Carol C. Jones, Pacific Northwest NationalLaboratory

Eric Richman, Pacific Northwest National Laboratory

Judith Heerwagon, Ph.D., Pacific NorthwestNational Laboratory

John Reinertson, McNeil Technologies

Hayden McKay, Hayden McKay Lighting Design

Contributors: Thank you to Hayden McKay, HaydenMcKay Lighting Design, for contributing graphics on‘Overhead Glare,’ ‘Room Reflectance,’ and originalsketches on ‘Spacing Criteria.’

Thank you to Lisa Heschong, Heschong-MahoneGroup, for contributing graphics on ‘Color Quality,’‘Balancing Quality and Efficiency,’ and ‘Tube SizeMatters.’

USDOE FEMP expresses its appreciation toother contributors who are acknowledged inthe body of the document.

is...

FederalLightingGuide

For FederalEnergy

Managers

Federal Energy Manager’sLighting Guide: A Resource forFederal Lighting ImprovementProjects

IntroductionImproving lighting systems in Federal facilities can result incost savings, occupant comfort, improved productivity, andenvironmental accountability. This guide is a wayfindingtool for Federal energy managers, providing general infor-mation on how to implement Federal lighting improvementprojects as well as references for more specific information.Rather than attempting to answer technical questions in greatdepth, the objective here is to provide a “one-stop-shopping”resource which provides direction on a broad range of topicsthat typically arise on Federal lighting projects.

Chapters 1-7 address various phases of a Federal lightingproject. Where more detail is considered important to Fed-eral Energy Managers and is not readily available elsewhere,the Appendices have been developed to provide relevantsupplementary material.

Project ProcessFederal facility managers must assume ultimate responsibil-ity for any lighting improvement project. The lightingassessment and project planning process defined in thisguide is a structured way for Federal facility managers toeffectively identify, design/plan, implement, commission andmaintain lighting improvement projects for maximum ben-efit. The process includes the following steps:

• Evaluate existing lighting system

• Identify potential lighting projects

• Identify funding options

• Analyze and prioritize potential projects

• Determine energy use and cost baseline

• Prepare Energy Effective Lighting design and specifica-tions

Chapter 1: Overview

• Procurement and installation.

• Commission completed lighting improve-ments; develop Operations & Mainte-nance Plan

• Verify benefits.

Before beginning a project, consider howeach lighting improvement will affectpotential savings from other improvementsfor the same building and facility. A deeperlevel of energy savings is possible throughwhole- building/whole-facility analysis.

Evaluate Existing Lighting SystemTo evaluate an existing lighting system, onemust perform a lighting audit, which is anaccounting of current lighting equipmentand controls. The lighting audit may be partof an overall facility audit. The lightingaudit may require that the auditor:

• count fixtures, lamps, and ballasts

• characterize lighting controls and opera-tion

• identify environmental concerns (PCBs,mercury volume)

• evaluate operations and maintenance(O&M) schedules

• identify unsafe conditions

• consider occupant satisfaction/specialconcerns; characterize lighting quality

• evaluate electrical/fixture support condi-tions.

Subcontracted engineers or design profes-sionals can perform lighting audits if thisexpertise does not exist in-house or addi-tional support is considered important. Foradditional information, refer to AppendicesA& C for references and lighting analysissoftware tools related to evaluating existinglighting systems.

Identify Potential Lighting ProjectsIdentify all potential lighting projects orareas that need improvement or may yieldenergy or resource savings. Consider how

well potential lighting improvements willmeet organization or workplace objectives.

Consider the following factors when identi-fying potential lighting projects:

• security and safety requirements

• codes and standards requirements for newFederal buildings (see Chapter 4)

• organizational restrictions

• mission requirements

• other construction activities, buildingoccupancy changes

• need for relighting (redesign) instead of,or in addition to component process

• incorporation of available daylight

• need for complete system improvement

• control strategies/operation schedule

• future use of space

• energy/labor costs

• life-cycle cost

• facility access

A variety of software products are availableto assist in identification of potential light-ing projects. Some products were devel-oped by Federal agencies specifically forFederal use and others by private industryfor general commercial use. Appendix Ccontains a list of lighting analysis anddesign software tools. Many lighting-related manufacturers and retailers alsoprovide useful decision-making software.

Identify Funding OptionsExisting operational budgets often do notsupport lighting improvement projects, soalternative funding is usually required.Several funding sources are available forfinancing Federal lighting and other energy-related projects including:

• internal O&M or utility budgets

• direct appropriations

• utility incentive programs

• energy savings performance contracts

Chapter 2 provides additional informationon alternative financing.

Analyze and Prioritize PotentialProjectsAfter determining potential projects andfunding options, conduct a more detailedanalysis to determine the cost effectivenessand benefits of each option. This analysisshould measure potential project benefitsthroughout the building and should also andconsider other potential projects in the samefacility. Tangible benefits should includeenergy use, disposal costs, and maintenancecosts in a life-cycle cost calculation, asreturn on investment, or as simple payback.Also consider other less-tangible benefitssuch as increased worker productivity andimproved comfort and space appearance.

When prioritizing potential projects,consider all lighting and nonlightingprojects in a facility to effectively usefinancial resources. The following factorsare generally used to prioritize projectsbased on facility needs.

• initial cost

• life-cycle cost

• potential savings (include less-tangiblebenefits)

• facility access

• organizational needs

• effect on other projects

Refer to Appendix C for a list of lightinganalysis and design software tools.

Determine Energy Use and CostBaselineBefore initiating any projects, identifycurrent lighting energy use and other relatedcosts to establish a baseline for evaluating

potential savings opportunities andassessing other project benefits. Thisinformation may also be valuable in futureproposals for additional improvements. Todetermine energy use and related costs,evaluate:

• historical energy use or other resourceconsumption

• real-time data to characterize currentenergy use (if available)

• energy, O&M, and equipment disposalrate structures

• connected load (fixtures x input watts)

Historical data can include energy consump-tion, O&M costs, facility supply costs, andmore elusive items such as morale andoccupant comfort. Appendix A containsinformation on FEMP publications relatedto baseline monitoring. Consider adminis-tering an occupant survey in order to assesslighting quality improvements with a PostOccupancy Evaluation (POE) after theproject is installed.

Prepare Energy Effective LightingDesignEnergy Effective Lighting provides bothenergy-efficient and high-quality lighting,contributing to an improved workenvironment. Lighting has a direct andpowerful impact on building occupants,affecting health, safety, mood, and the speedand accuracy of task performance.Therefore, using Energy Effective Lightingin Federal buildings is important to ensureenergy savings and possibly even improveproductivity. Lighting system elements thatimpact humans include:

• room surface brightness

• glare

• task illuminance

• light distribution

• color quality

• visual interest

• flicker

• controls

• daylighting

These elements affect visual performance,psychological needs, lighting preference,and circadian rhythms. Flicker from sometypes of fluorescent ballasts (usually notseen by the human eye); glare from fixtures;the absence of daylight; and dim, gloomyspaces can adversely affect worker morale,motivation, and performance. Excessivebrightness contrast ratios can cause disturb-ing reflections on visual display terminal(VDT) screens, impeding computer taskperformance.

The cost of Federal workers greatly exceedsthe cost of energy. For this reason, allchanges to the lighting system must con-sider the impact on the occupants. If light-ing quality is improved thereby positivelyaffecting Federal workers, then the newlighting system can add significant value inaddition to creating energy savings. Whendesigning lighting systems, consider bothfunctional and aesthetic elements. Forsimple spaces, a variety of design tools areavailable (see Appendix C for a list ofavailable design tools).

Lighting design professionals can helpdefine effective lighting designs that notonly reduce energy consumption and pro-vide adequate lighting distribution but alsoimprove lighting quality. Existing facilitiesoften require the expertise of an indepen-dent lighting designer or illuminating engi-neer familiar with daylighting design, visualcomfort, visibility, glare control, and VDTreflection control.

FEMP offers assistance in procuring profes-sional lighting design services, includinggeneral procurement guidance and lighting-specific boiler plate language to ensure thatyou contract a qualified lighting profes-sional.

See Appendix A for information on FEMPmaterials, other publications, training andcertification programs, and lighting societ-ies and professional associations for designprofessionals. Much of the FEMP Lightsinformation can be obtained off of the website, at http://www.eren.doe.gov/femp, underTechnical Assistance. More information onEnergy Effective Lighting can be found inChapter 3, and Appendices D & E. TheFEMP Lights Distance Learning Course isstrongly recommended to all Federal EnergyManagers and interested subcontractors as ameans to become fully prepared to manageFederal lighting projects. New and up-to-date, the FEMP Lights Course is deliveredvia email to your desktop and only requiresa few hours per week to complete at timeswhich are convenient to each registrant.

SpecificationsOnce a conceptual design has been devel-oped, it becomes necessary to developcontract language and specifications. Tightspecifications are the backbone of a suc-cessful project; without a solid specificationthe best ideas and intentions often fall bythe wayside. The FEMP Master Specifica-tion for Lighting and the associated Techni-cal Notes provide the technical back-upneeded to help implement a conceptualdesign. New language is being developedwhich is tailored for use under an ESPC.

Procurement and InstallationOnce the specifications and project detailshave been prepared, it becomes time to startthe implementation phase of the project:

• solicit proposals

• evaluate proposals

• select contractor

• schedule the work

It is critical to identify the person in chargewho will carefully watch over the procure-ment and installation phase. Very oftensubstitutions will be offered which may not

meet the original design intent. It is impor-tant to be mindful of this and insist that allproducts meet the contract specificationsand Energy Effective Lighting guidelines(see Chapter 3).

Commission Completed LightingImprovementsCommissioning building systems is neces-sary to ensure the equipment has beeninstalled according to specifications, oper-ates in the manner for which it was de-signed, and meets facility needs. Commis-sioning must be done before the responsiblecontractor leaves the site and/or the equip-ment is turned over to on-site facilitiescontrol.

To complete the commissioning process:

• verify work is completed and meetsspecifications

• perform operational checks

• prepare an Operation &Maintenance(O&M) plan

See Chapter 6 for guidance on commission-ing completed lighting improvements andChapter 7 for information on preparing anO&M plan.

Verify BenefitsVerifying net energy savings, reductions indisposal quantities and costs, avoidedenvironmental hazards, improved occupantcomfort, and increased productivity is animportant part of lighting improvements.Documenting benefits provides valuableinformation on the effects and experiencegained from the completed work to apply tofuture projects. The party in charge ofverifying benefits, and the exact protocol tofollow will vary by project. The generalsteps include:

• collect time-of-use and one-time resourceuse data (if possible; metering required)

• complete use and satisfaction surveys(Post Occupancy Evaluations)

• monitor actual resource billings

• document activities, savings, and benefits

The “North American Energy Measurementand Verification Protocol” includes valuableinformation on this topic and is availablefrom the FEMP website.

MarketingOnce everything is completed and verified,do not forget to claim victory. Publicity forthe energy savings and completedimprovements will strengthen morale inyour facility and educate others on potentialbenefits as a result of these efforts.

Chapter 2: Financing

The following funding sources are availablefor financing Federal lighting and otherenergy-related projects.

Internal O&M BudgetThe internal O&M budget is often theeasiest way to get project funding but isfrequently inadequate. If planned early inbudget process, these funds can be used toreplace some lighting systems as part ofgeneral facility maintenance. However,using these funds may prevent the comple-tion of major cost-effective projects, result-ing in a loss of potential cost savings.

Direct Federal AppropriationsHistorically, direct Federal appropriations(directly through Congress or agency-based)have provided most of the energy efficiencyfinancing for government agencies. Directappropriations do not incur interest chargesand allow the Federal government to retainall savings from cost-effective renovations.

Because the government’s appropriatedfunds come from tax revenues or bonds, thecost to appropriate these funds is lower thanthe cost to borrow money from a bank or afinancial institution. This approach alsoenables the agency to implement an energyefficiency project with minimal contractualobligations. However, with current emphasison reducing Federal government appropria-tions, energy- and facility-related projectsnot directly related to an agency’s missionmay not be fully funded or funding may bedelayed. Due to funding limits selection isbased on those projects with the shortestpayback period.

Utility Incentive ProgramsUtilities often offer programs to theircustomers thay may include rebates and/orenergy services. Large facilities, such as

universities, government installations, andmilitary sites, have been successful intailoring utility programs to their needs.

These programs include financial or otherincentives to customers to install energy-efficient equipment in existing buildings.Incentive programs provide a technicalresource or funding source that can beleveraged to help an agency implement anenergy project. Utilities may pay the capitalcosts of new lighting in consideration of theenergy savings the retrofits will produce. Inmost cases, utilities arrange some otherform of third-party financing. The net costto the Federal agency acquiring the newtechnology remains minimal and the agencybenefits from the “one-stop shopping”provided by a utility partnership.

Energy Savings PerformanceContract (ESPC)Under ESPC contracts, energy servicecompanies (ESCOs) assume the capitalcosts to install new energy-efficientequipment. The ESCO guarantees a fixedamount of energy cost savings over the lifeof the contract (up to 25 years). Energy costsavings are any reduction in the cost ofenergy used in federally owned buildings.The ESPC contract specifies the percentageof energy cost savings as their fee and themethod for determining the value of suchsavings, which may vary from year to year.The ESCO is paid directly from the energycost savings and the agency retains anyremaining savings. ESCOs are mostinterested in funding projects withimmediate savings potential.

To make it easier for Federal agencies to useESPC’s, FEMP has developed a Super ESPCbased on the Indefinite Delivery/IndefiniteQuantity provision of the FederalAcquisition Regulation (FAR). SuperESPCs are broad-area contracts (base-wide,agency-wide, regional) that allow agenciesto establish site-specific ESPCs with thewinning ESCO’s without having to start thecontracting process from the beginning.

Federal Agency Financing ContactsThe following Federal agency contacts canprovide information on available agencyfunding, product procurement, and applica-tion procedures. The listed names andphone numbers are for current agencybuilding/property management representa-tives.

U.S. Department of AgricultureDavid Dunn(202) 720-5993

U.S. Department of CommerceJim Woods(202) 482-0885

U.S. Department of DefenseKevin Gross(703) 697-6195

U.S. Department of Health andHuman ServicesGlen Phillips(301) 443-6340

U.S. Department of Housing and UrbanDevelopment (BUD)(see General Services Administration)

U.S. Department of InteriorJohn Moresko(202) 208-5704

U.S. Department of StateTim Arthurs(202) 647-6001

U.S. Department of TransportationDennis Sullivan(617) 494-2300

Chapter 3: Energy EffectiveDesign and Specification

Energy efficient technologies such as T8fluorescent lamps, compact fluorescentlamps, improved reflector technologies,efficient ballasts and the use of controlsprovides great promise of a reduced energyload by a lighting system. However, in ourquest for energy savings we often sacrificeproper lighting through the misapplicationof efficient technologies.

Next to temperature, no other buildingsystem has as profound an effect on occu-pant comfort and productivity as lighting.Too little light causes eyestrain and anunhealthy work environment, whereas toomuch light can cause glare, heat and canalso reduce a persons ability to optimallyfunction in the work place. Increasedunderstanding of the impact of lighting onworker productivity and well-being byarchitects, engineers, facility managers andFederal agency management is part of a newphilosophy of treating lighting as an ergo-nomic issue. The lighting projects that wenow embark upon should be energy efficientand support workers in being effective onthe job.

Why should the Federal EnergyManager care about Energy EffectiveLighting?The increased awareness of lighting qualityand its impact on worker productivity hascaused the lighting industry to attempt tofind a balance between energy efficient andcomfortable lighting. The newest findings ofthe Illuminating Engineering Society ofNorth America (IESNA) indicate that manyof the most common lighting strategies usedto save energy in facilities today can bedetrimental to the comfort, mood and possi-bly the performance of workers. Con-versely, following a recipe for EnergyEffective Lighting is likely to actuallyimprove the lighted environment for Federal

workers. Because the cost of labor dramati-cally exceeds that of energy, quality relight-ing has the potential of benefiting both theenvironment and the economy. Recentestimates place a potential value rangingbetween $220 million/per year and $1.3billion dollars per year from improvedlighting conditions (based on Federal sala-ries).

What is Energy Effective Lighting?Energy Effective Lighting is light that notonly helps us see and be comfortable, butalso provides our work environments with asense of pleasure and psychologicalwarmth– and does so in an energy-efficientway. Energy Effective Lighting accom-plishes the dual objectives of being energyefficient while also meeting the needs of thespace occupants. Effective lighting varieswith each type of application and mustconsider the short term and long-termperformance of the occupants of the space.

INDIVIDUAL WELL-BEING:

• visibility• activity• social & communication• mood & comfort• health & safety• aesthetic judgement

ECONOMICS:• installation• maintenance• operation• energy• environment

ARCHITECTURE:• form• composition• style• codes & standards

LIGHTING QUALITY

Graphic courtesy of Jennifer Veitch, Ph.D., National ResearchCouncil of Canada. Presented at the 1st CIE Symposium on

Lighting Quality in Ottawa, Canada, May 1998.

The design of an energy effective lightingsystem is less of an engineering practice andmore of a marriage of architectural design,

space planning, engineering and lightingsystem design. An energy effective lightingdesign is site specific and will be derivedfrom a collection of factors which includethe purpose for a workspace, budget, archi-tectural limitations, and other criteria.

In order to achieve an Energy Effectivelighting design address the following eightareas as discussed in the following pages.These points apply to most work environ-ments.* Use the following to achieve awell-lit environment:

1. Room surface brightness

2. Reduction of glare

3. Adequate task illuminance

4. Uniform light distribution

5. Good color lamps

6. Visual interest

7. Electronic ballasts**

8. Controls & Daylighting

* For the purpose of explanation, office spaces areused most often to illustrate the points discussed.

** Except in cases of technical incompatibility, seebelow.

1. Room Surface BrightnessQuality lighting is a function of the properbalance of brightnesses in a space. A spacewith dark walls or ceiling, or with harshpatterns, will never provide adequate visualcomfort for the workers.

Traditional lighting designs have focused onproviding sufficient foot-candles (fc) on thehorizontal workplane (i.e.the desktop) andhave generally ignored illumination of theceilings, walls, partitions and vertical tasks.

One of the fundamental principles of energyeffective design is the lighting of all of a

room’s surfaces, with a heavy emphasis onilluminating its vertical surfaces. Illumina-tion of the horizontal workspace is critical,however, it is the vertical surfaces in aroom that the occupant sees most often andhave the greatest potential to influence anoccupants perception of his or her workenvironment.

Wall washingWall washing is the use of fixtures designedto distribute their most of their light in onedirection and onto a vertical surface. Thiscan be accomplished with several kinds offixtures, including open compact fluores-cent wallwashers, lensed compact fluores-cent wallwashers, and linear fluorescentwallwashers.

Wallwashing

Photo courtesy of Lisa Heschong, Heschong-Mahone-Group.Instructor, FEMP Lights distance learning course.

To maximize the efficiency of a wall wash-ing system, it is important to use paint andor wall treatments that are white or light incolor.

Indirect LightingThe use of an indirect component allowswide spacing of the fixtures, reduces shad-ows, and creates a sense of openness andspaciousness in the space.

Indirect Furniture-Mounted Lighting

Proctor & Gamble Headquarters, Cincinnati, OHPhotograph courtesy of JoAnne Lindsley, Lighting Designer.

KPF, Architect. Peter Aaron, Photography.

Direct/Indirect LightingDirect/Indirect lighting is the use of lumi-naires which have both uplight anddownlight and are suspended from theceiling. This solution puts the fixturescloser to the working plane in the space andis very energy efficient. Because it providesbetter uniformity and fewer shadows, itallows greater flexibility with respect tospace planning, making it easier if thefurniture should need to movein the future.

Cove LightingAnother strategy for the lighting of wallsand ceilings is the use of coves, either as aslot or valance at the corner of the wall andceiling, to wash the walls, or as an uplightcove to light the ceiling. The role of a wallwash cove lighting system is to reduceshadows at upper wall surfaces, whicheliminates harsh shadow patterns, andincreases the perception of “openness.”

Clerestory WindowsClerestory windows are a passive designfeature that visually provides openness in aroom, and allows for the transfer of lightbetween internal office spaces. Clerestorywindows are generally located high on awall near a light source, but limit the fieldof view for occupants thus providing thenecessary privacy between office spaces.Glass adjacent to private offices offersanother opportunity to borrow light betweenspaces and increase a sense of openness.

Cave EffectOne of the most typical and problematicdesign solutions in modern offices is the useof downlight troffers with specular para-bolic or paracube louvers in offices withoutadequate wallwashing.

The Cave Effect

Photo courtesy of Jim Benya, Pacific Lightworks, Portland,OR. Co-instructor, FEMP Lights Distance Learning Course.

Because these fixtures focus most of theirlight in a downward pattern they do not putenough light on the walls, creating a gloomyappearance and harsh scallops.

The solution to this problem is to use semi-specular or white louvers, and to locatefixtures very close to the walls, so there issufficient brightness on the vertical sur-faces.

Wall Brightness

NYS Department of Labor, Syracuse, NY.Photograph courtesy of Naomi Miller, Lighting Research

Center, Rensselaer Polytechnic Institute, Troy, NY.Demonstration and Evaluation of Lighting Technologies and

Applications (DELTA). Quinnlivan Pierik & Krause,Designer and Architect. William Clifford E.E., Fraser and

Fassler, M.E. Cindy Foor, Photography.

The photograph above is a good example ofadequate brightness on the walls. Alter-nately, the troffers could be located furtheraway from the walls if a supplementarywallwashing system is used.

Surface ReflectancesThe entire room is an integral part of thelighting system, and perhaps no other factorin room design is as critical to the lightingas the reflectances of the room surface. Themost desirable reflectances are those whichare light in color with a matte finish. Shinymaterials create mirror images and cancause glare. Dark-colored materials absorbthe light, requiring much more energy toachieve the desired brightness of walls,ceilings and workstation surfaces.

It is important to light the surfaces of aroom to create proper visual comfort andavoid high contrasts and glare.

A room with middle-range reflectances(Room A) typically reflects only 40% of thelight which hits the walls and 70% of thelight whichhits the ceil-ing. Overall,this roomabsorbs 53%of the lightthat hits theseimportantsurfaces.Darker coloredrooms will Room A

perform muchworse. Byusing lighterfinishes inRoom B, theabsorption hasbeen reducedby half. Thebalance oflight will bemuch easier toachieve in this Room B

room. Moreimpressive is the 70% of energy saved in theroom with lighter colored walls and ceilingwhile achieving the desired level of bright-ness on the walls, and 55% more light onthe task. The use of higher reflectancematerials is a no-cost strategy which has atremendous impact on the “effective” utili-zation of energy, as well as providinggreater lighting quality and comfort.

2. Reduce GlareOne of the most common criticisms of alighting application is glare. Glare cancome from numerous sources includingoverhead lights, windows or reflections in acomputer monitor. Lighting glare is com-monly cited as the source of visual discom-fort in open plan office workplace as well asindustrial workplaces.

Because glare prevents people from beingtheir most effective, it is an important issueto address in an energy effective lightingdesign. Glare generated from a lightingsystem is most often associated with the

70%

40%40%

70%70%

90%

misapplication of lamps, reflectors andlouvers, or improperly shielded windows.

Glare From LampsIn commonly used fluorescent lamp tech-nologies, smaller lamp diameters have agreater surface brightness. The conse-quence of this is that some of the mostefficient lamps are also the highest inten-sity and can be very uncomfortable to thenaked eye.

T-12 = 1 1/2 inch diameter

T-10 = 1 1/4 inch diameter

T-8 = 1 inch diameter

T-5 = 5/8 inch diameter

Tube Size Matters

Therefore, great care should be taken whenchoosing both lamps and fixtures.

T5 lamps (compact fluorescent) offerexcellent energy efficiency as compared toincandescent. However, use of this highintensity light should be limited to applica-tions where the actual lamp is not visible tothe worker eyes. Because T5 lamps pro-vide extremely intense light from a smalldiameter lamp, they are excellent technolo-gies for use with reflectors for indirectlighting and wall washing systems.

Luminaires and ShieldingLouvers and shielding techniques aregenerally only effective for fixtures in frontof a worker. However, the excessive glarefrom fixtures directly overhead of a workercan actually decrease visual acuity, espe-cially when a vertical task such as com-puter work is involved.

Overhead Glare Zone

Open plan office layouts make it difficult toavoid locating luminaires outside ofworker’s overhead glare zone. The use ofluminaires with open bottoms is particularlyproblematic, because the worker is exposedto the bare lamp in this zone. The goal is toreduce the brightness of the source, orreduce the contrast.

It is criticalthat lamps and

luminaires beselected to

mitigate theproblem ofdiscomfort

glare.

Specular reflectors or specular louversshould not be used in open-celled luminairesabove workers, because they reflect thebright image of the lamp into the eyes of theoccupants. This can cause intense visualdiscomfort, inhibiting worker performance,causing headaches and occupant dissatisfac-tion.

When using compact fluorescentdownlights, pay attention to where they arelocated with respect to workers in the space.Compact fluorescent downlights locatednear people who will be working for ex-

LuminaireShielding

Angle

Normalangles of

View (45•)

OverheadGlareZone

tended periods of time should have excellentshielding and semi-specular cones. Con-sider the use of cross baffles in downlightslocated near workstations.

Use the following strategies to reducecontrast and create a more comfortableenvironment for the occupant:

• Appropriate lamps for the given applica-tion, considering tasks and locations ofworkers

• Fixtures with adequate shielding media

• Semi-specular or white louvers

• Use a cove to put light onto the ceiling, oruse furniture-mounted or wall-mountedindirect fixtures

• Use more fixtures with lower output.

Visual Display Terminal (VDT) GlareWhile glare in computer screens continuesto be a problem, we are coming to under-stand that it is not the only area of signifi-cant concern with respect to lighting quality.If low brightness parabolic louvers are used,care should be taken to create enough roomsurface brightness at the walls, ceilings andpartitions.

VDT Glare

Photo Courtesy of Mark Rea,Ph.D.Director, Lighting Research Center,

Rensselaer Polytechnic Institute, Troy, NY.

The problem of glare in VDT screens is atits worst when lensed fixtures are used andthe VDT screen is dark. It is much more

common to have a lighter background onmodern computer screens, which has less-ened but not eliminated the problem. Glarein screens from windows continues to be aproblem (see Windows section).

The simplest way to correct these reflectionsis to position computers so that they are atangles that do not promote reflections ofwindows or lights. For those workspacedesigns where the computer screen can notbe positioned properly or harsh reflectionscannot be otherwise reduced, commerciallyavailable anti-glare screens can be attachedto the computer monitor. This generallyeliminates the reflection problem or reducesit to an insignificant level. Providing auniform wash of light on the ceiling alsosignificantly reduces reflected images.

Glare in Industrial SpacesBecause of the common use of High Inten-sity Discharge (HID) sources in industrialspaces, glare can often be a problem.

The closer the fixtures are to the workingplane, the less energy is necessary toachieve the desired light levels. However,the intensity of the fixtures suspended tooclose to the workers can create discomfort.

The solutionmust be abalancebetweenenergyefficiencyand thecomfort andeffectivenessof the workers.

Of great importance in industrial lighting ishaving adequate task illuminance, to facili-tate accuracy and safety. With adequate tasklighting, sometimes the general level ofillumination can be reduced.

One way to mitigate the experience of glareis to reduce the contrast of the bright lights

QUALITY EFFICIENCY

against a dark ceiling. Wherever possible,work with the maintenance and operationspersonnel to paint the walls and ceilings alighter reflectance.

Consider these two photographs, whichillustrate the difference between bright anddark ceilings in industrial spaces.

Bright fixtures against a dark ceiling.Photgraph courtesy of Naomi Miller, Lighting ResearchCenter, Rensselaer Polytechnic Institute, Troy, NY, and

Daybrite fixtures, Thomas Lighting Industries.

High reflectance ceiling.Hewlett-Packard building in B4 Camas, Washington.

Photograph courtesy of Naomi Miller, Lighting ResearchCenter, Rensselaer Polytechnic Institute. PAE Consulting

Engineers, Portland, OR. Naomi Miller, Lighting Designer.Boucher Mouchka Larson, Architect. Strode-Eckart,

Photography.

WindowsPart of providing an even surface brightnessis the reduction of high contrast on verticalsurfaces. A standard wall should be illumi-nated so that it does not exceed a ratio of 3:1

between lightest and darkest areas. Onwalls where windows are present, there is avery high contrast between light and darkareas. To counteract this is it important toinclude wall washers between the windowsto illuminate the columns.

The use of daylight is critical to the designof an energy effective workspace. To con-trol glare from a window blinds should beused. The use of venetian blinds allowsoccupants to make adjustments for theircomfort as needed throughout the day.Also, the use of window glazing has theadded benefit of significantly reducingunwanted heat gain and loss, and the dam-aging ultraviolet (UV) light rays that causeeye damage.

3. Adequate Task IlluminanceThe ultimate goal of lighting within anoffice space is to provide the quality andquantity of illumination necessary for theworker to perform their necessary tasks.While ceiling mounted luminaires anddirect/indirect lights provide general light-ing requirements, most workspaces requireadditional illumination on the work surface.Unlike some of the lighting mentionedearlier, the major purpose of the task light isto provide footcandles on the task, whetherthat be the horizontal desktop, the verticaltyping stand, or the industrial benchtop.

Although an undercabinet light is frequentlyprovided as part of the furniture package inoffices, it is not particularly effective forlighting tasks. It generally provides toomuch light from the wrong direction. If theworker is facing the toward the light, veilingreflections will occur in the task. However,undercabinet lighting is effective if itreaches the task from the side, and is impor-tant for reducing shadows under the over-head cabinets.

One efficient option is to specify theundercabinet lights with low-output ballasts,which reduces the output and energy con-sumption by about 50% and still accom-

plishes the objective of reducingundercabinet shadows and providing addi-tional task lighting.

A workstation without undercabinet task lighting

results in harsh shadows and inadequate illumination.

Photograph courtesy of Peter Boyce, Ph.D., LightingResearch Center, Rensselaer Polytechnic Institute, Troy, NY.

Articulated (adjustable) task lights arefixtures which allow physical adjustments inthree planes. These allow the user to ma-nipulate the light in their workspace andfocus it on the task being performed. Ar-ticulated lamps can also be moved eithercloser or farther away depending on thelighting needs of the occupant and can lightvertical, horizontal or tilted tasks.

Articulated task lights are usually preferredby the occupant for two reasons: 1) theygive the occupant the satisfaction of havingsome personal control over their environ-ment and 2) they are significantly moreeffective in accomplishing task lighting.Both the articulated compact fluorescenttask lights and undercabinet shadow reduc-ers are available in a wide assortment ofstyles and energy efficient versions whilebeing inexpensive and can be easily pur-chased from the GSA schedule.

4. Uniform Light DistributionThe uniformity of light distribution within aspace is dependant on several factors, themost important being the distribution char-acteristics of the specific light fixtures,(e.g.: direct, indirect, wide, narrow) and the

geometry of the space, including the pres-ence of partial height partitions so com-monly used in open plan furniture layouts.Determining the average illuminance in aroom is not enough. The balance of lightfrom one workstation to another should berelatively uniform.

Many projects are not viable candidates forlighting retrofits (component changeout)because the existing fixtures are spaced toowidely to achieve uniform distribution. Thedetermination of whether a project is appro-priate for a retrofit or will require a redesignshould be done at the earliest stages ofproject feasibililty assessment. The SpacingCriteria is a valuable tool in this determina-tion.

The Spacing Criteria is a number suppliedby the lighting fixture manufacturer on eachindividual fixture catalog cut sheet. Itidentifies the spacing between fixtures as itrelates to their location above the worksurface. Multiplying this number by theheight of the fixture off the desk will deter-mine the maximum spacing between fix-tures that will still yield uniform lighting onthe desk.

Spacing Criteria x Height = Spacing

Fixtures that have a wide distribution, or anindirect component, can be spaced morewidely. Fixtures that have a narrow distri-bution must be spaced more closely. Retrofitstrategies such as retrofit reflectors, orchanges in lamp positions or louvers fre-quently narrows the distribution from theoriginal. In these cases, a closer spacing willbe required, as well as the addition of morelighting on the walls.

Unfortunately, the Spacing Criteria does notaccount for rooms with obstructions, such ashigh file cabinets or furniture partitions.Many existing lighting installations areinadequate due to the addition of tall parti-tions, and should be redesigned to incorpo-rate more fixtures, at a lower output. To dothis, modify the height measurement for usein multiplying by the Spacing Criteria.

To use theSpacingCriteriaMethodin roomswithpartitions:

1) Determine theheight from desktopto top of partition,and divide it in half.

2) Add the result tothe height from thetop of the partition tothe underside of thefixtures.

3) Use this “reducedmounting height”number in multiply-ing times the manu-facturers SpacingCriteria.

4) The resultingnumber is the maxi-mum on-centerspacing that shouldbe used to achieveadequate uniformity.

An old style office, without modern partitions.

After adding partitions to the room, the spacing betweenfixtures becomes too wide.

This room would require a redesign rather than a simpleretrofit, in order to provide adequate light levels and uni-formity.

5. Good Color LampsBeyond just providing illumination in aworkspace, differences in lamp color candrastically affect a person’s perception oftheir environment. “Cooler” lamp colors(4100 Kelvin) are very good in applicationswhere high intensity light is needed(>100fc), such as laboratories, medicalareas, and some assembly areas. Warmlamp colors (<3000 Kelvin) are very goodin “hospitality” spaces such as residentialhousing, restaurants, and lounges.

In most office spaces intermediate tempera-ture lamps are an appropriate choice (ap-proximately 3500 K). These intermediatetemperatures in the lamps provide a balancebetween the perceived warmth and “friendli-ness” of the warm lights while still provid-ing the clarity and crispness of a cool light.3500 Kelvin also provides a good compro-mise for daylighted and interior spaces.

The visual perception of color is dependenton the light source which is striking anobject. True white light is balanced be-tween all of the colors of the visual spec-trum, and thus provides a correct renderingof the true color of an object. Almost allartificial and natural light sources are notevenly balanced, and thus provide an alteredperception, or shift of an objects true color.

.

A lamp’s ability to provide the proper colorrendition and minimal color shift is mea-sured as the Color Rendering Index (CRI)which is based on a scale of 1 to 100. Fluo-rescent lamps with a CRI above 70 areacceptable in most environments.

6. Visual InterestIn most workplaces there are spaces whichare not exclusively workstations, such astransition spaces (corridors), cafeterias,lobbies, etc. In these areas, the creative useof light and decorative lighting technologiescan break-up a boring wall or can accentu-ate certain architectural features.

A good way to do this is with sconces usingcompact fluorescent lamps. It can make avery significant difference between a spacebeing boring or interesting, and has beenshown to be preferred in research studies.Light levels in transition and lounge areasdo not need to be as high as the worksta-tions, nor do reflectances need to be as high.In fact, the variety in light and color ispreferred.

7. Electronic BallastsThe fluorescent ballast is designed to pro-vide the necessary burst of energy to start afluorescent lamp and then limits the elec-tricity flow to provide an even discharge ofcurrent to sustain an even generation oflight. Electronic ballasts are significantlymore efficient than the old electromagneticballasts and are a staple ingredient in light-ing energy conservation measures.

Electronic ballasts should always be usedexcept in the case of technical incompatibil-ity. **For example, electronic ballastsshould not be used in areas where sensitiveelectronic equipment can be found. Therehas been a concern that the use of instantstart ballasts with occupancy sensors canreduce lamp life, but recent research hasshown that this is not necessarily the case.As a preventative measure occupancysensors should be set for a 15 minute or

Where it Doesn’tv Security lightingv Warehousingv Heavy industryv Where good color sources

provide task lightingv Where color quality

serves a specific aestheticpurpose

Where it Mattersv Readingv Fine workv General office areasv Health care areasv Retail Salesv Precision work areasv Inspection of colored

objectsv Low level lightingv Residences and hotelsv Display areasv Dining and food servicev Anywhere you are

looking at other people

greater time delay, to avoid frequent cyclingof the lamps. Instant start ballasts areslightly more efficient than rapid startballasts. Manufacturer’s guidelines shouldbe followed at all times when installinglamps to ensure proper lamp efficacy andlife. The industry is currently developingstandards that will provide additional guid-ance on this topic.

8. Lighting Controls & Daylighting

Automatic lighting controls should beseriously considered for most Energy Effec-tive designs due to their ability to saveenergy over time. Many different controlsare available to suit every kind of need.

Lighting controls enable the use of daylightas a means of reducing energy consumption.Daylighting is perceived as an importantpart of lighting quality by building occu-pants, but daylighting design and the use ofdaylighting controls requires significantexpertise; be sure to obtain technical assis-tance or at least experienced advice, de-pending on the complexity of the applica-tion.

Lighting controls enable the building energymanager, and in some case the worker, toexert greater control over the lightingsystem. Research has shown that lighting

controls have the potential to reduce lightingenergy use by up to 35% compared to con-ventional lighting systems without controls.Both quality and efficiency should increasethrough the use of strategies such as:

1. occupancy sensors

2. daylight harvesting

3. lumen maintenance and tuning controls

4. sweep off lighting scheduling with over-rides

5. on-demand personal dimming

6. load shedding

Decisions about which controls should beused should be made on a project-by-projectbasis after careful consideration of issuesincluding the use of the space, hours ofoperation, ability to properly commissionand maintain the system, and life-cyclecosts.

Design AssistanceFor simple spaces, a variety of design guidesand software programs are available to anagency in-house designer or facility engineerwith basic lighting knowledge to help designa lighting system. However, designingeffective lighting in even the simplest ofspaces requires human thought and consider-ation that comes from experience and train-ing. Therefore, do not rely on softwarealone to provide an energy effective lightingdesign. In larger spaces or areas with specialneeds, a lighting design professional canachieve the desired effect while maintaininghigh efficiency.

As more and more federal facilities undergolighting retrofits and lighting designs, facil-ity managers need to be cautious of lightingtechnology applications which are com-monly applied incorrectly. If it appearsdifficult to apply the principles laid out inthis document, then it may be helpful to gettechnical assistance from a lighting designprofessional. FEMP has developed boilerplate language for use when it becomes

Lighting Control Technologies

necessary to obtain additional assistancethrough a subcontract. The language isavailable electronically from the FEMP website (http://www.eren.doe.gov/femp, underTechnical Assistance) and includes a recom-mended Scope of Work, Evaluation Criteria,and general guidance on hiring designprofessionals.

SpecificationsBoilerplate specifications are an essentialpart of any project which includes theacquisition of lighting equipment for federalbuildings. Over the past 15 years there hasbeen such a profusion of new lightingtechnologies that even experts in the fieldare hard pressed to keep abreast of newdevelopments. The lighting specificationsdeveloped by FEMP help federal energymanagers take advantage of these newtechnologies when they are appropriate, andestablish quality baselines for all projects.The specifications are distilled from thepractical experience of a number of lightingprofessionals, and are regularly updated toincorporate new technologies and standards.

Master Specification for LightingFor use on projects with appropriatedfunds.

The Master Specifications (and the Techni-cal Notes which accompany them) areintended for use on projects where thelighting systems are designed by outsideconsultants, but provided and installed byelectrical contractors who have been hiredthrough a traditional bidding process. It isin CSI format, and must be edited on aproject-by-project basis by the consultant.Providing this specification to subcontrac-tors will not only give them an effective toolfor ensuring that their designs are properlyexecuted, but it will also be an effective wayof conveying to the consultants the qualityof equipment they are expected to specify.

Delivery Order Lighting Requirements(Draft Under Review)

Since the contractors on ESPC projects areresponsible for both design and installationof lighting systems, the lighting require-ments built into the Delivery Order Requestfor Proposal will contain both design andequipment standards. Language is underreview for use within the Super ESPCprocess and the resulting Delivery Orders.This language (similar in many ways to theMaster Specification) will provide a basisfor implementing Energy Effective Lightingin Federal buildings.

Chapter 4: Codes andStandards Requirements

The Energy Policy Act of 1992 (EPAct,Public Law 102-486) requires the head ofeach Federal agency to adopt proceduresnecessary to ensure new Federal buildingsmeet or exceed the Federal building energystandards established by the U.S. Depart-ment of Energy (DOE). Further, ExecutiveOrder 12902 requires that new Federalfacilities be designed to minimize the life-cycle cost of the facility, including energy-efficient technologies. In addition to therequirements for product efficiency calledout in EPAct, Federal building codes andstandards provide the requirements forenergy efficiency in new Federal buildingconstruction.

Federal Residential Lighting CodesFederal residential lighting codes or stan-dards only apply to common areas in multi-family dwellings three stories or less.Lighting requirements for common areas inmultifamily dwellings less than three storiesare in Section 505, “Electrical Power andLighting,” in the Council of AmericanBuilding Officials Model Energy Code(MEC). For information on purchasing theMEC, contact:

The Council of American BuildingOfficials5203 Leesburg PikeFalls Church,VA 22041(703) 931-4533

Federal Commercial Lighting CodesThe intention of the Federal commerciallighting standard is to provide a set ofguidelines for designing energy-efficientbuildings and building systems. Theseguidelines are designed to promote theapplication of cost-effective design prac-tices and technologies that minimize energyconsumption and maximize the use of

nondepletable energy sources withoutsacrificing either the comfort or productiv-ity of building occupants.

The Federal standard is extremely broad inscope, encompassing almost all new con-struction (except low-rise residential) in allclimates across the United States. Therequirements of the Federal standard areboth general and conservative and thus donot represent the most cost-effective level ofenergy conservation for each and everyproject. Designers should consider theserequirements as a starting point and areencouraged to consider the interrelation-ships of different building elements andsystems and to seek designs that exceed theFederal standard. Therefore, the Federalstandard presents recommendations inaddition to its requirements.

The requirements of the Federal standardare mandatory for all new Federal buildingsconstructed after January 1989 that useenergy primarily to provide “occupantcomfort and sanitation.” These buildingsinclude new buildings that are constructedor leased by any agency or branch of theFederal government, including all branchesof the military. The standard does not applyto all buildings. The Federal lighting stan-dard accepts certain visual tasks and light-ing in certain space types. The Federalcommercial lighting standards can be foundin the Code of Federal Regulations, Title 10,Part 435, Section 103. For information onobtaining The Code of Federal Regulations,contact:

Superintendent of DocumentsAttn: New OrdersP.O. Box 371954Pittsburgh, PA 15250-7954http://www.access.gpo.gov/nara/cfr/index.html (search for␣ “10cfr435”)

Charge orders may be obtained by phone atthe Government Printing Office order deskon (202) 783-3238.

A Federal User’s Manual explains therequirements of the Code of Federal Regula-

tions and recommends procedures anddocumentation on how to comply with,implement, and enforce the code. Themanual is available through the:

DOE Building Standards and GuidelinesProgram Hotline(800) 270-CODE (800-270-2633).

Chapter 5: Procurement

Lighting ServicesIt is critical to identify the Federal person incharge who will carefully watch over theprocurement and installation phase. Veryoften substitutions will be offered whichmay not meet the original design intent. Itis important to be mindful of this and insistthat all products meet the contract specifica-tions and Energy Effective Lighting guide-lines (see Chapter 3).

If lighting design assistance becomes neces-sary, FEMP has developed boiler platelanguage to obtain additional assistancethrough a subcontract. The language isavailable electronically from the FEMP website (http://www.eren.doe.gov/femp, undertechnical assistance) and includes a recom-mended Scope of Work, Evaluation Criteria,and general guidance on hiring designprofessionals.

For information on ESPC financing andDelivery Orders visit the FEMP web site(address above) under Financial Assistance.

Lighting ProductsThe Federal government administrates acentral supply source for procuring energy-efficient lighting products that save taxpayerdollars by improving the availability ofthese products and lowering their costs.Two Federal supply agencies, the GeneralServices Administration (GSA) and DefenseLogistics Agency (DLA), collaborate withFEMP to provide energy-efficient productsthat meet operational needs and are cost-effective. FEMP helps buyers purchaseefficient products by:

• identifying Federal supply sources thatoffer efficient products

• suggesting ways for buyers to identifyefficient products when buying fromcommercial sources

• presenting a cost-effectiveness example,in order to help buyers judge whether aprice premium is really “worth it”

• offering tips to help buyers and users saveenergy without sacrificing comfort orperformance

• providing leads to other useful sourcesof information on product energyeffiicency

Three central reasons for the initiative are:

• energy and money savings

• pollution reduction

• market leadership

Using products that consume less energyand thereby have lower operating costs (andoften, lower maintenance costs) overallresults in energy and money savings, even iftheir initial purchase price may be slightlyhigher than less energy-efficient products.By reducing energy consumption, theseproducts can contribute to the loweringower air and water pollution and greenhousegas emission, such as carbon dioxide, intothe environment. Finally, as a matter ofpublic policy, the Federal government aimsto set a precedent of energy-efficient andcost-effective practices for other govern-ment, corporate, and institutional purchas-ers.

Federal policies mandate the purchase ofenergy-efficient and cost-effective products,as expressed in the following decisions:

• Energy Policy Act of 1992 (EPAct,Public Law 102-486) requires the U.S.Department of Energy, in association withother agencies, to “identify and designatethose energy-efficient products that offersignificant potential savings.” Guidelinesto “encourage the acquisition and use [ofthese products] by all Federal agencies”are also sanctioned.

• Executive Order 12902 (1994) directseach agency to “purchase products listedas energy-efficient in the [EPAct] guide

lines whenever they meet the agency’sspecific performance requirements andare cost-effective.” Furthermore, agen-cies are to purchase “products that are inthe upper 25 percent of energy efficiencyfor all similar products.”

• Federal Procurement Challenge (1995)commits 22 Federal agencies, whichrepresent 95% of Federal purchasing, topurchase products in the upper quartile(top 25%) of energy efficiency within acomparable class of products.

• Federal Acquisition Regulations (FAR,sec. 23.704) (1997) implements ExecutiveOrder 12902 in directing agencies toeffectuate “cost-effective contractingpreference programs favoring the acquisi-tion of...products that are in the upper 25percent of energy efficiency for all simi-lar products.”

The Defense General Supply Center isheadquartered in Richmond, Virginia(1-800-DLA BULB). For more informationon Federal energy-efficient procurement,see the FEMP web site at http://www.eren.doe.gov/femp under TechnicalAssistance or Federal Procurement.

Chapter 6: CommissioningCompleted LightingImprovements

Before a facility is accepted into the Federalfacility inventory, Executive Order 12902,Section 306 (3) requires that each Federalagency establish and implement a facility-commissioning program to ensure that newfacility construction meets the requirementsoutlined in the order. While this mandategenerally applies to new facilities, the sameimportant principles should also apply toretrofit projects.

When testing is required as part of thecommissioning process, consider usingspecific lighting tests that may not be part ofthe standard commissioning test. Thesetests may involve:

• light level measurements on work sur-faces

• lighting panel energy measurements

• relative lighting quality measurements(light distribution, color, reflectance fromsurfaces, visual comfort probability)

• lighting control operational measurementsincluding daylight control sensitivity,occupant sensor sensitivity, and occupantsensor timer.

See References (Appendix A) for informa-tion on technical publications on how toperform these measurements. A lightingdesign professional can provide expertassistance in determining where these testswill be important and cost-effective.

Commissioning lighting systems and equip-ment involves the same principles andactivities presented in the FEMP BuildingCommissioning Guide (Version␣ 2.2, April1998) that is available through their website at http://www.eren.doe.gov/femp underTechnical Assistance. This guide providesinformation on how to set up and success-fully administer a commissioning program.

Chapter 7: Operations andMaintenance Plan

A lighting Operations and Maintenance(O&M) plan helps guarantee efficientenergy use and cost savings and superiorsystem performance. If necessary, considerusing subcontractors to help prepare theO&M plan. To prepare the plan, create afile that includes all documentation andequipment manuals and establish a routinepreventive maintenance schedule. All bestattemps should be made to ensure thatadequate funding is allocated toward pre-ventive maintenance.

Maintenance is the only way to continueachieving lighting quality with all its associ-ated ancillary benefits. Effective lightingmaintenance ensures minimum O&M costsand efficient energy use while keeping theoutput of a lighting system as near to itsinitial level as is practical. Trained mainte-nance personnel are needed to implementsystematic maintenance plans. Some facili-ties have adequate funds to equip and trainpersonnel, although it is often an advantageto use off-site maintenance specialists.

An effective maintenance plan includesreplacing and cleaning lamps and maintain-ing and repairing lighting components. Todevelop an effective maintenance plan, thefollowing information is provided onrelamping and cleaning lamps; appropriateoperating programs, methods, materials, andequipment; and remedies for mechanicaland electrical difficulties that can develop inlighting systems.

Replacing and cleaning lamps can preventloss of light. Several factors contribute toloss of light, including luminaire dirt depre-ciation, luminaire surface depreciation,room surface dirt depreciation, burnouts,and lamp lumen depreciation. These factorscan be controlled through maintenanceprocedures by:

• periodically cleaning fixture surfaces

• using proper cleaning materials andtechniques

• regularly cleaning and painting roomsurfaces

• including a lamp-replacement program inthe maintenance plan.

Light Loss Factors

Luminaire Dirt DepreciationA significant amount of light loss can beattributed to dirt accumulation on luminairesurfaces. Ventilated lighting units tend tocollect dirt less rapidly than those withclosed tops. Periodically cleaning fixturesurfaces will eliminate this loss of light.

Luminaire Surface DepreciationMaterials used in luminaires will deteriorateover time from exposure to ultravioletradiation and heat, changing the reflectanceand transmittance of light and color. Usingimproper cleaning materials and/or tech-niques can cause chemical reactions andscratch the surface, resulting in additionalchanges in transmittance. The luminairecomponents are usually not replaced untilnew luminaires are installed as part of amajor retrofit. Replacing some lenses canimprove lighting quality at a minimal cost.

Room Surface Dirt DepreciationCollections of dirt on room surfaces tend toreduce the amount of light reflected arounda room, reducing the overall lighting levelin the space. Although walls and ceilingsare periodically cleaned and painted in allinstallations, surfaces reflecting a largerpercent of light should be cleaned andpainted more often.

Lamp Lumen DepreciationLight output from lamps decreases overtime. To reduce this loss of light, include alamp replacement program, such as plannedrelamping, in the maintenance plan.

BurnoutsBurned out lamps cause loss of light andsometimes a change in the electrical supplyto other lamps. In some instances, morethan just the faulty lamp may be lost. Forexample, when one lamp burns out in asequence of fluorescent ballasts, all lampsgo out.

Relamping and CleaningPeriodic planned group relamping andcleaning will reduce the effect of lamplumen depreciation and prevent manyburnouts, thereby improving and maintain-ing illuminance levels. Group relamping iswhen all the lamps are changed out at onetime, based on a statistical average of whenburnouts will become so numerous as torender spot replacements uneconomical. Arelamping plan should include proceduresto:

• reduce burnouts to save time and moneyin spot burnout replacement

• install lower-wattage lamps when appro-priate to reduce energy use

• clean luminaires and room surfaces toprovide more delivered light perluminaire.

The relamping and cleaning schedule shouldbe in accordance with the lighting systemdesigner’s plans. If intervals betweenoperations are too long, excessive loss oflight results. If intervals are too short,labor, equipment, and lamps are wasted.

Lighting systems are becoming more com-plex, resulting in increased labor and equip-ment requirements for relamping and clean-ing. It is impractical to purchase or usespecialized equipment and specially trainedpersonnel to clean a small number of lumi-naires. As the number of luminaires in-creases, the value of using specializedequipment and employee training alsoincreases. An analysis of labor rates, lamplife, access to spaces, location of lamps, andlamp and energy costs can help determinethe best approach for replacing and cleaninglamps.

The sequence of maintenance steps willvary with luminaire type and location. Forexample, one person with a ladder, sponge,and pail can maintain open strip units tenfeet from the floor. On the other hand, asizeable crew with an elaborate scaffoldingassembly may be required to maintain atransilluminated ceiling 30␣ feet above thefloor. The following procedure outlines thesequence of steps for a typical two-personteam:

• Remove shielding material and lamps.One person use a ladder to remove lou-vers or plastic/glass panels and lampsfrom the luminaire and hand them to theperson on the floor.

• Make luminaire shock-free. Turn offelectrical circuit or cover sockets (e.g.,with tape, dummy lamp bases) to preventshock when working around electricsockets.

• Clean basic unit. If required, firstremove heavy deposits of dirt from topsurfaces of channel, reflector, etc., byvacuuming, wiping, or brushing. Thenwash the entire unit with a suitable solu-tion, using brushes, sponges, or cloths,and rinse to remove any residue.

• Clean shielding material and lamps.While the person on the ladder cleans theunit, the person at the floor takes theshielding material and lamps to a cleaningstation or cleans them at the ladder.Allow plastic materials to drip dry afterrinsing or damp dry with toweling orsome other material. Dry-wiping cancause the formation of electrostaticcharges. Dry-wipe new lamps beforeinstallation.

• Replace lamps and shieldingmaterial. After cleaning the unit, installclean shielding and new or cleaned lamps.Incandescent and high-intensity dischargeluminaires usually do not require as manycleaning steps as fluorescent units; usethis method to clean all lighting equip-ment.

Appropriate Cleaning CompoundsAppropriate cleaning compounds, whenproperly used, save time and money. Thetypes of cleaners appropriate for the mostcommon luminaire finishes are as follows:

• Aluminum. Very mild soaps andcleaners do not harm an aluminum finishif the surface is thoroughly rinsed withclean water immediately after cleaning.Never use strong alkaline cleaners on analuminum finish.

• Porcelain Enamel. Nonabrasivecleaners will not affect a porcelain finish.Detergents and most automobile and glasscleaners do a good job under averageconditions.

• Synthetic Enamel. Detergents do notharm synthetic enamel finishes. How-ever, some strong cleaners may harm asynthetic finish, particularly when theenamel is left to soak in the solution.Never use alcohol or abrasive cleaners ona synthetic enamel finish.

• Glass. Nonabrasive cleaners and mostdetergents generally do not harm glass.Dry cleaners are usually preferred onclear glass panels, but not on etched orsandblasted surfaces.

• Plastics. Dust is often attracted by astatic charge developing on plastic. Mostcommon detergents do not provide per-manent antistatic protection. In mostareas, however, cleaning plastic at leasttwice a year with a detergent usuallyreduces static dirt. Destaticizers areavailable that remove static dirt morepermanently than common detergents.Never wipe plastic dry after applying arinse solution.

Maintaining and Repairing LightingComponentsLighting maintenance includes repairs tolighting components. While the operationof fluorescent and high-intensity discharge

lamps is more complex than incandescentfilament lamps, problems can generally bediagnosed and corrected quickly with simpletest equipment.

Preheat-Starting Fluorescent LampCircuits• Ensure lamps can be used on preheat

circuits. Use only lamp types marked onballast labels.

• Check luminaire wiring for incorrectconnections, loose connections, or brokenwires.

• Check ballast to see if the label agreeswith the application in terms of tempera-ture limitations and lamps that can beused. Replace ballast if it is faulty ordoes not fit applications requirements.

• Replace deactivated lamps as quickly aspossible. Blinking lamps cause abnormalcurrents to flow in the ballast, causingballast heating and thereby reducingballast life. Blinking lamps will alsoreduce starter life.

• Do not use energy-saving 30- and 40-watt, rapid-start lamps on preheat startingfluorescent circuits; replace with standardlamps.

Rapid-Starting Fluorescent LampCircuits• If a lamp requires 5 to 6 seconds to start,

one cathode is probably not receiving thecathode heating current. Excessive dark-ening of the end not receiving cathodeheat usually occurs after a short period ofoperation. Check heater voltages afterremoving lamps. To check voltage, use atester that has a flashlight lamp mountedon a fluorescent lamp base. If you use avoltmeter, insert a 10-ohm, 10-wattresistor in parallel with the meter. Themeter should measure at least 3 volts. Ifproper voltage is available, check for poorcontact between lamp-holder and basepins or contacts on the lamp. If no volt-

age is measured, check for an open circuit(poor or improper connections, broken orgrounded wires, open heater circuit on theballast). Check for proper spacing oflampholders.

• If one lamp is out and the other lamp isoperating at low brightness or if bothlamps are out, only one lamp may bedeactivated.

• Determine input voltage to the ballast andreplace the ballast if wrong or no voltageis supplied to the lamps.

• Replace deactivated lamps as quickly aspossible. The 800␣ mA and 1500 mAlamps require both heater current andoperating current for proper operation. Ifeither current is missing, poor starting orshort 2-lamp life will result. In the lampseries circuit, one lamp can fail and thesecond lamp will operate at reducedcurrent. This condition will reduce thelife of the second lamp.

• Keep lamps reasonably clean. The bulbsof all rapid-start lamps are coated withsilicone to provide reliable starting inhigh humidity. Dirt can collect on thelamp surface that may absorb moisture inhigh-humidity atmospheres, which couldnullify the silicone coating and preventstarting or cause erratic starting.

Instant-Starting Fluorescent LampCircuits• Check lampholders for broken or burned

contacts or discolored plastic in theholders, indicating high temperature.

• Measuring ballast voltages in theluminaire is difficult because the primarycircuit of the ballast is automaticallydisconnected when a lamp is removed.

• Replace deactivated lamps as soon aspossible. In the 2-lamp series circuit, onelamp can fail and the second lamp willoperate at low brightness. This conditionreduces the life of the second lamp andcauses an abnormal current to flow in the

ballast, raising ballast heating and reduc-ing ballast life.

Incandescent Lamps• Ensure lamp ratings correspond with

actual circuit operating conditions. Over-voltage or over-current operation mayshorten lamp life drastically. For ex-ample, a 120-volt lamp operated on a125-volt circuit suffers a 40 percent lossin life.

• Use vibration service or rough-servicelamps under shock and vibration condi-tions. Using general service lamps underthese conditions results in short lamp life.

• Use only lamps designed for theluminaire. Violent lamp failure may resultif any metal part of a luminaire comes incontact with a hot lamp.

• Do not use a wet cloth to clean a hot lampbecause violent lamp failure may occur.

• Use a clean cloth or tissue to handletungsten-halogen lamps to avoid placingfingerprints on the bulb. Fingerprintsmay cause bulb discoloration and a subse-quent reduction in light output. Followlamp manufacturer instructions on thecarton of each lamp.

High-Intensity Discharge Lamps(Mercury, Self-Ballasted Mercury, MetalHalide, High- and Low-Pressure Sodium)

Caution: Always follow lamp manufac-turer recommendations for allowed use ofmetal halide lamps in open or enclosedluminaires.

Caution: To prevent electric shock, alwaysturn power off before removing or installinglamps, especially when removing lamps thatmay have cracked or broken outer enve-lopes. Unless power is turned off, theexposed metal parts of the internal lampstructure will be connected and touchingthem may cause an electric shock.

• Check ballast nameplate. Make sure thatballast and lamp designations match.

• Check supply circuit wiring for opencircuit or incorrect connections.

• Replace ballast if no output voltage canbe obtained and line voltage is properlyconnected to ballast input terminals.

• If a lamp fails prematurely or if lampscontinue to fail prematurely in a similarfailure mode in the same luminaire, checkfor the following:

a) lamp breakage - Outer envelopecracks or breakage will allow air to enterthe lamp and cause arc tube seal failure.Cracks or breakage can be caused byrough handling, contact with metal sur-faces, a bulb changer or metal parts of theluminaire, or water droplets falling on anoperating lamp.

b) black or swollen arc tubes - Exces-sively black or swollen arc tubes mayindicate excessive lamp current and over-wattage operation or the ballast may havefailed due to a component failure, such asa capacitor or sorted core wiring.

• If tapped ballasts are used, ensure the tapmatches the supply voltage to which theballast tap is connected. Connecting agiven line voltage to a higher marked tapwill give low-light output due to under-wattage operation. Connecting a givenline voltage to a lower marked tap willcause poor lumen maintenance and shortlife due to over-wattage operation.

• Ensure the line voltage is reasonably freeof voltage fluctuations. A variety ofballast types are available that provide adesired percentage lamp wattage regula-tion with respect to percentage line volt-age variation.

• Ensure electrical characteristics of lampand ballast combinations match by fol-lowing the system of lamp and ballastdesignations developed by the lamp

industry and ANSI. Incorrect lamp andballast matching may result in short lifeand equipment damage.

• Handle lamps carefully. Rough handlingcan cause scratches or cracks in outerglass envelopes resulting in short lamplife and possible injury.

• Self-ballasted mercury lamps are rated byvoltage and should be used in installa-tions in which available socket voltagescorrespond to the allowed voltage rangerecommended by the manufacturer for theparticular lamp.

• Ensure starting temperature limits forself-ballasted mercury lamps published bythe manufacturers are carefully followed.Because these lamps operate directlyfrom the available line voltage, no “step-up” voltage can be introduced unlikemercury, metal halide, and high-pressuresodium lamps where ballasts must beused and step-up transformers can beincorporated.

• Because self-ballasted mercury lamps willprobably be replaced into existingincandescent sockets, lamps will beinstalled in old luminaires. Ensure socketrating is not exceeded and water fallingon bulb is prevented. Follow manufactur-ers’ recommendations for indoor andoutdoor burning positions in open andclosed luminaires.

• Many metal halide lamps are to be usedonly in identified operating positions.Short life and improper light and coloroutput will result if lamps are not used intheir recommended burning positions.

• Metal halide lamps may have a shortdelay between the time the circuit isenergized and the lamp starts.

• Metal halide lamps generally have aslight source color shift from lamp tolamp. These lamps may have to burn oneto two days before lamp color will stabi-lize.

• Only operate metal halide lamps in al-lowed operating positions.

• Excessive discoloration of the arc tube ofhigh-pressure sodium lamps or a metallicdeposit on the inside walls of the outerenvelope may indicate over-wattageoperation.

• An igniter is required to start high-pres-sure sodium lamps. If several lamps donot start, determine if the igniter orballast or perhaps both are defective.First, ensure the proper line voltage isconnected correctly to the ballast input.Obtain a ballast tester from a ballastmanufacturer and follow instructions onthe tester to determine the defect.

• High-pressure sodium lamps have avacuum in the space between the ceramicarc tube and the outer envelope. Handlethese lamps carefully because vacuumlamps make a loud noise if dropped andthe glass breaks.

• If low-pressure sodium lamps fail prema-turely, check for the following:

a) lamp breakage - Check lamps forcracks or scratches in the outer bulb,which can be caused by rough handling,contact with metal surfaces in bulbchanger or luminaire, or moisture fallingon over heated bulb.

b) excessive current - Check if ballast isshorted. Check for possible voltagesurges or transients on the supply line.

Appendix A: References

The Federal Energy Management Pro-gram (FEMP) provides lighting relatedinformation to Federal Energy Managersthrough publications such as this FederalLighting Guide, and in certain instancesprovides technical assistance on a project-by-project basis. Products include:

• Federal Lighting Guide, includingEnergy Effective Lighting Recommen-dations

• Master Specification for Lighting(for projects with a subcontractedlighting designer)

• Delivery Order Lighting Require-ments (under review)

• Lighting Design Services SolicitationLanguage

• Product Energy Efficiency Recom-mendations, Lighting Products (underFederal Procurement on the web site)

For additional information, contact

U.S. Department of EnergyOffice of Energy Efficiency and

Renewable EnergyFederal Energy Management Program,

EE-901000 Independence Avenue, SWWashington DC 20585-0121FEMP Help desk: (800) DOE-ERECFEMP Help desk fax: (703) 893-0400FEMP HQ fax: (202) 586-3000http://www.eren.doe.gov/femp

The National Lighting Product Informa-tion Program publishes a series of Speci-fier Reports, Lighting Answers bulletins,and guides on lighting products and issuesincluding

Specifier Reports:

• Electronic Ballasts• Screwbase Compact Fluorescent

Lamp Products

• CFL Downlights• Specular Reflectors• Occupancy Sensors• Reflector Lamps• Exit Signs

Lighting Answers:

• T8 Fluorescent Lamps• Multilayer Polarizing Panels• Task Lighting for Offices• Dimming Systems for HID Lamps• EMI Involving Fluorescent Lighting

Systems Power Quality• Thermal Effects in 2 ft. x4 ft. Fluores-

cent Lighting Systems• Controlling Lighting With Building

Automation Systems

Guides:

• Fluorescent Lamp-BallastCompatibility

• Specifying High-Frequency Elec-tronic Ballasts

To order these publications, contact

Lighting Research CenterRensselaer Polytechnic InstituteTroy, NY 12180-350(518) 276-2999 Fax

The Illuminating Engineering Society ofNorth America (IESNA) produces a widerange of lighting information and trainingmaterials including handbooks, references,specifications, test and measurement guides,design guides, and practices and standardsfor both members and nonmembers. Foradditional information, contact:

IESNA120 Wall StreetNew York, NY 10005-4001(212) 248-5000

The Association of Energy Engineers(AEE) offers many energy-related books.Several of the following books deal specifi-cally with lighting.

Applied Illumination Engineering, 2ndEdition - This comprehensive referenceprovides a practical, fully illustrated guideto the design specification and applicationof state-of-the-art lighting from the funda-mentals of illumination to hands-on applica-tion.

Energy Effective Industrial IlluminatingSystems - This reference provides guidanceto engineers and managers involved inimproving lighting system performance andreducing lighting-related energyconsumption in any type of manufacturingor industrial workspace.

Lighting Management Handbook - Thisstraightforward, nontechnical handbookcontains a complete spectrum of lightingmanagement strategies for efficiency. Thishandbook is ideal for building owners andmanagers, facility managers, or anyoneconcerned with reducing lighting costs.

Lighting Efficiency Applications, 2nd Edi-tion - This publication provides guidance ondesigning, specifying, and applying lightingsystems that can potentially reduce buildingoperating costs by as much as 50% com-pared to traditional or outdated systems.For more information, contact

The Association of Energy Engineers4025 Pleasantdale Road, Suite 420Atlanta, GA 30340

The International Association for Energy-Efficient Lighting (IAEEL) publishes afree newsletter quarterly on internationallighting issues. For more information,contact:

NUTEK /EFFS-117 86 Stockholm , Sweden+46 8 681 9100 Phone+46 8 681 9585 Faxhttp://eff.nutek.se/iaeel/iaeel.html

Lighting-Related Organizations

The Lighting Research Center (LRC) isthe largest university-based research and

educational institution dedicated to lightingwith heavy emphasis on research. LRCoffers lighting education courses, performsresearch, and publishes lighting-relatedinformation. For information, contact

Lighting Research CenterRensselaer Polytechnic InstituteTroy, NY 12180-350(518) 276-2999 Faxwww.rpi.edu/dept/lrc/LRC.html

The International Association of LightingDesigners (IALD) is a lighting designprofessional association dedicated to theadvancement of lighting excellence in thebuilding environment. The IALD serves theinterests of professional lighting designersand communicates the benefits of designedlighting. For more information, contact

International Association of LightingDesigners1133 Broadway, Suite 520New York, NY 10010-7903(212) 206-1281(212) 206-1327 Faxwww.iald.org

IESNA is a professional lighting societywhose mission is to advance knowledge andto disseminate information for improvingthe lighted environment. Additional infor-mation can be obtained at

IESNA120 Wall StreetNew York, NY 10005-4001(212) 248-5000www.iesna.org

The Lighting Design Lab is a workingresource center combining the art of lightingand the science of energy efficiency. Thelab is designed to meet the needs of com-mercial lighting designers, specifiers, archi-tects, engineers, contractors, facility manag-ers, and others interested in the latest, mostefficient lighting applications. The lab has aflexible format to meet your needs, sched-ule, and interests.

Lab facilities are available free of charge to

any lighting designers working oncommercial lighting projects. Makeappointments to use the mock-up room anddaylighting lab as far in advance aspossible. Shorter notice is required toconsult with staff, to use the resource libraryor computer lab, or simply to visit the lab.For more information, contact:

Lighting Design Lab400 E. Pine St., Suite 100Seattle, WA 98122(206) 325-9711(800) 345-38864 in WA, OR, ID,␣ BC

The EPRI Lighting Research Office has acomprehensive research agenda and numer-ous research projects underway that are ofsignificant relevance to the lighting commu-nity. For a packet of information on LROplease contact:

Al GoughEPRI Lighting Research Office(704) 692-7388(704) 692-6820, faxwww.epri.com

EPA Green Lights is now part of the EPAEnergy Star Buildings Program. Its goalis to promote energy-efficient lightingthroughout the commercial sector. For moreinformation, contact:

EPA Green Lights (6202J)401 M Street, SWWashington, DC 20460(202) 775-6650www.epa.gov/energystar.html

The Energy Technology Resource Center(ETRC) is a Tampa Electric Companyfacility with the goal of bringing energy-efficient technologies to Florida’s busi-nesses. ETRC is a showcase and interactivedemonstration center for existing andemerging technologies. It is a resource forwest central Florida-area businesses,schools, and other institutions, as well asorganizations considering relocation to thearea. For more information, see the ETRCweb site at http://www.teco.net/etrc/ETLighting.html.

Appendix B: Training andCertification Programs

Training ProgramsMany training programs on lighting effi-ciency and project implementation areavailable to help Federal facility managerssuccessfully complete lighting projects.FEMP maintains a locator for energy effi-ciency training that includes lighting-relatedcourses, seminars, and workshops. Foradditional information, contact FEMP at1-800-DOE-EREC or on the FEMP web siteat http://www.eren.doe.gov/femp underTechnical Assistance. A partial listing oflighting-related training offered throughvarious agencies, schools, and organizationsare summarized below.

FEMP offers a distance-based learningcourse entitled, “Basic Lighting Training.”This course is an excellent way to becomefully prepared to manage Federal lightingprojects. A new and up-to-date course, thetraining is delivered to your desktop viaemail and only requires a few hours perweek to complete at times which areconvienient to each registrant.

The course covers 1) technical lightingknowledge and design, 2)␣ procedural as-pects of lighting efficiency projects, 3)ESPCs and evaluation of delivery orders,and 4) a life-cycle cost analysis. For addi-tional information, contact:

U.S. Department of EnergyOffice of Energy Efficiency and

Renewable EnergyFederal Energy Management Program,

EE-901000 Independence Avenue, SWWashington DC 20585-0121FEMP Help Desk: (800)DOE-ERECFEMP Help Desk Fax: (703) 893-0400FEMP HQ Fax: (202) 586-3000Home Page: http://www.eren.doe.gov/femp

The University of Wisconsin at Madisonoffers a course entitled, “Basic LightingDesign.” For additional information, con-tact:

Department of EngineeringProfessional Development432 North Lake StreetMadison, WI 53791-8898(800) 462-0876(800) 442-4214 FaxCourse ID 329

The Electric Power Research Instituteoffers a course entitled, “Commercial Light-ing Training.” For more information, con-tact:

EPRI HVAC+R Center150 East Gilman Street, Suite 2200Madison, WI 53703(800) 858-6209(608) 262-6209 FaxAvailable on an as-needed basis.

The North Carolina State Universityoffers a course entitled, “Energy Savings InCost-Effective Lighting.” For moreinformation, contact:

Industrial Extension ServicesCollege of EngineeringBox 7902Raleigh, NC 27695-7902(919) 515-5438(919) 515-6159 Fax

The Lighting Research Center (LRC) isthe world’s largest university-based researchand educational institution dedicated tolighting with heavy emphasis on research.LRC offers a 48-credit, two-year curriculumleading to a Master of Science in Lightingdegree. Courses are offered in lightingtechnology, lighting design, optics, researchmethods, human factors, and the humanvisual system. For additional information,contact:

Lighting Research CenterSchool of Architecture, RPI877 25th Street, Room 2215Watervliet, NY 12189phone (518) 276-8717fax (518) 276-4835http://www.lrc.rpi.edu

The Illuminating Engineering Society ofNorth America (IESNA) is an organizationof lighting professionals. IESNA offers awide range of lighting information andtraining materials for both members andnonmembers. For more information, con-tact:

Illuminating Engineering Society ofNorth America120 Wall StreetNew York, NY 10005-4001(212) 248-5000http://www.iesna.org

The Lighting Design Lab is a lightingresource designed to meet the needs ofcommercial lighting designers, specifiers,architects, engineers, contractors, facilitiesmanagers, and others interested in the latest,most efficient lighting applications. The laboffers a wide range of lighting classes, mostof which are offered at no charge. Classestypically offered during the year include:

• Lighting Audit and Survey Training• Retail Lighting Workshop• Utility Programs Update• Multifamily Exterior Lighting Workshop• Dimming Ballast PKD • Residential Light Sources

For more information, contact:

Lighting Design Lab400 E. Pine Street, Suite 100Seattle, WA 98122(800) 354-3864http://www.light-link.com/ldl/

The Association of Energy Engineers(AEE) offers a variety of seminars andtraining courses and maintains the CertifiedLighting Efficiency Professional (CLEP)certification program (see below).

In addition to their certification preparatorycourse, AEE also offers the followingcourses and seminars:

• Effective Lighting Retrofit Solutions• Energy Auditing: Improving Efficiency

in Existing Facilities• Energy Accounting: Practical Tools for

Managing Energy Information• Performance Contracting for Energy and

Environmental Systems• Energy Management in Federal, State,

and Local Government Buildings• Industrial Energy Conservation: Strate-

gies That Work• Measurement and Verification for Perfor-

mance Contracts

For further information contact:

The Association of Energy Engineers4025 Pleasantdale Road, Suite 420Registrar, AEE Energy SeminarsP.O. Box 1026, Department 339Lilburn, GA 30226(770) 925-9533(770) 381-9865 FaxAtlanta, GA 30340http://www.aeecenter.org

The EPA Green Lights program is now partof the EPA Energy Star Buildings pro-gram. As part of their educational work-shops on buildings, they do cover lighting.For additional information and registration,contact:

EPA Green Lights (6202J)401 M Street, SWWashington, DC 20460(202) 775-6650http://www.epa.gov/greenlights.html/

Several lighting companies, offer trainingcourses for staff and the public. Althoughthese courses may include manufacturer-specific product references, they can alsoprovide valuable generic lighting informa-tion and expertise. This is by no means acomprehensive list; additional surfing isencouraged. For more information, contact:

General Electric Lighting Institutehttp://www.ge.com/lighting/gel.htm

Hubbell Lighting, Inc.(504) 381-2580(504) 382-1526 Fax

Lightpoint, Sylvania Lightingwww.sylvania.com

Lithonia Lighting Centerhttp://www.lithonia.com/train00.htm

Philips Energy Centerwww.lighting.philips.com

Thomas Lighting Idea Center(213) 724-4392 Fax

Certification ProgramsThe National Council for Qualifying theLighting Professions (NCQLP) is anonprofit organization founded in 1992 andsponsored by major lighting societies andorganizations, government agencies, andother industry trade groups.

FEMP holds a seat on the NCQLP board andis supportive of this broad-based effort. TheLC credential will help Federal EnergyManagers identify qualified lightingprofessionals when it is appropriate to seekadditional subcontractor services.

Through a peer-review process, the NCQLPestablishes the education, experience, andexamination requirements for certificationin the lighting industry.

Those who pass the NCQLP Lighting Certi-fication Examination will have demon-strated an understanding of basic lightingprinciples and their application and will beentitled to use the appellation LC (LightingCertified) after their name. Lighting asso-ciations will offer preparation reviewcourses in early fall. For a listing ofcourses, contact:

National Council for Qualifying theLighting Professions4401 East-West Highway, Suite 305Bethesda, MD 20814phone (301) 654-2121fax (301) 654-4273info@ncqlp.org

The Association for Energy Engineersmaintains the Certified Lighting EfficiencyProfessional (CLEP) certification program.The CLEP was developed to identify spe-cialists in lighting efficiency. This programis recognized as meeting the certificationrequirements of the EPA Green LightsLighting Management Company Ally Pro-gram. A 2-day seminar is available toprepare for the exam, entitled “Fundamen-tals of Lighting Efficiency - A PreparatoryCourse for the CLEP Examination.” Thiscourse is designed to prepare professionalsto take the CLEP exam and serves as abroad-based instructional program to “brushup on the basics” of efficient lighting de-sign, retrofit, and application. For furtherinformation on certification see AEE contactinformation, above.

Appendix C: LightingAnalysis and Design Tools

Many lighting analysis and design softwaretools are available both from FEMP andcommercial or non-FEMP sources. A listfollows with brief descriptions of eachproduct.

FEMP ToolsThe following tools are available freethrough FEMP for use by Federal facilitymanagers in evaluating and assessing poten-tial energy projects. The tools comparepotential energy conservation measures byperforming complex energy consumptionanalyses and modeling, as well as compara-tive life-cycle costing analyses. They aredesigned to help project designers choosethe most cost-effective and environmentallyfriendly conservation measures.

For additional information on these toolsand others, as well as downloadable pro-gram files, see the FEMP web site at http://www.eren.doe.gov/femp under TechnicalAssistance.

Building Life-Cycle Cost (BLCC) is themain program in a set of five NationalInstitute of Standards and Technology(NIST) computer programs that providecomputational support for analyzing capitalinvestments in buildings. BLCC conductseconomic analyses by evaluating the rela-tive cost effectiveness of alternative build-ings and building-related systems or compo-nents. BLCC compares the life-cycle costsof two or more alternatives to determinewhich has the lowest life-cycle cost and istherefore more economical. BLCC calcu-lates comparative economic measuresincluding net savings, savings-to-investmentratio, adjusted internal rate of return, andyears to payback.

Quick BLCC provides a convenient way toset up and solve relatively simple life-cycle

costing problems. Quick BLCC can generateinput data files for a full BLCC analysis if amore detailed analysis is required.

EMISS is a special-purpose computerprogram to assess CO2, SO2, and NOxemissions related to energy usage in build-ings. BLCC can access the resulting datafiles to calculate reductions in air pollutionemissions from energy conservation invest-ments in buildings and building systems.BLCC does not place an explicit dollarvalue on these reduced emissions, but theadditional information on emission reduc-tions may help in selecting alternativebuilding systems.

ERATES (Electricity Rates) is used tocalculate the monthly and annual electricitycosts for a facility, building, or systemunder a wide range of electric utility rateschedules. ERATES is intended to providemore accurate estimates of annual electricitycosts (or savings) for specific design andoperating conditions than can be calculatedusing average unit rates (e.g., $0.07/kWh)and annual kWh usage data.

The Facility Energy Decision System(FEDS) is a comprehensive fuel-neutral,technology-independent, integrated (energy)resource planning approach. For example,when considering a lighting retrofit, themodel evaluates the change in energy con-sumption in all building energy systemsrather than just the change in lighting en-ergy. In determining the optimal retrofit foreach technology, the interactions at theinstallation level are considered bydetermining the impact on the installation’selectric energy and demand cost, as well asthe interactive effects among end-uses.

Commercial and Non-FEMP ToolsThe following analysis and design tools areavailable commercially or through othernon-FEMP sources. These products aretypically used at more advanced stages ofdesign by design professionals or users withsome lighting design knowledge.

EnLightN Lighting Software is a decision-making tool that can run multiple scenarioswith unlimited options. System require-ments are IBM Compatible; 640 K; HardDisk; VGA; DOS 3.1 or higher. The cost is$495 and can be ordered:

United Energy Associates, Inc.140 North Orlando Avenue, Suite #150Winter Park, FL 32789(407) 740-0178(407) 740-0169 Fax

AGI (Advanced Graphical Interface) forLighting is a 3-D graphical software pro-gram capable of computing point-by-pointilluminance (and more) for both interior andexterior environments using a single inter-face and command structure. Interiorenvironments can be complex includingrooms of any shape, partitions, and slopedceilings. AGI also imports and exportsCAD files in DXF format for easy dataexchange with your project drawings. AGIis designed to model demanding lightingprojects. Contact AGI by E-mail atinfo@Lighting Analysts.com.

Superlite 2.0 is a DOS-based lightinganalysis program designed to accuratelypredict interior illuminance in complexbuilding spaces from daylight and electriclighting systems. It enables the user tomodel interior daylight levels for any sunand sky condition in spaces having win-dows, skylights, or other standard fenestra-tion systems. An Intel-compatible 80 x 87math coprocessor is required for programexecution. Minimum RAM is 600␣ KB.This software can be downloaded from theweb at http://eande.lbl.gov//btp/superlite2.html.

RADIANCE is a suite of programs foranalyzing and visualizing lighting design.Input files specify the scene geometry,materials, luminaires, time, date, and skyconditions (for daylight calculations).Calculated values include spectral radiance(i.e., luminance + color), irradiance (illumi-nance + color), and glare indices. Simula-tion results may be displayed as colorimages, numerical values, or contour plots.

RADIANCE is used by architects and engi-neers to predict illumination, visual quality,and appearance of innovative design spacesand by researchers to evaluate new lightingand daylighting technologies. RADIANCE isUNIX software and can be downloaded fromthe web at: http://radsite.lbl.gov/radiance/radiance_short.html.

ADELINE 2.0 is an integrated lightingdesign computer tool developed by an inter-national research team within the frameworkof the International Energy Agency (IEA)Solar Heating and Cooling Program. Itprovides architects and engineers with accu-rate information about the behavior andperformance of indoor-lighting systems.Both natural and electrical lighting problemscan be solved in simple rooms or the mostcomplex spaces. ADELINE produces inno-vative and reliable lighting design results byprocessing a variety of data including geo-metric, photometric, climatic, optic, andhuman response to perform light simulationsand to produce comprehensive numeric andgraphic information. ADELINE 2.0 can beordered on-line at http://radsite.lbl.gov/adeline/HOME/html

Lumen Micro is a 16-bit or 32-bit applica-tion for the Microsoft Windows environment.It is a flexible indoor and outdoor lightingdesign, specification, and analysis tool thatanalyzes everything from simple zonal cavitycalculations, to point-by-point footcandleanalyses, to complex architectural spacerenderings. Lumen Micro incorporatesdaylighting, wall and ceiling exitances,partitions, and object shadowing to providethe most accurate calculational data. LumenMicro can be used to design and analyzeboth indoor and outdoor projects and pro-vides complete CAD functionality. Addi-tional details and ordering information isavailable on the web at http://www.lighting-technologies.com

Appendix D

ENERGY-EFFECTIVELIGHTING:An Executive Summary of theLinks Between Lighting,Productivity, and Well-Being

By Judith H. Heerwagen, Ph.D.Staff ScientistPacific Northwest National Laboratory

WHAT IS ENERGY-EFFECTIVELIGHTING?Energy-effective lighting is light that notonly helps us to see, but also provides ourwork environments with a sense of pleasureand psychological warmth – and does so inan energy-efficient way.

High quality, energy-effective lighting has anumber of general characteristics,including1 :

• Eliminates distractions. High quality,energy-effective light eliminates problemswith glare, shadows or excessive andannoying brightness. It allows people towork without constantly having to moveto a better viewing angle.

• Creates visual interest and a sense ofplace. High quality, energy-effectivelighting contributes to an aestheticallypleasing environment. This aspect oflighting is not a mere frill. There isevidence that the aesthetic appearancecreated by light has a special role in howpeople feel about their workenvironments and how they feel aboutcoming to work every day.2 Having anenvironment that looks nice makes peoplefeel good, and feeling good contributes tomotivation and work satisfaction.

• Supports interactions andcommunication. Lighting can have anegative effect on social interactions andjudgments if the light distorts facialfeatures. High quality, energy-effectivelighting helps us “read” people’s facialexpressions, thereby providing a bettercontext for communication and socialinteractions. It can also serve as abehavioral guide through variation inlighting levels.

• Contributes to well being and reduceshealth problems. High quality, energy-effective lighting reduces problemsassociated with poor lighting (headaches,muscular-skeletal strain, discomfort). Itmay also contribute positively to healthand well-being by enhancing mood andmotivation.

Unfortunately, many of us do not havequality light in our environments. Sure, wecan see our computers and read writtenmaterials. But we often have to squintbecause we can’t see all that well, or we getinto all sorts of awkward positions to avoidseeing the overhead light inthe computer screen. And while thiswiggling and body adjusting may get rid ofthe reflections, it also can give us headachesand neck aches, not to mention put us in abad mood.

Many common lighting installations inoffice settings inadvertently create a cave-like effect that make spaces look dim andgloomy at the periphery, even when there isenough light over the work surface. Thishappens because lighting installationsfrequently neglect the vertical spaces, suchas walls or the exterior of partitions. Thus,

1 Veitch, J. and Newsham, G. 1995. “QuantifyingLighting Quality Based on Experimental Investigations ofEnd User Performance and Preference.” Paper presentedat the 3rd European Conference on Energy-efficientLighting, Newcastle-upon-Tyne, U.K., June 1995.2 Heerwagen, J. et al, 1996. “A Tale of Two Buildings:

Biophilia and the Benefits of Green Design”. Paperpresented at the U.S. Green Buildings CouncilConference, San Diego, CA, Nov. 17-20.

as we move about the office environment, itfeels gloomy because the walls are moredimly lighted than the work surfaces.

Who cares about quality lighting?Who cares about the quality of lighting?The American workforce does. In anationwide study for Steelcase, Inc., pollsterLou Harris found that 80% of the workersquestioned said lighting affects theirperformance, and that having good lightingwas important to them3 . Another studycommissioned by Fortune Marketing foundthat corporate facility executives care also:87% of the facilities execs believe that ahigh quality work environment increasesworker productivity, morale, and safety.Furthermore, 93% believed that improvedlighting could enhance worker productivityby 10% or more.4

LIGHTING AND PRODUCTIVITY

What is Productivity?Before discussing links between lightingand productivity, it is useful to considerwhat productivity is and how it is measured.In the Industrial Age, productivity wasrelatively easy to measure. It was thenumber of widgets produced per unit of timeor cost. This definition worked well whenoutputs were easy to track and peopleworked in well-defined jobs. However, asthe unit of work becomes more informationand serviced based, productivity becomesincreasingly difficult to measure. In the neweconomy, customers value quality andservice as well as variety and continuity ofrelationships. In this new climate,productivity has shifted from an input/output model to a model based on addingvalue while reducing the costs of doingbusiness.5

How does lighting affect this new bottomline? Several routes are possible. Light canadd value by enhancing the quality of worklife for employees, by improving the qualityof products and services, by reducing

impediments to work, and by increasingwork efficiency. Light can also reduce coststhrough the use of energy-efficientequipment and by reducing health problemsthat may be associated with poor orinappropriate lighting.

Organizational Level Measures vs.Worker Level MeasuresIn looking for links between lighting qualityand productivity, it is important todistinguish between productivity measuredat the individual level (usually referred to ashuman performance, not productivity) andproductivity at the organizational level. Inassessing the productivity impacts oflighting, it is important to evaluate bothindividual and organizational leveloutcomes.

Organizational ProductivityThe potential measures of organizational“productivity” have expanded beyond theIndustrial input/output model to includecustomer satisfaction, innovation, quality ofproducts and services, timeliness ofdelivery, efficiency of resource use, andquality of work life. In addition, manyorganizations also track a number of moreindirect measures of overall productivitysuch as quality of work life, absenteeism,health care costs, ability to attract highquality workers, and turnover rates. For anygivenorganization, a suite of outcomes isnormally used to indicate overallperformance.6

3 The Office Environment Index, Detailed Findings,.1988. Prepared by Louis Harris and Associates, Inc. forSteelcase Inc., Grand Rapids, MI.4 Custom Research, Inc. 1996. Facilities and Real Estate

Strategies: Survey Findings. Commissioned for FortuneMarketing.5 Wise, J. 1997. “How Nature Nurtures: Buildings as

Habitats and Their Benefits for People.” HPAC, February,48-51.6 Aranoff, S. and Kaplan, A.G. 1995. Total Workplace

Performance. Ottawa, Canada: WDL Publications.

Worker PerformanceAt the individual level, performance iswidely viewed as a function of two factors:ability and motivation. Ability deals withwhether or not a person can do a task, whilemotivation is a measure of whether or not aperson wants to do it. Lighting canaffectperformance through its impacts onboth ability and motivation. The quality ofthe light influences whether a person cansee the task clearly (an ability issue) as wellas whether they feel inspired or interested intheir work (a motivation issue). Althoughthere is increasing interest in themotivational and psychological impacts oflighting, most of the research has centeredon task-related ability issues.

Performance measures generally focus onhow light affects the visibility of tasks or onperformance of the visual system itself. Thevast majority of work has taken place inlaboratory settings centered on experimentswith countable outcomes, such as rate ofwork, numbers of errors, and number ofreports/products completed in the specifiedtime period.

Researchers and designers are increasinglyinterested, however, in assessing a broaderrange of outcomes, particularly nonvisualeffects of light — such as the impact oflighting on motivation, mood, and teamwork. Although these outcomes are morechallenging to measure, many expertsbelieve that we will never have a full pictureof the human dimensions of lighting if thesepsychological and social processes areneglected.

How do We Know It’s the Lights, and NotSomething Else?One of the critical problems faced bylighting researchers is how to separate outthe effects of lighting from all of the otheroffice influences that surround us daily andaffect our work – such as temperatureconditions, noise, work load, corporatepolicies and culture.7

The Hawthorne EffectThe problem of extraneous influences is

known as the Hawthorne Effect. The termderives its name from a series of lightingstudies conducted by Elton Mayo at theHawthorne Plant of Western Electric from1927-1932.8 The studies were designed toassess the effect of environmentalconditions on worker productivity. Theresearchinvolved a small group of workers whomade telephone assemblies. For theresearch project, they were separated fromthe rest of the workers and studied in aspecial room that enabled researchers tochange the illumination levels and trackwork performance resulting from thelighting variations.

The results of these studies have puzzledresearchers for decades. No matter what thedirection of the illumination changes, workperformance continued to increase – evenwhen illumination reached levels that wasconsidered excessively bright or almost toodim to see. The researchers tested othermanipulations, such as changes in restbreaks and payment method, with similarresults. Productivity still increased.Finally, the researchers interviewed thewomen who attributed their continuouslyimproving performance to:

• being in a small group • being less supervised • the novelty of the situation • their own interest in the experiment • the attention they received from

management and the researchers.

The last three explanations are generallydescribed as the “Hawthorne Effect.”However, even 60 years after the studiespsychologists are still arguing over whatreally happened at the Hawthorne plant.

7 Baron, R.A. 1994. “The Physical Environment of WorkSettings: Effects on Task Performance, InterpersonalRelations, and Job Satisfaction.” Research inOrganizational Behavior, Vol. 16: 1-46.8 For a good overview, see S. Aronoff and A. Kaplan,

1995. Total Workplace Performance, Ottawa, Canada:WDL Publications.

Explanations range from havingperformance feedback to the synergy ofgroup process.

Impacts of the Hawthorne EffectWhatever the true cause of the results, theHawthorne research placed a significantdamper on studies of the office environmentin general, and lighting research inparticular. The results seemed to mean thatneither lighting nor other environmentalfactors could influence work productivity inany significant way. As long as workerscould see (however poorly), they could dotheir work. For decades to follow, theorganizational environment was viewed assuperior to the physical environment in itsinfluence on human functioning.

The Hawthorne studies have had farreaching effects, not only on environmentalresearch, but also on field studies in general.Because of the difficulty of sorting out themany influences on task performance in realsettings, researchers have shied away fromthe work world in favor of highly controlledlaboratory work. The best way to isolate theinfluence of any stimulus, including light, isto control all other conditions.

However, the laboratory approach has anumber of shortcomings. In most cases,research subjects carry out tasks only forshort periods of time. If the lightingenvironment has cumulative impacts oreffects that do not show up within theexperimental time period, then the researchwill not capture the full range of outcomes.Also, when people know they are in aresearch project, they tend to work harderand thus may skew results in a positive waythat is unlikely to occur in real worksituations. These problems can beovercome to a large extent throughsimulation experiments with temporaryworkers whose real tasks and work settingsare similar to the experimental one.

Even with the best experimental set ups,however, there are always nagging doubtsabout whether the same results would beattained in actual work environments. Thisis why it is important to conduct both field

studies and experiments. Field studies areuseful not only for a reality check, but forraising questions that can be studied in moredetail in the laboratory. However, in orderto provide satisfactory results, field workshould include, to the extent possible,measurement of other environmental factorsthat affect work performance (such as noise,air quality, temperature conditions, privacy,distractions) as well as assessments ofpertinent organizational policies and values.

The Office Environment and theRenewed Interest in ProductivityIn the last fifteen years researchers haveonce again turned their attentions to theoffice environment as a factor in workperformance. In the 1980’s interest in thephysical environment of work stemmed, inpart, from a growing national concern overdeclining productivity. Experts in a widerange of fields began to look at how to getthe nation over its productivity slump,especially in the rapidly growing area ofknowledge work which lagged far behindthat of manufacturing productivity. Personalcomputer technologies promised new waysof working and new tools to increase workeroutput, yet there was no indication that thiswas actually happening. Simultaneous withthe technological advances was growingevidence of widespread malaise amongoffice workers, as indicated by:9

• declining job satisfaction • worries about the health impacts of the

office environment, especially indoor airquality

• a backlash against the dehumanizingaspects of office automation

• increasing numbers of employee rightslawsuits concerning safety, privacy, workstress, and safety.

9 Brill, M., Margulis, S. and Konar, E. 1984. UsingOffice Design to Increase Productivity, Volume 1,Buffalo, NY: Workplace Design and Productivity, Inc. Seealso, Naisbitt, J., 1984. Megatrends. New York: WarnerBooks.

Within this milieu, designers andresearchers began to seriously questionwhether the Hawthorne studies provided atrue picture of the work environment,especially the high technology office of thefuture.10 The advent of computertechnology, more than any other factor, ledto a re-examination of the physical setting atwork. The computer created entirely newdemands on the social and physical milieuand, especially, on lighting design.

One of the first attempts to link the officeenvironment with productivity was theBOSTI study, headed by Michael Brill, inthe 1980s.11 The BOSTI research assessedboth the physical environment and workeroutcomes for approximately 6000workstations in 70 organizations. In thereport’s executive summary, the researchersconcluded that lighting quality affectsenvironmental satisfaction and jobsatisfaction, and that it “probably” affectsjob performance. It is important to note,however, that the BOSTI studies wereconducted before computers became astandard feature of office work. Theconclusions about the relationship betweenlight and performance may have beendifferent if the study were conducted intoday’s highly computerized workenvironment. Another shortcoming of theBOSTI work is the lack of objectiveperformance measures. Workers were askedto subjectively assess the impact of thephysical environment on their workperformance. Data from a recent studywhich compared subjective andobjective measures of performance showsthat people are not very good at assessinghow well they perform.12

Workplace Productivity: Looking towardthe 21st CenturyMore recent attempts to link the officeenvironment to productivity have taken abroader perspective, one that links facilitiesdecisions to business goals and missions.13

The thinking goes like this: new workplaceideas and technologies will succeed in themarketplace only if they lead, directly orindirectly, to outcomes that the business

world values. These include finances (taxbreaks and reduces operating expenses),improved worker output (both quality andquantity), improved products and services,or reduced costs of doing business. Thechallenge for energy-effective lighting isclear: companies will invest if new lightingtechnologies to the extent that a definitivelink can be made to business financialinterests. The remainder of this reportidentifies what is currently known aboutthese potential links.

Lighting and Work Performance: Whatdo we Know?The vast majority of research on lightinghas been conducted in laboratory settingsand has focused on the relationship betweenlighting conditions and performance onvisual tasks. Much less attention has beenpaid to the health and well-being aspects oflighting, nor has there been any significantresearch on the relationship betweenlighting and organizational level measuresof productivity and performance.Nonetheless, the existing research bodypoints to a strong, but complex, relationshipbetween lighting conditions and workperformance.

Decades of research, summarized in severalkey documents14 shows that the relationship

10 Dolden, M.E. and Ward, R. (Eds.) 1985. TheArchitectural Research Centers Consortium, Workshop onThe Impact of the Work Environment on Productivity,Washington, DC: American Institute of Architects.11 Brill, et al, 1984, Op cit.12 Veitch, J. and Newsham,G. 1997. Experimental

Investigation of Lighting Quality, Preferences, andControl Effects on Task Performance and EnergyEfficiency: Experiment 1 Primary Analysis. Ottawa,Canada: National Research Council of Canada..13 These observations are drawn from two workshops in

Washington, DC held in April 1998, one sponsored by theU.S. General Services Administration, the other by theNational Research Council. The workshops were attendedby representatives government agencies, private industry,the design professions, and academic researchers.14 See P. Boyce, 1981, The Human Factors of Lighting.

London: Applied Science Publishers, and Lighting andHuman Performance: A Review, a report sponsored by theNational Electrical Manufacturers Association and theLighting Research Institute, January 1989.

between lighting and performance is not asimple one. About the only generalizationpossible from decades for research is this:luminous conditions that are moreappropriate for the task at hand will promotehigher performance than conditions whichare inappropriate. Factors which determinethe degree of “appropriateness” include: thevisual demands of the task, the time spenton the task and the degree of urgency, theother physical features of the setting, andthe characteristics of the workers. Forexample:

• The visual emphasis of the task. Theimpact of lighting on work performancedepends to a large extent on the visualnature of the task – not only the degree ofvisual emphasis but its relativeimportance to the job. For instance,inspection of a wiring system in anairplane is not only a highly detailedvisual task, it is also extremely importantdue to the high cost of an error. On theother hand, assembling packets ofmaterials for a conference does notrequire the same detail of inspection, norare errors as costly. Thus, the lightinglevels, the distribution of light in the taskarea, and the color rending of the lightsource will be more critical to theairplane job than to the clerical task.

• Visual details of the task. In addition tothe visual emphasis of the task, a numberof other task features influence taskperformance. These include theimportance of color perception, thefineness of details that must be seen, thecontrast and size of the visual elements,whether the visual target is moving orstationary, whether the task is vertical orhorizontal. All are important factors indetermining the right lighting design, and,thus, the relationship between light andtask performance. A task that requiresreading and understanding small print onlow contrast background will require ahigher lighting level than a task withlarge print on a high contrast background.A job which requires viewing movingtargets on a vertically mounted computerscreen (such as in an air control tower or

emergency response center) will require adifferent lighting design than a job withintermittent computer use. At issue areconcerns about attentional focus, visualdiscrimination, alertness, and visualfatigue.

• The presence of distractions ordiscomforts. Poor lighting not onlyreduces the ability to see a task, it canalso create distractions that draw attentionaway from work. Lighting problemsinclude reflections on computer screensfrom ceiling lights or windows; shadowson the work surface; contrasts betweendifferent work surfaces (such as thecomputer screen and the work surface);and light that is either too dim or toobright for the task.

• The characteristics of the worker. Ingeneral, older workers generally are moresensitive to glare and require a higherlighting level to perceive the taskcorrectly. In addition, there seem to bestrong individual differences in preferredlight levels that may affect not only theability to see, but workers motivationallevels and psychological comfort in asetting.15 Both of these factors may haveeffects on work outcomes.

The complexity of the relationship betweenlighting and tasks clearly show that onelighting system will not be appropriate forall office environments. The characteristicsof the task, the context, and the workforcemust all enter into the design equation. Thecomplexity underscores the need for a task-based analytical approach carried out jointlyby lighting professionals, the workers, andorganizational decision makers.

Lighting and ComputersThe relationship between the task and officelighting has become more difficult and

15 Heerwagen, J. 1990. Affective Functioning, LightHunger, and Room Brightness Preferences.” Environmentand Behavior. 22(5):608-635.

complicated with the large-scaleintroduction of computers. This is due tochanges in the viewing environment. Withcomputers, the visual work surface isvertical rather than horizontal. Computerscreens are also self-luminous; thus, we donot need to light the screen in order to seevisual materials. In fact, light on the VDTscreen creates reflections and glare thatmake it more difficult to see clearly.

The computer also changes the relationshipto other task areas. For instance, if we areworking with both written and computermaterials, we need to be able to see both. Ifwe light the written materials, this ofteninterferes with the ability to see thecomputer screen. If we dim the light so thatwe can see the computer screen, then wecan’t read the written materials. Finding theright balance and the right lighting system isnot an easy task.

What matters most is the luminousconditions that are created, not the lightingsystem per se. The luminous conditions areaffected not only by the lighting system butalso by other environmental factors, such asthe reflectance of surfaces, the presence orabsence of windows, the color of the wallsand furnishings, and the placement of thelighting fixtures. The same lighting systemcan create very different luminousconditions in different settings. Thus it isdifficult to conclude on the basis of currentresearch that a particular lighting system isbetter for computer based work than othersystems. In some studies, recessed parabolicluminaires have been associated with higherperformance and environmental satisfaction,while in other studies indirect systems havebeen better.

The Psychological Aspects of Light: WhatDo We Know?As noted earlier, lighting can also affectwork performance and productivity throughits impacts on motivation and well-being.However, much less is known about thesefactors. In large part this stems from a belief

that “soft” outcomes are less relevant toperformance and less convincing to themarket place. The psychological impacts oflight are considered by many to be highlysubjective and tenuously connected toproductivity. Emerging work in two areas,however, suggests that psychological factorsmay be more important than realized.

The first line of evidence comes frommedicine. The discovery of wide rangingphysiological effects of light opened up awhole new area of research in the medicalprofessions. Researchers have found thatbright room lighting affects biologicalrhythms, sleep quality, and seasonalaffective functioning.16 Although theresearch in this area tends to be highlyspecialized and focused on winterdepression and night work, it shows thatlighting has profound effects on everydayfunctioning.

Researchers suspect that lighting alsoaffects our moods, motivation, and socialinteractions as well as our feelings ofsatisfaction and well-being at work.Although there is less data to support thesehypotheses, it is an active area of research.The attributes and features of light whichappear to influence psychologicalfunctioning include: the presence ofdaylight, overall room brightness,brightness on vertical surfaces in the field ofview, and some degree of variability in thelighting (visual interest) as long as it doesn’tproduce shadows or a feeling of gloominess.

Research has focused on three primarytopics: (1) lighting preferences and aestheticimpressions, (2) behavioral and emotionaloutcomes associated with different lightingconditions; and (3) health and well-beingoutcomes associated with light.

16 See, for instance, Czeiler, C. A. et al, 1990. “Exposure toBright Light and Darkness to Treat Physiologic Maladaptationto Night Work,” New England Journal of Medicine,322(18):1253-1259. Also, N.R. Rosenthal and M.C. Blehar(Eds.) 1989, Seasonal Affective Disorders and Phototherapy.New York: Guilford Press.

Lighting Preferences and AestheticJudgementsPersonal preferences and aestheticjudgements are important to workers’overall satisfaction with the lightingenvironment. Although satisfaction levelsmay not directly affect worker performance,a dissatisfied workforce can lead to morecomplaints, lowered morale, and increaseduse of personal lighting or other adaptivebehaviors.

Key findings from research on this topicshow that:

• Although most effort is given to lightingfor specific tasks, people’s judgements oflighting are determined primarily by theperceived brightness of the overall space– including the vertical enclosing surfacesas well as the horizontal work surface.High overall room brightness, particularlythe perceived brightness of verticalsurfaces, is associated with high levels ofworker satisfaction and high ratings ofenvironmental quality.17

• Nonuniform lighting with lightinghighlights on the walls (such as throughwall sconces) is highly preferred.18

• People’s preferences for lighting are alsohighly personalized and may be related toseasonal depression. People who showseasonal variation in moods and well-being adjust the lights to create a verybright visual environment, while otherschoose more dimly lighted conditions.19

• Even when illumination levels are withinrecommended ranges, workers frequentlyrate their workspaces as “too dim”. Thisappears to be due to the many otherfactors that influenced perceivedbrightness, such as the brightness of thevertical surfaces, including cubiclepanels.20

• Large differences in light levels forprimary and secondary task area areassociated with high levels of workdissatisfaction.21

Effects on Mood, Motivation, and BehaviorAlthough there is relatively little researchon the psychological and behavioral impacts

of light, several studies are relevant to worksettings.

• Variations in the color and amount oflight in a space influence people’s moods;the more positively toned the mood, themore likely people are to show positivejudgements of others and to engage inhelping behaviors.22

• Lighting also affects social judgements. Astudy found that lighting influenceswhether or not a person is judgedinnocent or guilty by a jury; the authorsconclude that lighting influences thefacial features and visual appearance ofthe person being judged.23

• The distribution of light in a setting alsoinfluences movement and seatingpreferences. For instance, a study foundthat people prefer to sit where they canlook at a brightly lighted space ratherthan to sit in the bright light themselves.24

Studies in public settings have also foundthat people tend to move toward morebrightly lighted spaces, perhaps because itis associated with perceived safety andvisual access.25

17 Collins, B. 1993. Evaluation of Subjective Response toLighting Distributions: A Literature Review. Washington, DC:National Institute of Standards and Technology, Report No.NISTR 5119.18 NEMA and LRI Review, op cit.19 Heerwagen, J. and Heerwagen, D. 1986. Op cit.20 Heerwagen, J., Loveland, J., and Diamond, R. 1992. PostOccupancy Evaluation of Energy Edge Buildings. Center forPlanning and Design, University of Washington, College ofArchitecture and Urban Planning. Also see Collins, B. 1993.Evaluation of Subjective Response to Lighting Distributions:A Literature Review, NISTIR 5119.21 Collins, B., Fisher, W.S., Gillette, G. and Marans, R. 1989.Evaluating Office Lighting Environments: Second LevelAnalysis, Washington, DC: National Institute of BuildingStandards, NISTIR 89-4069.22 Baron, B., Rea, M, and Daniels,S. 1992. “Effects of IndoorLighting (Illuminance and Spectral Distribution) on thePerformance of Cognitive Tasks and Interpersonal Behaviors:The Potential Mediating Role of Positive Affect.” Motivationand Emotion, 16(1): 1-33. 23 Aspenall, P.A. and Dewy, J. 1980. “Lighting andPerceived Guilt.” Lighting Research and Technology,12:140.24 Flynn, J. et al, 1973. Interim Study of Procedures forIntegrating the Effects of Light on Impressions and Behavior.Journal of the Illuminating Engineering Society, 3:83.25 Taylor, L.H. and Sucovm E.W., 1974. “The Movement ofPeople Towards Lighting,” Journal of the IlluminatingEngineering Society, 3:237.

Effects on Health and Well-BeingThe study of the health impacts of lightinghas grown rapidly in the past decade withthe discovery of Seasonal AffectiveDisorder and light-mediated changes inbiorhythm functioning. Much of theresearch has focused on the application ofsupplemental, bright light in shift work. In arecent study of night workers,improvements in cognitive functioning,alertness, and sleep quality were associatedwith the introduction of a biologicallyrelevant supplemental lighting system thatvaried the light over time to make it moreconsistent with natural daylight patterns.26

How Important is Daylight in the WorkEnvironment?Numerous studies have found that peopleprefer daylight to electric light and that theybelieve it is better for health and well-being.27 Of special value to indoor workersis the presence of sunlight “patches” and thechange in light quality over the day.28

Psychologists suggest that daylight may beespecially powerful for two reasons. First,daylight influences our biorhythms andemotional functioning. Second, daylight isa source of information about theenvironment, especially time and weather,two conditions we care deeply about.Although we don’t need a window to tell thetime of day or to provide us with localweather conditions, we still seem to preferthis “natural” form of information.

Daylighting design is an importantcomponent of energy efficiency. In onerecent study of a new “green” building inMichigan, the workers gave very high marksto the extensive daylight and views in theirnew building.29 The daylight was associatedwith higher levels of work satisfaction andwith a positive attitude toward the workenvironment. Similar results were found inanother study of energy-efficient buildings.Occupants with access to windows anddaylight rated the lighting quality morepositively than those whose workstationslacked windows.30

Daylight does not automatically lead to highsatisfaction levels, however. An extensivestudy of new energy-efficient buildings inthe Pacific Northwest found that workers’satisfaction depended on how well thedesign dealt with glare and heat gain fromwindows. In buildings with poorly designeddaylighting, occupants take matters intotheir own hands. They disable the lightingcontrol systems, add their own task light, orremove lamps from ceiling fixtures toincrease their comfort levels.31

Personal Control: How Important Is It?To answer this question, we need to first askwhat it is that people want to accomplishwhen they adjust their lighting. That is,what do they want to control? Two factorsappear to be important. The first is thechanging nature of visual tasks. Workersmay want to adjust their lighting as theirtasks change. A second important factor isthe strong individual variation in preferredlighting levels. As noted in the section onpsychological aspects of light, people tendto show strong lighting “styles.” Some likeit bright, and others like it dim. Whenpeople are able to adjust lighting to meetpersonal preferences, they clearly do so. Infact, there is a strong tendency for people toset the lighting (including window shadeadjustments) the way they like it and then toleave it that way for the rest of the day.

Research and anecdotal accounts also showthat if the designed environment does not

26 Baker, T.L., 1995. “Use of a Circadian Lighting System toImprove Night Shift Alertness and Performance at theUSNRC’s Headquarters Operations Center,” Proceedings of aconference on Safety of Operating Reactors, Seattle, WA:Sept. 17-20.27 Heerwagen, J. and Heerwagen, D. 1986. “Lighting andPsychological Comfort.” Lighting Design + Application,16(4): 47-51.28 Boubekri, M., Mulliv, R.B., and Boyer, L.L. 1991. “Impactof window size and sunlight penetration on office workers’mood and satisfaction.” Environment and Behavior, 23(4):474-493.29 Heerwagen et al, 1996. Op cit.30 Heerwagen et al, 1992. Op cit.31 Heerwagen et al, 1992. Op cit.

enable workers to adjust their lighting, theyfrequently take matters into their ownhands. A walk through most officeenvironments will clearly show this. Manyworkers have added task lamps and ambientlamps (especially common are free standingtorchieres). They also delamp their overheadfixtures, deactivate lighting sensors, and addscreens and filters around their computers –all of which improve conditions from theworkers’ perspective.32 However, there arelikely to be energy and systems efficiencycosts in these occupant adjustments thatcould be avoided with more carefulattention to individual preferences and taskneeds.

Putting it All Together: Why ShouldOrganizations Invest in Energy-effectiveLighting?The table below provides a summary of thepotential effects of lighting on performanceand well-being. It is meant as a heuristic aidrather than a definitive summary of theresearch presented in this report. As can beseen, it is useful to think of both thenegative and positive ways lighting caninfluence performance and well-being.

In the past, emphasis has been placed oneliminating problems associated with light.However, if lighting quality is the goal, thenequal emphasis should be placed on creatingpositive effects. We cannot assume that thiswill happen merely by ridding theenvironment of problems. In fact there isevidence that the problem-focused approachtends to lead to a neutralization of theenvironment, rather than an enhancement.33

Organizations care a great deal about thequality of goods and services they deliver totheir clients. They also care about keepingtheir workers healthy and motivated. Theresearch findings presented in this briefsummary show that lighting can affect notonly the accuracy and efficiency with whichwork is done, but also the health andsatisfaction of the workforce. Eye problems

and headaches associated with inappropriatelighting can clearly interfere with taskperformance, and may also lead to loweredmotivation and desire to work. If qualitylighting can improve performance, evenmodestly, by reducing problems orenhancing workers’ satisfaction andmotivation, the investment in quality lightwill pay off.

Since worker salaries far outweigh thecombined costs of office rent, electricity,total energy and maintenance, an investmentin high quality lighting that increasesperformance by even a small percent willpay for itself in the long term. Light affectsevery aspect of work in modern officeenvironments. Investments in quality light-ing can improve productivity by helpingpeople work more efficiently and safely, andby reducing errors or accidents that mayoccur as a result of poor lighting. Highquality lighting investments can also createa more pleasant and motivating environmentthat signals to workers that they are valuedand worth investing in.

32 Heerwagen et al, 1992. Op.cit.33 Crouch, A. and Nimran, U. 1989. “Perceivedfacilitators and inhibitors of work performance in anoffice environment.” Environment and Behavior, 21(2):206-226.

Table 1: Potential Effects of Lighting on Work Performanceand Well-Being

Performance-relatedImpacts

PsychologicalImpacts

•Light can be adjusted to meetpersonal preferences.

•Lighting is aestheticallypleasing and makes theenvironment look and feelpleasant.

•Lighting creates visual interest.•Light creates a sense of place.•Light aids in movement and

way-finding.•Daylight and window views are

available.

•Light cannot be adjusted orcontrolled by individuals tomeet their personalpreferences.

•Lighting is visually dull anduninteresting.

•Lack of light on signs or otherimportant visuals leads toinability to locate people/places, which in turn creates astressful experience.

•Light distorts facial featuresand appearance of others,reducing interpersonalcommunication andincreasing the potential formisunderstanding andnegative social judgments.

•Light is well-distributed acrossmultiple work surfaces,making it easy to performtasks in different areas.

•Light can be adjusted fordifferent tasks as needed.

•Light levels and colorrendering are appropriate forthe task.

•Lighting design is based on athorough task and context.analysis.

•Poor color of light leads tomisreading of color-codedmaterials.

•Glare on computer screenreduces visibility.

•Light that is too dim makes itdifficult to read small print.

•Poor lighting in hazardousareas increases chances ofaccidents.

•Lighting design does not takeinto consideration the natureof the task, the physicalsetting, or the workers in thespecific setting.

High Quality Lighting Low Quality Lighting

Appendix E

Energy Effective Lightingfor Open Plan Offices

Energy Effective Lighting provides efficientlighting while meeting the needs of thespace occupants. Effective lighting varieswith each type of application. Research hasshown that lighting has a significant impacton worker productivity (see Appendix D).Because the cost of labor dramaticallyexceeds that of energy, quality relightingcan benefit both the environment and theeconomy.

Office TasksCommon tasks in the office environmentinclude computer work, writing and readingpaper tasks, and meetings. In open offices,Visual Display Terminals (VDT) are morelikely to show the glare of reflections fromlight fixtures and daylight.

RecommendationsLuminaires and Layout. The layout ofthe luminaires should provide wall bright-ness at the top of the walls and uniformity atthe work plane. The design should avoidglare (directed and reflected) and reducecontrast.

• If the core wall is a permanent corridor,consider a linear fluorescent or compactfluorescent wall-washing system tobrighten your wall, and begin your trofferlayout further into the room where theworkspace begins.

• Generally, parabolic louvers are preferredover lenses in open plan offices withcomputers. If lensed troffers are used,orient VDT screens away from glaresources, and/or use low-glare screens.

• Light the walls in-between windows withsconces or wall washing.

• Glare is a source of discomfort and eyefatigue. Shield sources or reduce contrastbetween light sources and surroundingsurfaces. Avoid glare by using semi-specular or matte surfaces for lightingfixtures and room surfaces. Avoid shinyor specular surfaces at any viewing angle.

• Most manufacturers publish SpacingCriteria, but they are meant to be usedwithout partitions. If partitions are used(as is typical), the mounting height as-sumed for the calculation should bemodified to account for the partitions.The working plane should be assumed tobe halfway between desktop and partitionheight, thereby reducing the assumedmounting height. The effect of this will beto use more fixtures with fewer lamps.Often, 1- or 2- lamp 1x4s, or 2x2s, will bea more energy-effective solution than 3 or4-lamp 2x4s.

• Meet the recommended Horizontal Illu-minance requirements listed in the Illumi-nating Engineering Society of NorthAmerica (IESNA) Handbook.

Lamps. The widespread dislike of fluores-cent lamps is very often a reaction to poorlamp color. Currently available lamps canovercome resistance to fluorescent sources.Certain lamps are uncomfortably bright foroffice workers and should not be used inluminaires where the lamp is visible at anyviewing angle.

• Use T-8 lamps in luminaires with open-celled parabolic louvers. Low- wattage(32 and less) compact fluorescent T-5(twin tube/biaxial) lamps are appropriatefor downlights, wallwashing and sconces.Long T-5s are acceptable in lensed trof-fers, wallwashing or uplight applications.

• Use lamps with a color-rendering index(CRI) of 70 or more. If a warmer feelingin the room is preferred, use lamps with acolor temperature of 3000°K or 3500°K.

Ballasts. Another very common complaintabout fluorescent systems is due to ballastflicker and hum. Research shows a decrease

in headaches and improved visual perfor-mance with the use of electronic ballasts.Electronic ballasts should always be used,except when a technical incompatibilityexists (e.g., where there is sensitive elec-tronic equipment).

Environmental Considerations.• Keep reflectances of surfaces visible at

eye-level and above and as light coloredas possible, preferably 65%-75% reflec-

tance walls and 80%-95% ceilings. Be-cause dark surfaces absorb light, theysignificant reduce the energy efficiency ofthe space and create unpleasantly highcontrasts.

• Orient computers away from windows toavoid reflections in VDT screens.

• Consider the use of luminous sconces tocreate visual interest in the space. Avoidharsh patterns, scallops, and shadows,especially at the top of walls.

Figure 1. Graphic showing Lighting Quality Recommendations for Open Plan Spaces.The contribution of the IESNA Quality of the Visual Environment Committee is

gratefully acknowledged.

High wallbrightness

Blinds onwindowsto controlfor glare.

Provide visualinterestoutside the‘view’ of VDTscreens.

Use bright screen ifpossible. Do not orient

screen towards window.Use glare screens when

necessary.

Aim formedium floorreflectance.

Undercabinetshadow reducers. Avoid direct

view of lamp or lens whenseated. Use optics designed

to minimize veiling reflections.

Light between windowsto reduce contrast.

Use semi-specular or white finish louvers.Avoid narrow distributions. Spacing withinmanufacturers limits; consider partitions.

Use a wallwashing system, ORlocate troffer close to walls to

raise wall brightness

ArticulatedCF task light;

betterperformance,

preferred byoccupants