feldman chapter 1
TRANSCRIPT
7/31/2019 Feldman Chapter 1
http://slidepdf.com/reader/full/feldman-chapter-1 1/59
Chapter 1
Introduction to
Psychology
McGraw-Hill ©2010 The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. All rights reserved.
7/31/2019 Feldman Chapter 1
http://slidepdf.com/reader/full/feldman-chapter-1 2/59
2
Psychologists at Work
• Learning Outcomes
– Define science of psychology
– Describe subfields of psychology
McGraw-Hill ©2010 The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. All rights reserved. 2
7/31/2019 Feldman Chapter 1
http://slidepdf.com/reader/full/feldman-chapter-1 3/59
3
What is Psychology?
• The scientific study of behavior and mental
processes (p. 4)
– What you can see (overt behaviors)
– What you can’t see (covert behaviors)
– Describe, predict, explain behavior and mental
processes using the scientific method
– Also it encompasses individuality of human being.
McGraw-Hill ©2010 The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. All rights reserved. 3
7/31/2019 Feldman Chapter 1
http://slidepdf.com/reader/full/feldman-chapter-1 4/59
4
• Behavior – refers to anything you do. Smiling,
running, laughing, eating, and sleeping are all
examples of. Actions or responses that are
directly observable are referred to as overt
behaviors.
McGraw-Hill ©2010 The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. All rights reserved. 4
7/31/2019 Feldman Chapter 1
http://slidepdf.com/reader/full/feldman-chapter-1 5/59
5
• Mental processes – refer to thoughts,
emotions, perceptions, reasoning processes,
memories, and even the biological activities
that maintain bodily functioning. These
processes are also referred to as covert
behaviors.
McGraw-Hill ©2010 The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. All rights reserved. 5
7/31/2019 Feldman Chapter 1
http://slidepdf.com/reader/full/feldman-chapter-1 6/59
6
• Psychologists try to describe, predict, and
explain human behavior and mental
processes, as well as help to change and
improve the lives of people and the world in
which they live. They use scientific methods
to find answers that are far more valid and
legitimate than those resulting from intuitionand speculation, which are often inaccurate.
McGraw-Hill ©2010 The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. All rights reserved. 6
7/31/2019 Feldman Chapter 1
http://slidepdf.com/reader/full/feldman-chapter-1 7/59
7
• The phrase behavior and mental processes
means many things: it encompasses not just
what people do but also their thoughts,
emotions, perceptions, reasoning processes,
memories, and even the biological activities
that maintain bodily functioning.
McGraw-Hill ©2010 The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. All rights reserved. 7
7/31/2019 Feldman Chapter 1
http://slidepdf.com/reader/full/feldman-chapter-1 8/59
8
Etiology
• Many people think psychology means the
study of the mind. The word “psychology”
comes from the Greek roots of “psyche,”
meaning “mind”, and “logos,” meaning
“knowledge or study.”
• Today, however, psychology is defined as the
study of behavior and mental processes.
McGraw-Hill ©2010 The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. All rights reserved. 8
7/31/2019 Feldman Chapter 1
http://slidepdf.com/reader/full/feldman-chapter-1 9/59
9
The Subfields of Psychology
• Behavioral neuroscience
• Experimental psychology
•
Changes across the lifespan• Physical & mental health
• Focus on those around us: social networks
• Newer areas of study
McGraw-Hill ©2010 The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. All rights reserved. 9
7/31/2019 Feldman Chapter 1
http://slidepdf.com/reader/full/feldman-chapter-1 10/59
10
Subfields of Psychology
• 1. Behavioral neuroscience is the subfield of
psychology that mainly examines how the
brain and the nervous system determine
behavior. Thus, neuroscientists consider how
our bodies influence our behavior.
McGraw-Hill ©2010 The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. All rights reserved. 10
7/31/2019 Feldman Chapter 1
http://slidepdf.com/reader/full/feldman-chapter-1 11/59
11
• 2. Experimental psychology is the branch of psychology that studies the
processes of sensing, perceiving, learning, and thinking about the world.
• Here are some subspecialties within experimental psychology:
– A. Cognitive psychology focuses on higher mental processes, includingthinking, memory, reasoning, problem-solving, judging, decision-
making, and language.
– B. Developmental psychology studies how people grow and change
from the moment of conception through death.
– C. Personality psychology focuses on the consistency in people’sbehavior over time and the traits that differentiate one person from
another.
– D. Health psychology explores the relationship between psychological
factors and physical ailments or disease. For example, health
psychologists are interested in assessing how long-term stress (apsychological factor) can affect physical health, and in identifying
ways to promote behavior that brings about good health.
McGraw-Hill ©2010 The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. All rights reserved. 11
7/31/2019 Feldman Chapter 1
http://slidepdf.com/reader/full/feldman-chapter-1 12/59
12
Sub fields
•3. Clinical psychology deals with the study, diagnosis, andtreatment of psychological disorders. Clinical psychologists are
trained to diagnose and treat problems that range from the crises
of everyday life, such as unhappiness over the breakup of a
relationship, to more extreme conditions, such as profound and
lingering depression.
• 4. Counseling psychology focuses primarily on educational, social,
and career adjustment problems. Many large business organizations
employ counseling psychologists to help employees with work-
related problems.
• 5. Forensic psychology applies psychology to the criminal-justice
system and to legal issues. For example, forensic psychologists may
be asked to examine people accused of crimes to determine if they
are competent to stand trial or have psychological disorders.
McGraw-Hill ©2010 The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. All rights reserved. 12
7/31/2019 Feldman Chapter 1
http://slidepdf.com/reader/full/feldman-chapter-1 13/59
13
Subfields
• 6. Social psychology is the study of how people’s thoughts, feelings,
and actions are affected by others. Social psychologists concentrate
on such diverse topics as human aggression, liking and loving,
persuasion, and conformity.
• 7. Cross-cultural psychology investigates the similarities anddifferences in psychological functioning in and across various
cultures and ethnic groups. For example, cross-cultural
psychologists examine how cultures differ in their use of
punishment during childrearing.
McGraw-Hill ©2010 The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. All rights reserved. 13
7/31/2019 Feldman Chapter 1
http://slidepdf.com/reader/full/feldman-chapter-1 14/59
14
Subfields
•8. Evolutionary psychology considers how our behavior isinfluenced by our genetic inheritance from our ancestors. The
evolutionary approach suggests that the chemical coding of
information in our cells not only determines traits such as hair color
and race, but also holds the key to understanding a broad variety of
behaviors that helped our ancestors survive and reproduce.Examples of some of these behaviors include shyness, jealousy,
attraction, competitiveness, and sensitivity.
• 9. Behavioral genetics seeks to understand how we might inherit
certain behavioral traits and how the environment influences
whether we actually display such traits.
• 10. Clinical neuropsychology combines the areas of neuroscience
and clinical psychology. It focuses on the origin of psychological
disorders in biological factors.
McGraw-Hill ©2010 The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. All rights reserved. 14
7/31/2019 Feldman Chapter 1
http://slidepdf.com/reader/full/feldman-chapter-1 15/59
15
Working at Psychology
• About 300,000 psychologists in the U.S.
– 50% men, 50% women, but number of women is
growing
– 6% from racial minority groups
• Most have doctoral degrees (Ph.D. or Psy.D.),
while some have Master’s degrees
• Psychologists are different from psychiatrists
McGraw-Hill ©2010 The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. All rights reserved. 15
7/31/2019 Feldman Chapter 1
http://slidepdf.com/reader/full/feldman-chapter-1 16/59
16
A Science Evolves: The Past, the
Present, and Future
• Learning Outcomes
– Explain the roots of psychology
– Discuss today’s perspectives on psychology
– Apply psychology to your life
– Summarize psychology’s key issues and
controversies
McGraw-Hill ©2010 The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. All rights reserved. 16
7/31/2019 Feldman Chapter 1
http://slidepdf.com/reader/full/feldman-chapter-1 17/59
17
The Roots of Psychology
• Wilhelm Wundt began the first psychology
laboratory in 1879 in Leipzig, Germany
– Structuralism
– Functionalism
• Gestalt psychology
McGraw-Hill ©2010 The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. All rights reserved. 17
7/31/2019 Feldman Chapter 1
http://slidepdf.com/reader/full/feldman-chapter-1 18/59
18
• Structuralism: Wundt’s approach, which focuses on
uncovering the fundamental mental components of
consciousness, thinking, and other kinds of mental states and
activities.
• The perspective that replaced structuralism is known as
functionalism.
– Functionalism: An early approach to psychology that concentrated on
what the mind does—the functions of mental activity—and the role of
behavior in allowing people to adapt to their environments.
–
Gestalt (geh SHTALLT) psychology is an approach to psychology thatfocuses on the organization of perception and thinking in a “whole”
sense rather than on the individual elements of perception.
McGraw-Hill ©2010 The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. All rights reserved. 18
7/31/2019 Feldman Chapter 1
http://slidepdf.com/reader/full/feldman-chapter-1 19/59
19
Today’s Perspectives
• Neuroscience
• Psychodynamic
•
Behavioral • Cognitive
• Humanistic
McGraw-Hill ©2010 The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. All rights reserved. 19
7/31/2019 Feldman Chapter 1
http://slidepdf.com/reader/full/feldman-chapter-1 20/59
20
• Neuroscience perspective The approach that
views behavior from the perspective of the
brain, the nervous system, and other
biological functions.
• Psychodynamic perspective The approach
based on the view that behavior is motivated
by unconscious inner forces over which theindividual has little control.
McGraw-Hill ©2010 The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. All rights reserved. 20
7/31/2019 Feldman Chapter 1
http://slidepdf.com/reader/full/feldman-chapter-1 21/59
21
• Behavioral perspective The approach that
suggests that observable, measurable behavior
should be the focus of study.
• Cognitive perspective The approach that focuseson how people think, understand, and know
about the world.
•Humanistic perspective The approach thatsuggests that all individuals naturally strive to
grow, develop, and be in control of their lives and
behavior.McGraw-Hill ©2010 The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. All rights reserved. 21
7/31/2019 Feldman Chapter 1
http://slidepdf.com/reader/full/feldman-chapter-1 22/59
John’s Story
7/31/2019 Feldman Chapter 1
http://slidepdf.com/reader/full/feldman-chapter-1 23/59
23
• John is second year math major from De La Salle
University. He was fortunate to be blessed withexceptional intelligence that is why he was granted astar scholarship. Without the scholarship, he wouldnot be able to afford a private university because hisfamily has limited financial resources.
• Obviously, math is his favorite subject but he alsoexcels in all of his subjects. Aside from math, he alsolikes philosophy, psychology and religion becausethese subjects taught him how to become a good
individual and a good Christian. He is a member of themath club and COSCA, a school organization thatprovides community service to less fortunate people.John likes being involved in volunteer work andhelping other people.
7/31/2019 Feldman Chapter 1
http://slidepdf.com/reader/full/feldman-chapter-1 24/59
24
• He is a responsible student and a good friend. He has agood relationship with his family except with father,who was also a scholar during his college years. Hisfather has high expectations from him and getsdisappointed whenever he only wins second place and
not the top prize in a math competition.• His father would always tell him that he should always
aim for the top because when he was a student healways does his best because this will make his familyproud. Besides, the cash prize he gets help the family a
lot. Because of this, John is somewhat distant to hisfather and he said to himself that when he becomes aparent, he would never pressure his child like what hisfather is doing to him. He was closer to his mother whodied of leukemia when he was in third year high school.
7/31/2019 Feldman Chapter 1
http://slidepdf.com/reader/full/feldman-chapter-1 25/59
25
• Finally, John won first place in an interschool math competition
where he won P5,000. After the contest, he celebrated with his 3close friends—2 girls and a guy. John has a big crush on one of the girls but no one knows about it. He treated his friends in apizza restaurant and after that they bought some alcoholicbeverages from a store and consumed them in one of his friend’s
house. Though they did not drink a lot, the amount was enoughto make them a little disinhibited but not enough to make themtotally unaware of what they are doing.
• On their way home, they went inside a 24-hour drug storebecause one of his friends needs to buy a medicine for hisasthma. John noticed a donation box beside the cashier with anote attached to it saying, “Help save Anna. She has leukemiaand she needs financial assistance…” John slowly got theenvelope containing the cash prize from his bag then placed allthe money inside the donation box. His friends saw what he didbut never asked why he did it.
7/31/2019 Feldman Chapter 1
http://slidepdf.com/reader/full/feldman-chapter-1 26/59
26
• The next morning, his father asked for theresults of the competition. John said, “Sorrydad, I did not even win the third place.”
•
Question: – “What do you think is the reason why John
decided to put the cash prize inside the donationbox? Write as many as possible reasons.”
7/31/2019 Feldman Chapter 1
http://slidepdf.com/reader/full/feldman-chapter-1 27/59
27
• Behavioral Perspective
– John learned that act of kindness from his
religion classes and from being part of COSCA. Also, helping other people could be rewarding
experience for John that is why he continues to
do it
7/31/2019 Feldman Chapter 1
http://slidepdf.com/reader/full/feldman-chapter-1 28/59
28
• Cognitive Perspective
– John thought that the girl with leukemia would benefit more from the money than him. Also,
by pretending that he did not win, maybe his father will not expect too much from him thenext time he competes. Therefore, as part of his plan, he donated it because he should not
bring home a cash prize.
7/31/2019 Feldman Chapter 1
http://slidepdf.com/reader/full/feldman-chapter-1 29/59
29
• Psychodynamic Perspective
– The act of donating the money is John’s
unconscious way of resenting his father for
expecting too much. It can also be an
unconscious way of expressing his love to his
mother who died of leukemia.
7/31/2019 Feldman Chapter 1
http://slidepdf.com/reader/full/feldman-chapter-1 30/59
30
• Humanistic Perspective
– Maybe for John, helping the sick girl is for
fulfilling than the cash prize. He made a choice
entirely on his own.
7/31/2019 Feldman Chapter 1
http://slidepdf.com/reader/full/feldman-chapter-1 31/59
31
• Behavioral Neuroscience Perspective
– Maybe there is a chance that the alcohol,
which made him a little disinhibited, affected
John’s decision making and mood during that time and did not consider the consequences of
donating the money.
7/31/2019 Feldman Chapter 1
http://slidepdf.com/reader/full/feldman-chapter-1 32/59
32
• Evolutionary Psychology Perspective
– History tells us that women are attracted to
men who possess manly qualities but time has
changed. Women can now be also attracted to
men who are sensitive and kind-hearted. Partly,
it could be one of John’s ways of attracting his
friend.
7/31/2019 Feldman Chapter 1
http://slidepdf.com/reader/full/feldman-chapter-1 33/59
33
• Socio-cultural Perspective
– In our country, we depend on each other in
times of difficulty. We call it ‘ pakikipagkapwa’. John wanted to show his ‘ pakikipagkapwa’ to
the girl. Besides, as Catholics, we are taught to
help others in need.
7/31/2019 Feldman Chapter 1
http://slidepdf.com/reader/full/feldman-chapter-1 34/59
34
• Positive Psychology Perspective
– John is naturally a good and caring person. He
likes helping other people. It is his virtue.
7/31/2019 Feldman Chapter 1
http://slidepdf.com/reader/full/feldman-chapter-1 35/59
35
To Conclude…
• “In explaining human behavior, we can use different
perspectives and there is no perspective that is
considered as the best perspective. The key is not to
know if the explanation is correct or incorrect rather if it is valid or invalid”
7/31/2019 Feldman Chapter 1
http://slidepdf.com/reader/full/feldman-chapter-1 36/59
36
Psychology’s Key Issues &
Controversies• The field of psychology is more unified than a first glimpse
might suggest. No matter what topical areas a psychologist
specializes in, he or she will rely primarily on one of the five
major perspectives.
• Psychology is a unified science because psychologists of all
perspectives agree that the issues must be addressed if the
field is going to advance.
• Consider opposing viewpoints on each issue as the opposing
ends of a continuum, with the positions of individual
psychologists typically falling somewhere between them.
McGraw-Hill ©2010 The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. All rights reserved. 36
7/31/2019 Feldman Chapter 1
http://slidepdf.com/reader/full/feldman-chapter-1 37/59
37
Psychology’s Key Issues &
Controversies
• Nature (heredity) vs. nurture (environment)
• Conscious vs. unconscious causes of behavior
• Observable behavior vs. internal mental
processes
• Free will (choices) vs. determinism (behavior is
produced by factors beyond one’s control)
• Individual differences vs. universal principles
McGraw-Hill ©2010 The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. All rights reserved. 37
7/31/2019 Feldman Chapter 1
http://slidepdf.com/reader/full/feldman-chapter-1 38/59
38
Research in Psychology
• Learning Outcomes
– Define the scientific method, list the steps
involved
– Describe how psychologists use research toanswer questions of interest
– Summarize the descriptive research method used
by psychologists – Summarize the experimental research method
used by psychologists
McGraw-Hill ©2010 The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. All rights reserved. 38
7/31/2019 Feldman Chapter 1
http://slidepdf.com/reader/full/feldman-chapter-1 39/59
39
The Scientific Method
• Systematically acquiring knowledge and
understanding about behavior and other
phenomena (p. 24)
– Step 1: Identifying questions of interest
– Step 2: Formulating an explanation (theory –
hypothesis)
– Step 3: Carrying out research designed to supportor refute the explanation
– Step 4: Communicating the findings
McGraw-Hill ©2010 The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. All rights reserved. 39
7/31/2019 Feldman Chapter 1
http://slidepdf.com/reader/full/feldman-chapter-1 40/59
40
• The scientific method is the systematic approach
used by psychologists to acquire knowledge and
understanding about behavior and other phenomena
of interest.
• Theories are broad explanations and predictions
designed to interrelate concepts and facts in a way
that summarizes data and predicts futureobservations.
• A hypothesis is an educated guess about the
outcome of an event.
• An operational definition is the translation of a
hypothesis into specific, testable procedures that can
be measured and observed.
McGraw-Hill ©2010 The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. All rights reserved. 40
7/31/2019 Feldman Chapter 1
http://slidepdf.com/reader/full/feldman-chapter-1 41/59
41
• If we were to rely on common sense to understand
behavior, we’d have considerable difficulty,
particularly because commonsense views are often
contradictory.
• One of the major undertakings for the field of
psychology is to develop suppositions about behavior
and to determine which of those are accurate.
•
Using the scientific method results in a systematicacquisition of knowledge.
McGraw-Hill ©2010 The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. All rights reserved. 41
7/31/2019 Feldman Chapter 1
http://slidepdf.com/reader/full/feldman-chapter-1 42/59
42
Psychological Research
• The central focus of the scientific method is research
• Research is the systematic inquiry aimed at the discovery of
new knowledge. This is the central ingredient of the scientific
method in psychology.
• It provides the key to understanding the degree to whichhypotheses are accurate.
• There are a number of different methods used to conduct
research.
•Descriptive Research – Archival research
– Naturalistic observation
– Survey research
McGraw-Hill ©2010 The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. All rights reserved. 42
7/31/2019 Feldman Chapter 1
http://slidepdf.com/reader/full/feldman-chapter-1 43/59
43
• Archival research: Researchers examine existing
data, such as census documents, college records, and
newspaper clippings, to test a hypothesis. Forexample, college records may be used to determine
if there are gender differences in academic
performance.
• Naturalistic observation: Researchers observe
behavior as it unfolds in the natural setting. When
conducting naturalistic observation, it is important to
realize that both people and animals often alter theirbehavior when they realize they are being watched.
McGraw-Hill ©2010 The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. All rights reserved. 43
7/31/2019 Feldman Chapter 1
http://slidepdf.com/reader/full/feldman-chapter-1 44/59
44
• Survey research: Researchers conduct a study by
giving subjects a survey or questionnaire.
Researchers choose a sample of people to represent
a larger group of interest. Questions usually focus onbehaviors, thoughts, or attitudes. Survey methods
have become so sophisticated that even with a very
small sample researchers are able to infer with great
accuracy how a larger group would respond.
McGraw-Hill ©2010 The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. All rights reserved. 44
7/31/2019 Feldman Chapter 1
http://slidepdf.com/reader/full/feldman-chapter-1 45/59
45
Psychological Research (cont.)
–
Case study: intensive investigation of an individual or smallgroup
• When case studies are used as a research technique, the
goal is often not only to learn about the few individuals
being examined, but also to use the insights gained from the
study to improve our understanding of people in general.
– Correlational research: two sets of variables are examined to
see if they are associated
• Positive correlation
• Negative correlation • Correlation does not show causation!
– The inability of correlational research to demonstrate
cause-and-effect relationships is a crucial drawback to its
use.McGraw-Hill ©2010 The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. All rights reserved. 45
7/31/2019 Feldman Chapter 1
http://slidepdf.com/reader/full/feldman-chapter-1 46/59
46
Experimental Research
•
Establish cause-and-effect relationships using formalexperiments: deliberately producing a change in one variable
and observing the effects of that change
• All experiments include a set of key elements, which are
important to keep in mind as you consider whether a research
study is truly an experiment
– Experimental group
– Control group
–
Independent variable – Dependent variable
• Random assignment to condition
• Replication
McGraw-Hill ©2010 The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. All rights reserved. 46
7/31/2019 Feldman Chapter 1
http://slidepdf.com/reader/full/feldman-chapter-1 47/59
47
• Experimental manipulation is defined as the change
that an experimenter deliberately produces in a
situation.• The control group is the group that is exposed to all
experimental conditions EXCEPT for the independent
variable. They receive no treatment.
• The experimental group is the group that is exposed
to all experimental conditions AND the independent
variable. They do receive treatment.
• Replication is the repetition of research, sometimesusing other procedures, settings, and groups of
participants, to increase confidence in prior findings.
McGraw-Hill ©2010 The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. All rights reserved. 47
7/31/2019 Feldman Chapter 1
http://slidepdf.com/reader/full/feldman-chapter-1 48/59
48
• The independent variable is the condition that is manipulated
by an experimenter.
– For example, someone's age might be an independent variable. Other
factors (such as what they eat, how much they go to school, how much
television they watch) aren't going to change a person's age.
• The dependent variable is the outcome of the experiment,
which is expected to change based on the experimenter’smanipulation of the independent variable.
– For example, a test score could be a dependent variable because it
could change depending on several factors such as how much you
studied, how much sleep you got the night before you took the test, or
even how hungry you were when you took it.
• Random assignment is the use of chance to assign subjects to
experimental and control groups.
McGraw-Hill ©2010 The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. All rights reserved. 48
7/31/2019 Feldman Chapter 1
http://slidepdf.com/reader/full/feldman-chapter-1 49/59
49
• Independent variable causes a change in Dependent
Variable and it isn't possible that Dependent Variable
could cause a change in Independent Variable.• For example:
– (Time Spent Studying) causes a change in (Test Score) and
it isn't possible that (Test Score) could cause a change in
(Time Spent Studying).
• We see that "Time Spent Studying" must be the
independent variable and "Test Score" must be the
dependent variable because the sentence doesn't
make sense the other way around.
McGraw-Hill ©2010 The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. All rights reserved. 49
7/31/2019 Feldman Chapter 1
http://slidepdf.com/reader/full/feldman-chapter-1 50/59
50
• Drunken driving contribute to traffic
accidents.
Drunken = independent variable.
traffic accidents. = dependent variable.
• smoking leads to cancer
smoking= independent
cancer= dependent
McGraw-Hill ©2010 The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. All rights reserved. 50
7/31/2019 Feldman Chapter 1
http://slidepdf.com/reader/full/feldman-chapter-1 51/59
51
Experimental Research (cont.)• One experiment alone does not forever resolve a question about human
behavior. Psychologists require that findings undergo replication – they
must be repeated – sometimes using other procedures, in other settings,
with other groups of participants, before full confidence can be placed in
the results of any single experiment.
• Meta-analysis permits psychologists to combine the results of many
separate studies into one overall conclusion.
McGraw-Hill ©2010 The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. All rights reserved. 51
R h Ch ll E l i th
7/31/2019 Feldman Chapter 1
http://slidepdf.com/reader/full/feldman-chapter-1 52/59
52
Research Challenges: Exploring the
Process
• Learning Outcomes
– Explain the major ethical issues that confront
psychologists conducting research
– Discuss the issues related to testing on animals
– Identify threats to experimental validity
McGraw-Hill ©2010 The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. All rights reserved. 52
7/31/2019 Feldman Chapter 1
http://slidepdf.com/reader/full/feldman-chapter-1 53/59
53
The Ethics of Research
• Psychologists must follow strict ethical
guidelines to protect research participants
(see p. 36)
– Those guidelines involve the following safeguards:• Protection of participants from physical and mental harm
• The right of participants to privacy regarding their behavior
• The assurance that participation in research is completely
voluntary• The necessity of informing participants about the nature of
procedures before their participation in the experiment
McGraw-Hill ©2010 The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. All rights reserved. 53
7/31/2019 Feldman Chapter 1
http://slidepdf.com/reader/full/feldman-chapter-1 54/59
54
• Participants must sign an informed consent
document that says they understand the basic
outline of the study and any risks, and are aware of
what is involved
McGraw-Hill ©2010 The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. All rights reserved. 54
7/31/2019 Feldman Chapter 1
http://slidepdf.com/reader/full/feldman-chapter-1 55/59
55
Should Animals Be Used in Research?
• Researchers ethically bound to minimize discomfort,
illness, and pain, and to promote the psychological
well-being whenever possible
•
But why use animals at all?
McGraw-Hill ©2010 The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. All rights reserved. 55
7/31/2019 Feldman Chapter 1
http://slidepdf.com/reader/full/feldman-chapter-1 56/59
56
• To guard against participant expectations biasing the
results of an experiment, the experimenter may try
to disguise the true purpose of the experiments.
• Sometimes, it’s impossible to do so. In that case,
psychologists typically use a procedure in which all
participants receive a treatment, but those in thecontrol group receive a placebo, a false treatment.
Because both groups are kept in the dark about
whether they’re getting a real or false treatment, any
differences in outcome can be attributed to thequality of a drug or treatment and not to any
possible psychological effects.
McGraw-Hill ©2010 The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. All rights reserved. 56
Th t t E i t l V lidit
7/31/2019 Feldman Chapter 1
http://slidepdf.com/reader/full/feldman-chapter-1 57/59
57
Threats to Experimental Validity:
Avoiding Experimental Bias
• Experimental bias: factors that distort how
the independent variable affects the
dependent variable (ex., experimenter or
participant expectations)
• Placebo: A false treatment, such as a pill,
without any significant chemical properties or
active ingredients
McGraw-Hill ©2010 The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. All rights reserved. 57
7/31/2019 Feldman Chapter 1
http://slidepdf.com/reader/full/feldman-chapter-1 58/59
Parting Shots…
7/31/2019 Feldman Chapter 1
http://slidepdf.com/reader/full/feldman-chapter-1 59/59
• “Psychology touches virtually every aspect of our lives.Psychology is not just common sense. Psychology is ascience because its concepts are researchable usingvarious methods.
• Nowadays, almost everything can be automated but the
task of a psychologist cannot be replaced by any instrument or machine.
• There is no CT-Scan that can read a mind, a thermometer that can tell how passionate your are, a stethoscope that will tell if you are falling in love, weighing scale that will measure how heavy your problem is, or a meter stick that will measure how deep your depression is or how highyour happiness is.”