feministic theories on education

8/17/2019 Feministic Theories on Education

1/21

What’s the point of education? A

feminist perspectivehttps://sociologytwynham.com/2008/12/20/feminism-and-education/

From the 1960s onwards feminist sociologists highlighted the following gender ine!ualities in society.

Feminists argue that the education system is "ust a primary preparation for leading into the future wor#

force. $hey argue the gender differences in su%"ect choice in schools come is e&idence of a patriarchal

society. 'olley (1998) re&iewed this idea and found that despite all the social changes in recent decades

traditional definitions of masculinity and femininity were still widespread as e&ident %elow.

Gender and education * Feminist perspecti&es focus on gender ine!ualities in society. Feminist

research has re&ealed the e+tent of male domination and the ways in which male supremacy has %een

maintained. From a feminist &iewpoint one of the main roles of education has %een to maintain gender

ine!uality.

Gendered language * reflecting wider society school te+t%oo#s (and teachers) tend to use gendered

language * ,he ,him ,his ,man and ,men when referring to a person or people. $his tends to

downgrade women and ma#e them in&isi%le.

Gendered roles * school te+t%oo#s ha&e tended to present males and females in traditional gender roles

* for e+ample women as mothers and housewi&es. $his is particularly e&ident in reading schemes from

the 1960s and 190s.

Gender stereotypes * reading schemes ha&e also tended to present traditional gender stereotypes. For

e+ample an analysis of si+ reading schemes from the 1960s and 190s found that:

1. %oys are presented as more ad&enturous than girls

2. as physically stronger

. as ha&ing more choices

. girls are presented as more caring than %oys

. as more interested in domestic matters

6. as followers rather than leaders

Women in the curriculum * in terms of whats taught in schools * the curriculum * women tend to %e

missing in the %ac#ground or in second place. Feminists often argue that women ha&e %een ,hidden

from history * history has %een the su%"ect of men.

https://sociologytwynham.com/2008/12/20/feminism-and-education/https://sociologytwynham.com/2013/05/29/feminism/https://sociologytwynham.com/2013/05/29/feminism/https://sociologytwynham.com/2008/12/20/feminism-and-education/


2/21

Subject choice * traditionally female students ha&e tended to a&oid maths science and technology.

'ertain su%"ects were often seen as ,%oys su%"ects and ,girls su%"ects. ften girls su%"ects had lower

status and lower mar#et &alue

Discrimination * there is e&idence of discrimination against girls in education simply %ecause of their

gender. For e+ample when the 11-plus e+am was introduced in the 190s the pass mar# was set lowerfor %oys than for girls to ma#e certain there roughly e!ual num%ers of %oys and girl sin grammar schools.

3n other words girls were artificially ,failed so %oys could ,succeed.

Further and higher education * traditionally the num%er of female students going on to further and

higher education has %een lower than for %oys. $here is e&idence that teachers often ga&e %oys more

encouragement than girls to go to uni&ersity (4tanworth 198).

Feminist perspectives – an evaluation – Feminist perspecti&es ha&e %een &alua%le for e+posing

gender ine!uality in education. 5artly as a result of sociological research a lot has changed * for

e+ample much of the se+ism in reading schemes has now disappeared. $oday women ha&e o&erta#en

men on most measures of educational attainment. $heir grades at '47 and le&el are significantly

higher than those of male students. nd more women than men are going on to higher education. $he

concern now is the underachie&ement of %oys rather than discrimination against girls. 5lease read

through the 5ower5oint %elow further details.

Feminism

http://www.genderandeducation.com/resources/conte+ts/feminism/

$he period of acti&ism in the early 20th century around securing the &ote for women has %een called

the first waveof the feminist mo&ement. $he second wa&e refers to the acti&ism %eginning in the

1960s.

$he second wave is associated with the pu%lication of %oo#s li#e etty FriedansThe Feminine

Mystique and ermaine reers The Female Eunuch with consciousness-raising groups

campaigning around wages for housewor# a%ortion rights se+ual harassment domestic &iolence

childcare and many other issues and with the slogan ,the personal is political. 4econd wa&e

feminists had a huge impact on education.

$hey distinguished %etween se+ (the %iological differences %etween men and women) and gender

(the social and cultural differences). $his was an important theoretical mo&e which allowed for the

in&estigation of sociological e+planations for girls educational results and choices. 4econd wa&e

feminists had different approaches.

http://www.genderandeducation.com/resources/contexts/feminism/http://www.genderandeducation.com/resources/contexts/feminism/


3/21

Liberal feminists emphasised the parts played %y se+-role socialisation stereotyping and

discrimination. $hey wor#ed to eliminate the %arriers to female achie&ement in mathematics and

other su%"ects. owe&er with a philosophy %ased on indi&idual autonomy they were ill-e!uipped to

deal with the issue of how womens choices am%ush their e!uality. $his is perhaps %ehind their

reluctance to pursue their agenda into further and higher education where it is percei&ed thatchoices and not constraints are operating.

Socialist feminists focused on the reproduction of the classed and gendered relations of production

and reproduction while radical feminists pointed to the male dominance of #nowledge and the

se+ual politics of schooling. ecause socialist and radical feminists added theorisations of ideology

and power to the li%eral feminist analysis %oth socialist and radical feminists were interested in the

social construction of choices. 3mportantly patriarchy ;the com%ination of social economic and

cultural systems which ensures male supremacy< ('oote = 'amp%ell 1982 p.2) was introduced as

an underlying factor.

owe&er black feminists called attention to the neglect of race in second wa&e feminism. $hey

focused on how race class and gender intersect and !uestioned what if anything all women ha&e

in common. >ore recentlypoststructuralist feminists ha&e %uilt on this wor# to !uestion more

earlier feminist assumptions. %o&e all they ha&e as#ed whether its possi%le to ma#e a distinction

%etween se+ and gender. fter all if gender is so different from se+ why are there only two genders

and why do women %ecome feminine and men %ecome masculine? odies dont fall naturally into

two opposite se+es. $he fact that we thin# they do is %ecause of how society not %iology wor#s.

>any refer to our contemporary moment as feminisms third wave others call it ,post-feminist.

@ecent wor# has pointed to contradictions in an apparent societal em%race of feminist language in

the Aest (such as choice female empowerment and se+ual freedom) and the return of regressi&e

se+ist and anti-feminist language images and practices. $herefore claims that feminism has

achie&ed its goals mas# the continued presence of gender ine!uality (>c@o%%ie 2008)

@esearch has e+plored the re"ection or ,repudiation of feminism among some young women

(4charff 2012) and drawn attention to how class race and other social categories intersect with

gender to shape young womens &iews on the rele&ance of feminism to their li&es. owe&er despite

claims that feminism is o&er as a social mo&ement and that young women dont care a%outfeminism the last few years has seen a resurgence of feminist ideas in the mainstream Aestern

populist media (such as 'aitlin >orans %oo# ,ow to %e a womanB Cina 5owers ,ne Dimensional

AomanB and Eat anyards ,$he 7!uality 3llusion) and politics (see for e+ample ustralian 5rime

>inister ulia illard spea# out against se+ism in the ustralian parliament). $here has also %een a

resurgence in forms of feminist acti&ism and protest such as international 4lut Aal# marches and

campaigning organiGations such as HE Feminista and %"ect.

http://www.getcited.org/pub/102243867http://www.abebooks.co.uk/servlet/BookDetailsPL?bi=7489153941&searchurl=an%3DChristina%2BScharffhttp://www.abebooks.co.uk/servlet/BookDetailsPL?bi=7489153941&searchurl=an%3DChristina%2BScharffhttp://www.netmums.com/home/feminismhttp://www.netmums.com/home/feminismhttp://www.genderandeducation.com/issues/how_to_be_a_woman_review/http://www.katbanyard.org/the-equality-illusion.phphttp://www.guardian.co.uk/world/2012/oct/17/julia-gillard-australia-misogyny-dictionaryhttp://www.genderandeducation.com/issues/london-slutwalker/http://www.genderandeducation.com/issues/ukfeminista/http://www.object.org.uk/http://www.object.org.uk/http://www.getcited.org/pub/102243867http://www.abebooks.co.uk/servlet/BookDetailsPL?bi=7489153941&searchurl=an%3DChristina%2BScharffhttp://www.netmums.com/home/feminismhttp://www.netmums.com/home/feminismhttp://www.genderandeducation.com/issues/how_to_be_a_woman_review/http://www.katbanyard.org/the-equality-illusion.phphttp://www.guardian.co.uk/world/2012/oct/17/julia-gillard-australia-misogyny-dictionaryhttp://www.genderandeducation.com/issues/london-slutwalker/http://www.genderandeducation.com/issues/ukfeminista/http://www.object.org.uk/


4/21

$he current focus on %oys underachie&ement in many countries means we often ignore the

pro%lems girls ha&e within the education system. Aith women still earning a fraction of what

men earn (despite their increasing success at school and entry into all le&els of the educationsystem) and disproportionately responsi%le for unpaid wor# it is clear that we still need

feminism (@ingrose 2012).

$here is already some e+citing and important wor# going on %etween uni&ersities and schools

to introduce young women to feminist ideas and support discussion on issues ranging from domestic

&iolence %ody image and ,se+ualisation. $he %oo#s and we%sites %elow document feminisms old

and new point to contemporary gender issues and pro&ide teaching resources for those wanting to

%ring feminist ideas into the classroom.

Feminism and Philosophy of Education

Suzanne Rice

University of Kansas

http://eepat.net/doku.php?id=feminism_and_philosophy_of_education

In the United States, Jane Roland Matin !as one of the fist pofessional philosophes of

education to "in# a feminist pespecti$e to he !ok. Reflectin# on the eseach she

conducted in the late %&'(s and ealy %&)(s, Matin noted the a"sence of discussions "y o

a"out !omen:

*hethe one !as thinkin# of !omen as the su"+ects o the o"+ects of educational thou#ht, fo all

intents and puposes !e had no place at all: as su"+ects, !omens philosophical !oks on education

!ee i#noed- as o"+ects, !oks "y !omen and men a"out !omens education and thei ole as

educatos of the youn# !ee la#ely ne#lected. Moeo$e, the $ey definition of education and the

educational ealm adopted implicitly "y the standad tets in philosophy of education ecludes

!omen. Matin, %&&&, p. %0(1

http://www.genderandeducation.com/resources/contexts/the-boys-underachievement-debate/http://www.genderandeducation.com/issues/do-we-need-international-women%E2%80%99s-day/http://www.genderandeducation.com/issues/do-we-need-international-women%E2%80%99s-day/http://www.routledge.com/books/details/9780415557498/http://www.genderandeducation.com/issues/keepingitreal/http://www.genderandeducation.com/issues/girls-sexual-agency/http://www.genderandeducation.com/issues/girls-sexual-agency/http://eepat.net/doku.php?id=feminism_and_philosophy_of_educationhttp://www.genderandeducation.com/resources/contexts/the-boys-underachievement-debate/http://www.genderandeducation.com/issues/do-we-need-international-women%E2%80%99s-day/http://www.genderandeducation.com/issues/do-we-need-international-women%E2%80%99s-day/http://www.routledge.com/books/details/9780415557498/http://www.genderandeducation.com/issues/keepingitreal/http://www.genderandeducation.com/issues/girls-sexual-agency/http://eepat.net/doku.php?id=feminism_and_philosophy_of_education


5/21

In the t!o decades since Matin fist !ote a"out #ende and education, feminism has

influenced moe and moe philosophes of education. 2his may "e due in pat to the fact

that duin# this time, thee has "een a damatic incease in the num"e of female

philosophes of education. *hile it is not supisin# that, #eneally speakin#, !omen ha$e

"een da!n to feminism moe than men, cetain feminist citicisms and insi#hts ae no!

faily !idely discussed, and sometimes em"aced, "y philosophes of education, e#adless

of thei se. 3o eample, it !ould "e $ey difficult fo a philosophe of education to !ite

compellin#ly today on the topics of moal de$elopment o moal education !ithout at least

ackno!led#in# 4aol 5illi#an %&)61- a failue to mention Susan Molle 7kin %&)&1 !ould

like!ise detact fom a discussion of, say, +ustice and the family.

3eminist scholas ha$e poduced impotant8some !ould a#ue tansfomati$e9!ok acoss

the academic disciplines uss"aum, %&&'1. It !ould "e a mistake, ho!e$e, to assume that

thee is a sin#le, unified feminist theoy to !hich all feminists su"sci"e. Instead, diffeent

feminist scholas ae ali#ned !ith diffeent theoetical oientations, an#in# fom the li"eal

to the poststuctual. In an effot to captue this di$esity of thou#ht, some no! efe to

;feminisms< athe than to the sin#ula ;feminism.< ike!ise, diffeent philosophes of

education ha$e "een influenced "y diffeent stands in feminism. >espite this di$esity, the

!ok of philosophes of education !ho adopt a feminist stance eflects Matins ealy insi#ht

that the failue to attend to the ideas and epeiences of females, as !ell as males, is "ound

to ende analyses of educational phenomena not meely incomplete "ut actually distoted.

Matin heself has eco$eed histoically si#nificant !oks in educational philosophy !itten "y and/o a"out !omen. In ecent yeas, some of the most influential pu"lications in the

field ae !itten "y !omen and ae infomed "y feminist thou#ht. 3o instance, !hile its

title efes to ;feminine< athe than ;feminist,< el oddin#sCaring: A Feminine

Approach to Ethics and Moral Education continues to "e amon# the most !idely cited

pu"lications concened !ith ethics and moal education. Matins second o"se$ation a"out

philosophy of education pio to %&)(9that fe! consideed the epeiences of !omen and

#ils !othy of scholaly attention8no lon#e adeuately chaactei@es the field.

2oday, philosophes of education !ho ha$e "een influenced "y feminist thou#ht outinely

include #ils and !omen in thei analyses. 3eminists ha$e challen#ed the once con$entional

!isdom that thee ae distinct and sepaate pi$ate and political sphees. *ith this feminist

insi#ht in mind, the educational philosophe May each calls into uestion poposed

efoms in teache education and in the teachin# pofession that do not account fo the fact

that the ma+oity of those entein# the field ae !omen !hose esponsi"ilities outside school


6/21

ha$e implications fo thei !ok as teaches and $ise $esa1. each a#ues that impo$in#

teache education and the pactice of teachin# euies insi#ht into the #endeed1 li$es of

pospecti$e and pacticin# teaches. 3eminism has also had a temendous impact on ho!

many philosophes of education $ie! peda#o#y and teache8student elations moe

#eneally. 3eminists ha$e lon# citici@ed !hat they e#ad as patiachal foms of po!e and

authoity. 2hus, one impotant uestion !ith !hich many ha$e stu##led is ho!8indeed

!hethe8the eecise of teache authoity can "e +ustified uke, %&&A1. 7the authos ha$e

focused on #ende linked appoaches to kno!in# thei implications fo teachin# Belenky,

%&)A1. Seual haassment in its $aious manifestations has "ecome a concen of some

philosophes of education as !ell Rice, %&&A1. In addition, feminist scholaship has spaked

philosophical analyses of types of elationships and pactices that in the past !ee #eneally

i#noed "y philosophes of education. 3o instance, Saa Ruddick has a#ued that

mothein# constitutes a kind of pactice di$en "y the aims of pese$ation, #o!th, andsocial accepta"ility Ruddick, %&)&1. Cn#a#in# in the pactice of mothein#, Ruddick a#ues,

fostes cetain metaphysical attitudes, co#niti$e capacities, and conceptions of $itue. 3om

a pespecti$e such as Ruddicks, mothein# appeas to "e of pofound educational

si#nificance. Much of the liteatue pu"lished "y feminists fom the %&A(s until faily

ecently, tended to addess the epeiences and inteests of !hite #eneally middle class1

!omen and #ils and often assumed that all !omen and #ils shaed these epeiences and

inteests. Do!e$e, o$e the past decade, an inceasin# num"e of feminists ha$e de$eloped

a #eate sensiti$ity to diffeences "et!een !omen linked to ace, class, cultue, and seual

oientation, amon# othe factos. In philosophy of education as !ell, thee is a #o!in#

appeciation of such diffeences and thei implications fo educational theoy and pactice.

Eudey 2hompson, fo one, a#ues that standpoint epistemolo#ies aticulated "y Black,

Esian, 4hicana and othe feminists of colo challen#e the assumed uni$esality of cetain

ethical and educational theoies 2hompson, %&&)1. 2he foe#oin# account offes "ut a mee

sample of some of the kinds of topics and appoaches adopted "y philosophes of education

!hose !ok has "een influenced "y feminism. 2he fact that a compehensi$e account of this

issue !ould yield a la#e $olume indicates the etent to !hich Matins concen a"out the

lack of attention to #ende has "een addessed "y philosophes of education.

References

Belenky, M. 3. et al. %&)A1. Women's Ways of Knowing: he !evelopment of "elf# $oice

and Mind . e! Fok: Basic Books.


7/21

Bu"ules, . 4. 3othcomin#1. Guposes and Ideas of Cducation: Gespecti$es fom the

Ghilosophy. In Bo" Moon, Miiam Ben8Geet@, and Sally Bo!n Cds.1, %outledge

&nternational Companion to Education. e! Fok: Routled#e.

5illi#an, 4. %&)61. &n a !ifferent $oice: sychological heory and Women's !evelopment .4am"id#e: Da$ad Uni$esity Gess.

5eisma, H and icoleau, 5. Cds.1, %&&1. eaching for Change: Addressing &ssues of

!ifference in the College Classroom. 4am"id#e: Da$ad Cducational Re$ie!, %&&.

uke, 4. %&&A1. 3eminist Geda#o#y 2heoy: Reflections on Go!e and

Euthoity. Educational heory A, : 6)8(6.

oddin#s, . %&)1. Caring: A Feminine Approach to Ethics and Moral Education.Bekeley: Uni$esity of 4alifonia Gess.

oddin#s, . %&&01 hilosophy of Education. Boulde: *est$ie!, %&&0.

Matin, J. R. Ccludin# *omen fom the Cducational Realm. (arvard Educational

%eview 06: %8).

Matin, J. R. %&)01. %eclaiming a Conversation: he &deal of the Educated Woman. e!

Da$en: Fale Uni$esity Gess.

Matin, J. R. %&&&1. *omen, Schools, and 4ultual *ealth. In 2itone, 4onnie and Maloney,

Haen C. Cds.1, Women's hilosophy of Education: hin)ing hrough our Mothers. Uppe

Saddle Ri$e, e! Jesey: Meill, %&8%''.

uss"aum, M. 4. %&&'1. Cultivating (umanity: A Classical !efense of %eform in *i+eral

Education. 4am"id#e: Da$ad Uni$esity Gess.

7kin, S. M. %&)&1. ,ustice# -ender# and the Family. e! Fok: Basic Books.

Rice, S. %&&A1. 2he ;>isco$ey< and C$oluation of Seual Daassment as an Cducational

Issue. &nitiatives0', 6: %8%.

Ruddick, S. %&)&1. Maternal hin)ing: oward a olitics of eace. e! Fok: Ballantine.


8/21

2hompson, E. %&&)1. ot the 4olo Guple: Black 3eminist essons fo Cducation

4ain#. (arvard Educational %eview A), : 066800.

2itone, 4onnie and Maloney, Haen C. Cds.1. %&&&. Women's hilosophy of Education:

hin)ing hrough our Mothers. Uppe Saddle Ri$e, e! Jesey: Meill.

Sociology of ducation !heory" Feminist #erspectives

I4ociology of 7ducation $heory: Feminist 5erspecti&esI @esearch

4tarters eCotes.com 3nc. eCotes.com 26 pr 2016

http://www.enotes.com/research-starters/sociology-education-theory-feminist-

perspecti&esJresearch-starter-research-starter

In industrial societies, education is frequently an important predictor of one's eventual

socioeconomic status. Although equal education opportunities are supposedly open to both

genders, women continue to be more likely to be found in traditionally female-oriented jobs than

in science, mathematics, and technology jobs that offer higher socioeconomic status. he reasons

do not appear to be genetic. he biological differences that have historically set women and men

apart are no longer important in many workplaces. !urther, research has shown there to be no

significant difference between the distribution of mental skills among women and men.

herefore, many feminists claim that most education systems prepare females poorly for higher

paying, more prestigious jobs. he reasons for this phenomenon are comple", although hidden

curriculum, teacher e"pectancy effect, and gender stereotyping by guidance counselors all seem

to contribute to this situation.

#eywords $onflict %erspective& ducation& !eminism& (ender )tratification& *idden

$urriculum& +ormal istribution& einforcement& )elf-!ulfilling %rophecy& )ocial )tratification&

)ocioeconomic )tatus ))/& )tatus& eacher "pectancy ffect

Educational Sociology: Sociology of Education Theory: Feminist

Perspectives

Overview

*istorically, most societies treat men and women differently. )ometimes these differences are

due to the obvious biological variances between the se"es0 1ecause of their role in bearing

children, women are often cast in supportive or nurturing roles and are responsible for hearth and

home while men, with their typically greater strength and larger muscles, are often cast in the

http://www.enotes.com/research-starters/sociology-education-theory-feminist-perspectiveshttp://www.enotes.com/research-starters/sociology-education-theory-feminist-perspectives#research-starter-research-starterhttp://www.enotes.com/research-starters/sociology-education-theory-feminist-perspectives#research-starter-research-starterhttp://www.enotes.com/research-starters/sociology-education-theory-feminist-perspectiveshttp://www.enotes.com/research-starters/sociology-education-theory-feminist-perspectives#research-starter-research-starterhttp://www.enotes.com/research-starters/sociology-education-theory-feminist-perspectives#research-starter-research-starter


9/21

role of bread winner. 2riginally, these differences made sense0 3ales needed to be bigger and

stronger to go out and kill something for dinner. Infants needed to breastfeed, so females tended

the hearth, home, and family. *owever, over time, things have changed. Although being taller,

stronger, and faster might have been important when putting food on the table meant hunting

buffalo on the plain, other skills are required to earn a living today. 4nder the assumption that

women are as intelligent as men, the feminist movement has been demanding equal opportunities

for women and equal pay for equal work. !eminists have also turned their attention to the

classroom, demanding equal education for both boys and girls as well as encouraging girls to go

into technical, scientific, and professional fields that used to be the domain of males.

Gender-Based earning !i"erences

1efore considering whether or not schools treat girls and boys differently in a way that results in

girls being less prepared to take higher status jobs following their education, it is first necessary

to determine if there are any inherent differences between the ability of girls and boys to learn.

)cientists have found no gender-based differences in general intelligence between the se"es. his

is not to say that there are not differences within the groups, however. +ot every girl is

necessarily as smart as every boy, for e"ample, just as she is not necessarily as smart as every

girl. *owever, there are innate differences between the se"es as to which abilities they e"cel in as

a group. !or e"ample, girls tend as a group to be better at spelling than boys. In fact, by the end

of high school only 56 percent of boys spell better than the average girl. )imilarly, girls tend to

be more gifted in verbal abilities than boys, and they also tend to be more sensitive to touch,

taste, and odor. !urther, boys tend to be overrepresented in the bottom part of the normal

distribution for verbal skills. hey tend to learn to talk later than girls and tend to stutter more

often. 1oys also tend to outnumber girls in remedial reading classes by a ratio of three to one. Inaddition, underachievers in high school tend to be male by a ratio of two to one.

Education

In industrial societies, education is frequently an important predictor of one's eventual

socioeconomic status. !or the most part, individuals who have earned a college degree are able

to obtain higher paying jobs than are individuals with less education. here are, of course,

notable e"ceptions to the rule0 1ill (ates, for e"ample, never finished college. *owever, such

individuals are usually outstanding in other ways and are truly the e"ception rather than the rule.

herefore, if girls receive substantially different treatment in school and this differentialtreatment results in lower e"pectations on the part of girls or in lower quality education that

makes it difficult for them advance as far as boys or to eventually obtain higher status and

income jobs, then the educational system has failed to provide equal opportunities for all.

Although girls are slightly more likely to graduate high school than are boys, this advantage

reverses in college0 3en are slightly more likely to graduate college, receive a first professional


10/21

degree, or an advanced degree than are women. here are many potential reasons for this

phenomenon, including the choice of many women to focus on family over career during their

children's formative years. *owever, many sociologists also interpret this phenomenon as

evidence of gender stratification. It is important to note that social stratification by gender is not

e"actly the same phenomenon as social stratification by race or ethnicity. his can be e"plained

by the fact that when dealing with gender, social status is the same for men and women, where as

for race or ethnicity, this often does not hold true. 7omen and men share many of the same life

opportunities that are based on their socioeconomic status. !or e"ample, when financial

constraints permit, most families are equally willing to send their daughters to college as they are

to send their sons. As a result, upper middle class women typically have more education than

working class men, and uro-American women tend to have more education than African

American, *ispanic, or native American men, on average.

Educational Practices that Promote Gender #ne$uality

%idden &urriculum

here are at least three potential reasons for these observed differences. !irst, it has been

hypothesi8ed by conflict theorists in particular that girls and boys are subtly taught from an early

age that they are different not only physically but emotionally and intellectually different and

that they should e"pect different things out of life. According to conflict theorists, one of the

ways that this is done is through the hidden curriculum taught within the educational system. he

hidden curriculum refers to the standards of proper behavior for a society or culture that are

taught within the school system. he hidden curriculum subtly reinforces behavior and attitudes

that are deemed appropriate by the society or culture. )o, therefore, in this theory, girls are

supported for taking an interest in 9feminine9 pursuits such as home economics or counseling,whereas boys are supported in more 9masculine9 pursuits such engineering and science. $onflict

theorists see this as a way of reinforcing social stratification by encouraging children to stay

within their class. In the end, research has shown that many girls are academically ill-prepared to

pursue careers in science, mathematics, and technical fields. In fact, many girls still view such

careers as 9male occupations.9

Teacher E'pectancy E"ect

In addition, teachers often have different e"pectations for females and males. !or e"ample,

teachers may tend to e"pect girls to do better in reading and writing and boys to do better inmathematics and science. his is called the teacher e"pectancy effect. he theory behind this

phenomenon is that a teacher's e"pectations of a student's performance or achievement affect the

actual performance or achievement of that student. In this type of self-fulfilling prophecy, the

student may pick up on subtle or not so subtle/ cues from the teacher about how well s:he

should be performing or what areas s:he should be interested in. !or e"ample, if a teacher thinks

that girls do better in reading and writing than in math and science, the teacher may praise the


11/21

girls when they do well in courses requiring verbal skills but not encourage them as much when

they do well in courses requiring mathematics or scientific skills. )ince children tend to want to

please their teachers and receive positive feedback, they will tend to work harder in the areas that

they know will result in positive reinforcement from the teacher. eacher e"pectancies, however,

do not necessarily need to be overt or consciously performed in order to impact student behavior.

Gender-Type &ounseling

In addition, counselors may gender-type students and encourage them into more traditionally

accepted careers. As with the teacher e"pectancy effect, this gender typing may be conscious or

unconscious. )chool counselors play an important role in helping children choose whether or not

they will go to college, the career for which they are best suited, and the best way to attain their...

Education Equality

http://www.feminist.org/education/

$itle 3K of the 192 7ducation mendments

No person in the United States shall, on the basis of sex, be excluded from participation in, be denied the

benefits of, or be subjected to discrimination under any education program or actiity receiing federal

financial assistance!

$itle 3K is most well-#nown for increasing womenLs participation in sports. 3n 191 only 2901

girls participated in high school athletics. ccording to the Cational Federation of 4tate igh

4chool ssociation in 201 o&er . million girls participated in high school athletics a 1022

percent increase from 191. owe&er males are still the ma"ority of high school and college

athletes.

ut $itle 3K is not "ust a%out sports. 3t prohi%its discrimination against girls and %oys women

and men students and employees in all le&els of education. 3n accordance with the 198 'i&il

@ights @estoration ct it continues to apply to all education programs and acti&ities that recei&e

federal financial assistance. For e+ample it prohi%its se+ discrimination in facilities access to

courses career guidance student financial aid health and insurance %enefits employment in

educational institutions and se+ual harassment. 3n addition to schools and colleges it co&ers

scientific la%oratories prisons museums and a &ariety of other pu%lic and pri&ate institutions.

5rior to $itle 3K many professional programs had !uotas drastically limiting the num%er of

women admitted. y 2010 women made up o&er 8 percent of &eterinary students and roughly

half of the medical and law students. 3n the field of nursing in 201 men made up 1 percent of

students compared to one percent in 192. 7lite undergraduate institutions are now reaching

parity %etween men and women in admissions. ar&ard 'ollege reported admitting slightly more

women than men for the first time in 200 %ut in 201 it admitted more men than women

%ecause it said more men applied.

http://www.feminist.org/education/http://www.feminist.org/education/titleix.asphttp://www.feminist.org/sports/http://www.feminist.org/sports/http://www.feminist.org/education/http://www.feminist.org/education/titleix.asphttp://www.feminist.org/sports/


12/21

Despite progress on some indicators many ine!uities remain. 3n 2012 women earned only 20

percent of engineering degrees. 4e+ segregation and trac#ing funnel 90 percent of girls and

women into traditionally female fields in &ocational and technical education. oys are two-thirds

of the special education students and recei&e 1M of suspensions from school. For updates on

progress and challenges see the fall 200 Ms. magazine articles on the ;$riumphs of $itle 3K<

(5DF) and the 2008 report ;$itle 3K at : eyond the eadlines< %y the Cational 'oalition forAomen and irls in 7ducation Nsummary (5DF) O full report (5DF)P and the 2012 report I$itle 3K

at 0: Aor#ing to 7nsure ender 7!uity in 7ducation N4ummary (5DF) full report(5DF)P.

lthough the e&idence of %enefits from $itle 3K is o&erwhelming $itle 3K is constantly under

attac# %y opponents who want to turn %ac# the cloc#. $hat is why the Feminist >a"ority

Foundation launched the F>F 7ducation 7!uity 5rogram in 200. $he programLs director Dr.

4ue Elein is the general editor of a the 200 research-%ased Iand%oo# for chie&ing ender

7!uity $hrough 7ducationI and colla%orates with others to e+pand the use of $itle 3K

'oordinators and their allies in the full implementation of $itle 3K.

Women education in the $slamic %epublic of $ranNeditP

&fter year of '()(

4ince the 199 re&olution 3ran was under control of 3slamic rules the progress of female education

was affected %y 3slamic monarchy. Aomen are forced to wear &eiling and are pre&ented from going

to the same school as male students. Female students ha&e to learn different &ersions of te+t%oo#s

which are special editions only for female students. Hnmarried women are ineligi%le for financial aidif they attempt to study a%road. $hroughout the past 0 years the issue of female education has

%een constantly under de%ate.N1P

3ranian women do ha&e desires and a%ilities to pursue further education. n 3ranian high school

student can earn a diploma after studying years. 3f students aim to enter colleges they will stay in

the high schools for the fourth year study which has &ery intense study. ccording to researches

2M of female students choose to ha&e fourth year in the high school %ut only 28M of male students

choose to study in order to enter uni&ersity. >oreo&er women ha&e a much higher pro%a%ility than

men to pass college entrance e+ams. 3slamic female are in need of achie&ing higher education and

truth pro&ed that their a%ilities are enough for getting higher education. $he education opportunities

for female need more national attention and less regulations.N1P

During 198 and 199 the proportion of women who participated in uni&ersities as students or

faculties was rather low. 1M of students admitted to uni&ersities were women. For faculty gender

composition there are 1M female. $his situation has changed with time passing %y. Hni&ersity

http://www.feminist.org/education/TriumphsOfTitleIX.pdfhttp://www.feminist.org/education/TriumphsOfTitleIX.pdfhttp://www.feminist.org/education/TitleIXat35Summary.pdfhttp://www.feminist.org/education/TitleIXat35Summary.pdfhttp://www.feminist.org/education/TitleIXat35.pdfhttp://www.ncwge.org/TitleIX40/ExecSummary.pdfhttp://www.ncwge.org/TitleIX40/TitleIX-print.pdfhttp://www.ncwge.org/TitleIX40/TitleIX-print.pdfhttp://www.feminist.org/education/ThreatsToTitleIX.asphttp://www.feminist.org/education/ThreatsToTitleIX.asphttp://www.feminist.org/education/FMFprogram.asphttp://www.feminist.org/education/handbook.asphttp://www.feminist.org/education/handbook.asphttp://www.feminist.org/education/handbook.asphttp://www.feminist.org/education/TitleIXcoordinatorsNetwork.asphttp://www.feminist.org/education/TitleIXcoordinatorsNetwork.asphttps://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Female_education&action=edit&section=4https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Islamic_ruleshttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Islamic_ruleshttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Veilinghttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Female_education#cite_note-web.a.ebscohost.com-31https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Female_education#cite_note-web.a.ebscohost.com-31http://www.feminist.org/education/TriumphsOfTitleIX.pdfhttp://www.feminist.org/education/TriumphsOfTitleIX.pdfhttp://www.feminist.org/education/TitleIXat35Summary.pdfhttp://www.feminist.org/education/TitleIXat35.pdfhttp://www.ncwge.org/TitleIX40/ExecSummary.pdfhttp://www.ncwge.org/TitleIX40/TitleIX-print.pdfhttp://www.feminist.org/education/ThreatsToTitleIX.asphttp://www.feminist.org/education/ThreatsToTitleIX.asphttp://www.feminist.org/education/FMFprogram.asphttp://www.feminist.org/education/handbook.asphttp://www.feminist.org/education/handbook.asphttp://www.feminist.org/education/TitleIXcoordinatorsNetwork.asphttp://www.feminist.org/education/TitleIXcoordinatorsNetwork.asphttps://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Female_education&action=edit&section=4https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Islamic_ruleshttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Veilinghttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Female_education#cite_note-web.a.ebscohost.com-31https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Female_education#cite_note-web.a.ebscohost.com-31


13/21

enrollment was decreased under the influence of 3ranian 'ultural @e&olution. $he general enrollment

population declined during that time. fter the culture re&olution the amount of enrollment was going

up. $he increase in the num%er of uni&ersity students is accompanied with an increase in female

rate.N1P

3slamic higher education contains le&els. $he le&els are associate %achelorLs masterLs

professional doctorate and specialiGed doctorate.N1P efore the re&olution the gender gap is o%&ious

in master le&el and specialiGed doctorate which are only 20M and 2M. 3t has changed after 0

years. 3n 200 the female percent in masterLs degree rose up to M and for specialiGed doctorate

degree this data rose up to M.N2P

Female rate has not only increased in the students %ut also in faculty. 20 years ago only 6M of all

professors and 8M of all associated professors were women. Cow 8M of all professors and 1M of

all associated professors are female. N1P

Woman's Education According to Rousseau and Wollstonecraft

http://feminism.eserver.org/theory/papers/womens-education.txt

Essay that discusses Jean Jacques Roussea and Mary Wostonecraft!s views toward the

education of women" highighting the #nove# idea that men and women shoud $e educated

together.

"Give, without scruples, a woman's education to women, see to it that they love the cares of their sex,

that they possess modesty, that they know how to grow old in their m nage and keep usy in their�house!"

Jean Jacues Rousseau, Cmile

"he neglected education of my fellow#creatures is the grand source of the misery $ deplore!"

May *ollstonecaft, A $indication of the %ights of Women

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Iranian_Cultural_Revolutionhttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Iranian_Cultural_Revolutionhttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Iranian_Cultural_Revolutionhttps://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Culture_revolution&action=edit&redlink=1https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Female_education#cite_note-web.a.ebscohost.com-31https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Female_education#cite_note-web.a.ebscohost.com-31https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Female_education#cite_note-32https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Female_education#cite_note-web.a.ebscohost.com-31http://feminism.eserver.org/theory/papers/womens-education.txthttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Iranian_Cultural_Revolutionhttps://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Culture_revolution&action=edit&redlink=1https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Female_education#cite_note-web.a.ebscohost.com-31https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Female_education#cite_note-web.a.ebscohost.com-31https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Female_education#cite_note-32https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Female_education#cite_note-web.a.ebscohost.com-31http://feminism.eserver.org/theory/papers/womens-education.txt


14/21

2he salons of Jean Jacues Rousseaus day #eatly admied his theoies, includin# his ad$ocation of

"east8feedin# and his concept of natual education. 2oday he has enomous influence on accepted

educational doctines. Rousseau desci"es his methods in Cmile, the stoy of a "oys up"in#in# in

natual state. Edmiin# his sentiment, May *ollstonecaft applauded Rousseaus scheme fo Cmile

"ut deploed the ne#lect of Cmiles pefect !ife, Sophie. De disappointment in Rousseau !as a main

influence on *ollstonecafts "est8kno!n !ok, E Kindication of the Ri#hts of *oman. Rousseau

outlines his theoies fo the ideal education fo !omen in 4hapte K of Cmile !itten "et!een %'0'

and %'A%. 2hese so contadict his plan fo Cmile that it "ecomes necessay to place them in the

fame!ok of his time and the paticula pe+udices of Rousseau. 4etainly he "oke no #ound

e#adin# the topic of !omen. ealy a hunded yeas "efoe Cmile, Ms. Makin pu"lished En Cssay

to Re$i$e the Encient Cducation of 5entle!omen. In he Seious Goposal to adies of %A&, May

Estell ad$ocated a con$ent !hee seious8minded !omen mi#ht etie fo study and contemplation.

In his Cssay on Go+ects , >aniel >efoe su##ests an academy fo !omen !hee they mi#ht study !hate$e they chose. De o"se$es as ealy as %A&', L*e epoach the se e$ey day !ith folly and

impetinence, !hile I am confident, had they the ad$anta#es of education eual to us, they !ould "e

#uilty of less than ousel$es.L% Es !omen and thei education !ee $ey popula topics amon# the

feuentes of the salons, Rousseau !as often da!n into thei discussions as a consultant. Efte

pu"lication Rousseau eali@ed some eco#nition as a spokesman fo the i#hts of people, althou#h

thee !as a decided ise in the intensity of demands fo eco#nition of !omens state.6

Rousseau desci"es his passionate feelin#s fo se$eal !omen in his life in his 4onfessions, the fist

of !hich !as the stan#e feelin#s he had as a "oy !hen Mademoiselle am"ecie punished him.

L*ho !ould ha$e "elie$ed that the chastisement I ecei$ed at ei#ht fom a thity8yea8old #il !ould

ha$e detemined my tastes, desies, and passions fo the est of my life?L Da$in# left Gotestant

S!it@eland fo 4atholic 3ance, Rousseau "e#an to meet the !omen !ho !ould suppot and

influence his !ok fo the est of his life. 7ne of his fist encountes !as !ith Madame de *aens,

!hom he efeed to as maman, also a con$et to 4atholicism and an escapee fom 5ene$a. Because

of he suppot he !as a"le to take pat in kno!led#ea"le con$esations, philosophical discussions,

and intellectual pusuits. 3om he pi$ile#ed position he !as a"le to o"se$e !ith fatenal pity the

people !hose fate he mi#ht ha$e shaed.

Et the a#e of thity, Rousseau left Madame de *aens esidence. De !ished to "e accepted in the

intellectual cicles of the salons, and to #ain entance to the Ecademie des Sciences. De succeeded at

the Ecademie "ut failed to "e accepted socially at the salons. 7ne of his sponsos, G�e 4astel,

ad$ised, LSince musicians and se$ants !ill not sin# to#ethe !ith you, chan#e you tactics, and ty


15/21

the !omen.L De took this ad$ice and made the acuaintance of se$eal intelli#ent and influential

!omen.

Eccodin# to 4laude 3e$el in Jean Jacues Rousseau et les femmes, Rousseaus feelin#s of

infeioity amon# these !omen induced his unnatual attachment to a t!enty8thee yea old se$ant#il, 2h��se e$asseu. LShe is so limited,L says Dume, Lthat she kno!s neithe the yea, the

month, no the day of the !eek- she is una!ae of the $alue of money and in spite of all that, she has

on Jean Jacues the empie of a nuse o$e he cha#e.L0 4etainly e$asseu had some influence in

Rousseaus concept of the ideal !oman.

Rousseau pimaily claimed that LnNatue has ceated man happy and #ood, "ut society depa$es

him and makes him misea"le.LA In the ei#hteenth centuy, moality took on a ne! meanin#

founded on the natual #oodness of man. Dappiness "ecame a i#ht supplantin# the idea of duty.

Sensual deli#hts !ee natual and theefoe ational. Ell of Rousseaus educational theoies dei$e

fom his attempt to pese$e natues pue state. Dis concept of ne#ati$e education allo!ed a child to

disco$e fo himself and to "e punished "y the natue he sou#ht to defy. 2he tuto must not ty to

eason !ith the child o sho! authoity. Books !ould not "e foced on the child- at t!el$e Cmile

!ould hadly kno! !hat to do !ith a "ook. Gositi$e education, o diect instuction, !ould only

"e#in at appoimately the a#e of adulthood, and then the studies !ould "e "ased on the students

natual cuiosity. Rousseau stessed utility, the need fo teachin# thin#s !ith pactical applications.

2his concept of ne#ati$e education as applica"le to !omen !as totally inconcei$a"le to Rousseau. De

$ie!ed !omens options as entiely limited to the oles of !ife and mothe. *hat need !ould thee

"e to allo! he to detemine fo heself !hen natue had aleady physiolo#ically dictated he

destiny? Dis scheme fo Cmile !as adical- his scheme fo Sophie !as not adical enou#h. Rousseau

demanded a e$esion to pimiti$ism in the education of !omen, offein# minimal $ocational

tainin# !hile insistin# on he ina"ility to eason and he infeioity to man. LE !omans education

must "e planned in elation to manL.SNhe !ill al!ays "e in su"+ection to a manLand she !ill ne$e

"e fee to set he o!n opinion a"o$e his.L' De stesses feedom of mo$ement and physical eetion

fo Cmile, assetin# that !eak "odies contain !eak minds. Et the same time he discoua#es Sophie

fom too much physical acti$ity and uses he !eakness as anothe poof of he infeioity. L2he

o"+ect of that culti$ation is diffeent. In the one se it is the de$elopment of copoeal po!es- in the

othe, that of pesonal chams,L Rousseau assets.)

Cmile is not instucted in eli#ious mattes until he eaches adulthood. De has a natual sense of

moality Lfom eason tempeed "y the heat.L& Gesuma"ly !oman cannot eason, so she cannot

http://feminism.eserver.org/theory/papers/womens-education.txt#refnhttp://feminism.eserver.org/theory/papers/womens-education.txt#refShttp://feminism.eserver.org/theory/papers/womens-education.txt#refnhttp://feminism.eserver.org/theory/papers/womens-education.txt#refS


16/21

maintain a state of moality, and must "e #uaded "y men thou#hout he life. Rousseau poposes

that Sophie must "e made to lo$e $itue, althou#h she !ill ne$e undestand theolo#ical ationale fo

li$in# upi#htly. She must "e made to feel su"+ect to societys opinions of he. In fact, Sophie fails at

this. In the fa#mentay seuel to Cmile, es Solitaies, Rousseau tells of the infidelity of Sophie !ho

had "een LeducatedL to "e Cmiles ideal !ife. May *ollstonecaft makes no mention of this "ook

and po"a"ly ne$e ead it, "ut she !ould make the i#ht assumptions a"out the likelihood of

Sophies fidelity.

Delen Misenheime points out in Rousseau on the Cducation of *omen that Rousseau lea$es off the

seual education of Cmile in desci"in# Sophie. In fact, she is his seual identity. Rousseau consides

a mans union !ith a !oman a de"asement of his natue. *hile insistin# on the impotance of

mothehood, he stum"les on !omens ole as mothes. In addessin# mothes in Book I of Cmile, he

ackno!led#es thei pimacy in the education of youth. By denyin# !omen the a"ility to eason he

denies them the a"ility to aise childen, !hich May *ollstonecaft late attempts to po$e.

3ancis 5i""le poposes, L4ontempoay citics contended that Jean Jacues did not mean a !od

that he said- the difficulty of the moden citic is to disco$e that he e$e said anythin# at all !hich he

did not immediately afte!ads contadict.L%( *hen accosted "y a fathe !ho infomed him he !as

usin# the Cmile method to aise his son, Rousseau eplied that he !as soy fo him "ut e$en soie

fo his son.%% 4etainly he contadicts himself in 4hapte K of Cmile. 7ne must ask if !oman is as

LnatualL as man, and natue is essentially #ood, then !hy should the same pinciples of Lne#ati$e

educationL not apply to !omen? Misenheime discusses the dichotomy of !omen in Rousseaus !itin#s. She claims that Rousseau makes !oman totally su"se$ient to man, makin# he into a mee

playthin# fo the supeio se. Fet "y insetin# Sophie in he place in his educational theoies, he

encoua#es othes to #i$e the uestion futhe thou#ht at a moment in histoy !hen social e$olution

uniuely suppots he. 2his is eactly the cause !hich May *ollstonecaft takes up. 3uthemoe,

"y speakin# of all society and not +ust the elite, he "ecomes one of the fist !ites e$en to eco#ni@e

the odinay !oman, #i$in# he a foothold to independence. Rousseau cetainly did not intend to

li"eate !omen- he ad$ocated the feedom of man.

%ary Wollstonecraft reputedly tried to rear one of her charges, Ann &useli, as a child of nature! he

experiment proved disappointing when she caught her stealing and lying!( )he considered herself a

rationalist, ut she greatly admired Rousseau's "pure sentiment!" )he did not, however, share

Rousseau's admiration for primitive society, and took great exception to his views of women! $n A

*indication of the Rights of Woman she asserts, "Rousseau exerts himself to prove that all was right

originally+ a crowd of authors that all is now right+ and $, that all will e right sic-!".

http://feminism.eserver.org/theory/papers/womens-education.txt#refsichttp://feminism.eserver.org/theory/papers/womens-education.txt#refsic


17/21

De most famous and conto$esial !ok, Ri#hts of *oman, !as not the fist !ok to ad$ocate "ette

education fo !omen. Emon# *ollstonecafts contempoaies, thee !ee se$eal in 3ance !ho had

!itten in "ehalf of !omen. 7lympe de 5ou#es spoke "oldly in defense of he se in se$ealpu"lications, one titled E >eclaation of the Ri#hts of *oman. 4ondocet ad$ocated "ette education

fo !omen in Memois on Gu"lic Instuction. *ollstonecaft had e$ie!ed 4atheine Macaulays

ettes on Cducation fo the Enalytical, and ackno!led#ed he de"t to the !ok in Ri#hts of *oman.

ettes denies any fundamental diffeence in chaacte "et!een the sees, atti"utin# !omens

!eaknesses to faulty education and social position. *ollstonecaft epeats and de$elops almost e$ey

point of he !ok.

ike many Cn#lish intellectuals, *ollstonecaft !atched the 3ench Re$olution !ith inteest,

anticipatin# that the #eat social epeiment !ould one day each he shoe. 2he Re$olution Lmust

ha$e seemed like a happy fusion of all she had "een tau#ht to espect "y he sa#e ondon fiends,

and all that she cheished "y natueL.End so she, like many of he countymen, looked hopefully to

3ance as the #eat po$in#8#ound.L% She espouses the cause of feedom in he Kindication of the

Ri#hts of Men, !itten in eply to Cdmund Bukes Reflections on the Re$olution in 3ance. She

di#esses occasionally in this !ok, citici@in# the effects of !ealth and ank and chidin# Buke fo

his fondness fo !aifishness and !eakness in !omen.

In he pe$ious !ok, *ollstonecaft had sho!n an inteest in !omens status !ithout diectly

addessin# the matte. Eccodin# to he hus"and *illiam 5od!in, she spent only si !eeks in actual

composition, "ut she had "een de$elopin# the ideas fo Ri#hts of *oman all he life. She found that

most !ites sho!ed eithe outi#ht disdain o condescendin# paise of !omens !eakness. 2he

immediate cause of Ri#hts of *oman !as 2alleyands Repot on Gu"lic Institution, an outline of the

po+ected plan of national education unde a ne! 3ench constitution. 2alleyand declaed that #ils

should "e educated !ith "oys only until the a#e of ei#ht. *ollstonecaft pefaces he "ook !ith a

lette to 2alleyand !hich u#es him and his compatiots not to deny !omen thei i#hts.%

*ollstonecaft seeks to find a ational eplanation fo the state of he se. She uestions !hethe

!omen ae eally ceated fo the pleasue of men:

2Nhou#h the cy of ieli#ion, o e$en atheism, "e aised a#ainst, I !ill simply declae, that !ee an

an#el fom hea$en to tell me that Mosess "eautiful, poetical cosmo#ony, and the account of the fall

of man, !ee liteally tue, I could not "elie$e !hat my eason told me !as deo#atoy to the

chaacte of the Supeme Bein#.%

http://feminism.eserver.org/theory/papers/womens-education.txt#refThttp://feminism.eserver.org/theory/papers/womens-education.txt#refT


18/21

She disco$es the only eason fo !omens state is thei lack of education. In 4hapte K she attacks

se$eal !ites, especially Rousseau, !ho had !itten poo accounts of !omen. *ollstonecaft cites

and comments on lon# passa#es fom Cmile. She is not una!ae of Rousseaus elationships !ith

!omen. In he chapte L7n ational Cducation,L she states:

*ho e$e de! a moe ealted female chaacte than Rousseau? 2hou#h in the lump he constantly

endea$oued to de#ade the se. End !hy !as he thus anious? 2uly to +ustify to himself the

affection !hich !eakness and $itue had made him cheish fo that fool 2heesa. De could not aise

he to the common le$el of he se- and theefoe he la"oed to "in# !oman do!n to hes. De found

he a con$enient hum"le companion, and pide made him detemine to find some supeiou $itues

in the "ein# !hom he chose to li$e !ith- "ut did not he conduct duin# his life, and afte his death,

clealy sho! ho! #ossly he !as mistaken !ho called he a celestial innocent.%0

She teats his desciption of Sophie !ith smu# indi#nation, as !hen Rousseau desci"es Sophies

#a", Lsimple as it seems, !as only put in its pope ode to "e taken to pieces "y the ima#ination.L

2o this she etots, LIs this modesty? Is this a pepaation fo immotality?L%A She coectly accuses

Rousseau of depictin# not a !ife and sensi"le mothe, "ut a pleasin# mistess.

5ettin# to the heat of Rousseaus eo, she detemines:

Men ha$e supeio sten#th of "ody, "ut !ee it not fo mistaken notions of "eauty, !omen !ould

acuie sufficient to ena"le them to ean thei o!n su"sistence, the tue definition of independenceL.

et us then, "y "ein# allo!ed to take the same eecise as "oys, not only duin# infancy, "ut youth,

ai$e at pefection of "oys, that !e may kno! ho! fa the natual supeioity of man etends.%'

She cautions that she has no desie to "eed a #eneation of independent and unattached !omen like

heself, "ut that she seeks to de$elop !ise and moe $ituous mothes. She "elie$es that childens

chaactes ae fomed "efoe the a#e of se$en, shuddein# to think of the dama#e done "y addle8

headed mothes. *ithout stessin# independence she "elie$es that once !omen #ain intellectual

euality, they should "e #i$en political and economic euality as !ell.

In 4hapte OII, L7n ational Cducation,L *ollstonecaft de$elops he poposal. She feels that

pi$ate education is confined to the �lite, and that school8childen need the company of othe

childen. She has an a$esion to "oadin# schools "ecause of the inteuptions of $acations. She

su##ests day schools !hee childen may spend time !ith othe childen. 2hese need to "e national

esta"lishments, so that school8mattes ae not left to the Lcapice of the paents.L%) ike Rousseau,

she emphasi@es that childen must "e allo!ed to play feely.


19/21

*hat is so adical a"out *ollstonecafts idea is that #ils ae not educated elati$e to "oys, "ut !ith

them. She states:

If maia#e "e the cement of society, mankind should all "e educated afte the same model, o the

intecouse of the sees !ill ne$e dese$e the name of fello!ship, no !ill !omen e$e fulfill the

peculia duties of thei seL. ay, maia#e !ill ne$e "e held saced till !omen, "y "ein# "ou#ht up

!ith men, ae pepaed to "e thei companions athe than thei mistesses.%&

Efte the a#e of nine, #ils and "oys intended fo domestic employments o mechanical tades !ill "e

emo$ed to othe schools. 2he t!o sees !ill still study to#ethe in the monin#s, and in the

aftenoons #ils !ill lean milliney, mantua8makin#, and othe fittin# pusuits.

5ils and "oys still to#ethe? I hea some eades ask: yes. End I should not fea any othe

conseuence than that some ealy attachment mi#ht take placeL. Besides, this !ould "e a sue !ay to

pomote ealy maia#es, and fom ealy maia#es the most salutay physical and moal effects

natually flo!.6(

*omen should "e tau#ht anatomy and medicine to make them ational nuses of thei infants,

paents, and hus"ands.

Et the time of its pu"lication in %'&6, E Kindication of the Ri#hts of *omen !as consideed adical

and e$olutionay. By the end of the yea Joseph Johnson pu"lished a second edition. En Emeican

edition appeaed in Boston and Ghiladelphia, and a 3ench tanslation appeaed in Gais and yons.

Eaon Bu admied it and attempted to aise his o!n dau#hte accodin# to its pinciples, althou#h

he complained in %'& that he had Lnot yet met a sin#le peson !ho had disco$eed o !ould allo!

the meit of this "ook.L6% 4ontempoay eactions an#ed fom shock to amusement to enthusiasm.

>espite a num"e of mean8spiited paodies, includin# E Sketch of the Ri#hts of Boys and 5ils and

E Kindication of the Ri#hts of Butes, thee is no dou"t he "ook had a temendous impact on Bitish

and Emeican feminism. De a#ument that one must educate mothes so they may "ette aise thei

childen !ould "e echoed "y the ad$ocates of LRepu"lican MothehoodL in the fist yeas of the ne!

Emeican epu"lic.66

May *ollstonecafts ideas !ee sa$a#ely attacked afte he death, !hen the hoos of the 3ench

Re$olution had con$inced most Cn#lishmen that all e$olutionay theoies !ee dan#eous.

Do!e$e, thee is little dou"t that he ideas li$e on, and like Rousseaus, still ha$e an impact on

education. Gu"lic education, teachin# "y the eploitation of natual cuiosity, pactical applications,


20/21

ae all ideas descended fom Rousseau and *ollstonecaft. Most distincti$e of these is

*ollstonecafts adical notion that !omen and men "e educated to#ethe.

%Es cited in Ralph M. *adle, May *ollstonecaft: E 4itical Bio#aphy a!ence: Uni$esity of

Hansas Gess, %&0%1, p. %.

6Delen C$ans Misenheime, Rousseau on the Cducation of *omen *ashin#ton, >4: Uni$esity

Gess of Emeica, Inc., %&)%1, p. A.

4onfessions, I as cited "y Misenheime, p. 6%.

I"id., p. 6.

04laude 3e$el, Jean8Jacues Rousseau et les femmes, as cited "y Misenheime, p. 6A.

AMisenheime, p. %&.

'Rousseau, pp. 66, 60.

)Rousseau, as cited "y *ollstonecaft, p. %'A.

&Rousseau, as cited "y Misenheime, p. &.

%(3ancis 5i""le, Rousseau and the *omen he o$ed, as cited "y Misenheime, p. .

%%*illiam Boyd, 2he Mino Cducational *itin#s of Jean Jacues Rousseau, as cited "y

Misenheime, p. ).

%6*adle, p. %').

%*ollstonecaft, p. 66.

%*ollstonecaft, pp. %'8%'.

%0I"id., pp. (8(.

%AI"id., p.%&0.

%'I"id., p. %)&.


21/21

%)I"id., p. '&.

%&I"id., pp. )(, )%.

6(I"id., p. )&.

6%Matthe! . >a$is, Memois of Eaon Bu, as cited "y *adle, p.%0).

66inda H. He"e, L2he Repu"lican Mothe,L *omens Emeica 7fod: 7fod Uni$esity Gess,

%&&%1, pp. )'8&0.

feministic theories on education

Documents