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Best Management Practices for Fish Farmers in Nigeria. USAID MARKETS. March 2010.

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Best Management Practices for Fish Farming Package of Practices (POP) for Fish Farming

USAID Markets Programme – Nigeria March 2010

1. Economic Importance of Fish In the agricultural sector of the Nigerian economy which employs about 70% of the active labour force, fish occupies a unique position in that it is the cheapest source of animal protein consumed by the average Nigerian, accounting for up to 50% of the total animal protein intake (FDF, 2009). With diminishing returns from over fishing in capture fisheries, aquaculture has been growing at some 20% per year since 2003 in Nigeria and continues to attract many investors and new farmers. Fish plays an important role in many areas in Nigeria:

a. Economically:

- As presented in Table 1, fish is relatively cheaper than other types of meat except pork and is available to Nigerians in fresh, smoked, dried or frozen forms with no religious taboos like pork or beef.

- Impact of Agriculture on GDP = 30.8% of GDP (CBN, Statistical Bulletin. 2009)

- Impact of Fisheries on GDP = l.0% of GDP, or 3.24% of Agriculture GDP (CBN, Statistical Bulletin, 2009) Figure 1

- Foreign exchange earning potential. This is attained through export of processed (Smoked Catfish/Shrimps) fish and fishery by- products to international markets.

- Deficit- With importation of more than 800,000 MT of fish, more than USD 600 million are spent in hard currency and thousands of jobs are exported.

- Fish farming can be integrated with smallholder rural agriculture and commercial farms, as well as in irrigation schemes, thereby leading to increased income with improved nutrition.

b. Nutritionally: - In 2008, farmed fish contributed some 20% (143,207 MT) of total domestic fish production of

684,575 MT. Availability of fish in rural areas varies but contributes to improved food security. - Fish consumption averages 9.8 kg/caput, with total demand for fish at some 1.4 m MT/annum - Nutritionally, among meats, fish is best for human consumption as it is low in fat, calories and

cholesterol (Table1). Fish consumption is increasing among diet conscious people.

Table 1. Comparison of Cost and Nutritional Values of Different sources of Animal Protein per 100 g serving. Source: www.soystache.com. March 2010.

Source of Protein Calories (kcal) Protein (g) Total (g)Fat Cholesterol (mg) Cost (N/kg) 1. Egg 199 13.5 15 459 350 2. Beef 289 24.1 20.6 90 500-700 3. Chicken 173 30.9 4.5 85 500-750 4. Pork 206 30.9 8.1 96 300 5. Sheep 191 28.3 7.7 89 600 6. Fish 140 26.6 2.9 41 350-400 7. Soybeans 416 36 19.9 0 40-45

Figure 1. Trends in Nigerian Agriculture on GDP-

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c. Employment, Production and Income Generation

- Fisheries guarantee direct and indirect employment opportunities, with up to 1.6 million artisanal fishermen in the primary sector and some 200,000 workers employed in the aquaculture sub-sector as shown in Table 2.

- Yields from aquaculture per unit area of land exceed those from agricultural land in terms of economic protein production. 8-18 MT/ha of catfish can be obtained in static ponds, depending on quality of fish seed, fish feeds and management. One well-managed farm of catfish in static ponds, with intensive feeding and close management has yields of 50 tons/hectare.

- According to the World Fish Center (2009), aquaculture is the world’s fastest growing food production sub-sector, growing at an annual rate of 8.9% since 1970.

- Land otherwise not suitable for any other form of agriculture can be used for fish farming (aquaculture) such as fadama irrigated areas, swamps, spent land, borrow pits.

- Fish imports reached 937,428 MT in 2008 (FDF, 2008) which costs the country some USD 0.7 billion. Import substitution through aquaculture to eventually replace imports with domestically produced fish could create 70,000 jobs per year.

Table 2. Fisheries and Aquaculture Production with Estimated Value Chain Components, Costs and Estimated Employment1.

Component Annual Production

(MT) Value

(Naira) Value (USD)

Estimated Employment

CAPTURE FISHERIES 1. Artisanal Fisheries 511,382 76.7 B2 511.4 M 1,600,000 2. Industrial Fisheries 29,986 8.9 B3 59.9 M 3,000 Total Capture Fisheries 541,368 85.6 B 571.3 M 1,603,000 AQUACULTURE 3. Fish Farming 143,207 71.6 B 477.3 M 179,0004 4. Fish Fingerling Prod 186,200,000 no.s5 2.7 B 18.6 M 3726 5. Fish Feed Production 215,000 57.1 B 380.9 M 1,0757

1 2008 Figures from Supplement with FDF. 2008. Fishery Statistics of Nigeria. Fourth Edition. 1995-2007. 49 p. (with supplement for

2008) 2 76.7 Billion Naira calculated at wholesale price of N150/kg 3 8.9 Billion Naira calculated at N300/kg (includes shrimp) 4 179,000 Employed in fish farming: Assumes 1.25 employees/ton of fish produced 5 186,200,000 fingerlings are required to produced 143,207,000 kgs of fish (1 kg ea), assuming a mortality of 30% 6 372 Employed for fish fingerling production: Assumes 2 workers/million fingerlings produced 7 1,075 Employed for fish feed production: Assumes 5 workers / 1000 tons of fish feed produced.


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2. Relevance of Fish Farming A well-organized farmer or investor can enter fish farming and establish a farm enterprise to help reduce risk by diversifying the variety of on-farm activities. This offers a farmer an option to start small and “test the waters”, then, when the business of fish farming is understood and some degree of success has been achieved, the activity can be expanded with more investment and production. The best fish farmers start small and live at the farm and are “hands on” managers who learn to understand the husbandry of fish in water, which is very different from terrestrial farming of animals or crops. Nevertheless, fish farming development is following the poultry industry and is facing similar challenges in its development: 1) the need to educate farmers, 2) the need for quality stocks of fish of known origins, 3) the need for high quality feeds, 4) the need for record keeping among fish farmers, and 5) the need for quality extension support. This manual seeks to present best management practices for fish farmers to follow, along with reasons for success and failure in this dynamic industry.

a. Not a get rich strategy

Fish farming is not for everyone. It is possible to earn good profit in fish farming, but one should enter into this business with caution, serious planning and a strategy based on a good investigation of the industry and fish farm management. This is done with visits to successful fish farms (Photo 1) and a willingness to learn from participation in good training programmes organized by well-known, qualified groups, NGO’s or actual fish farmers. One should carefully avoid anyone promoting fish farming as a “get rich quick” scheme, as these types of “consultants” are usually quacks and are unqualified with no practical experience.

b. Need for Best Management Practices- “Fail to plan, plan to fail”

This manual seeks to present the best management practices to be used by fish hatchery operators (Photo 2) and fish farmers as well as investors to help them meet with success in fish farming. Investing in fish farming is a serious affair and no one should assume that success is easy. A systematic approach with good record keeping will greatly help the farmer or investor to measure progress in the business of fish farming and to reflect on the causes of success or failure. Note that there are many good technical manuals on “how to do” fish farming and this is not the objective of this document. A number of such manuals are provided in the section on references along with many articles and documents useful to those in aquaculture in general. A generalized value chain for fish farming is presented graphically in Annex 1.

c. Reasons for Failure and Success in Fish Farming

In starting this Package of Practices for successful fish farming, it is useful to reflect on why some farmers meet with success while others fail in fish farming. Lessons in success and failure at fish farming were well reported by Isyagi et al (2009), in their Catfish Manual for Uganda and are presented below in Table 3.

Photo 1. Fish farm in Ibadan with earthen ponds and fish hatchery in shed.

Photo 2. Fish hatchery in Port Harcourt, Rivers State


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Table 3-a. Why Some Fish Farmers Fail in Fish Farming. Adapted from Isyagi et al. 2009. Manual for the Commercial Pond Production of the African Catfish in Uganda. FISH project Uganda. USAID. Coop.

1. No Market: Bad fish farmers start looking for a market for their fish when the fish are ready for sale. Meanwhile, because they are still feeding, the pond attains its maximum loading and fish stop growing. The longer the fish stay in the pond after they have stopped growing, the smaller the profit margin.

2. Poor Farm Siting: Such as in a place with inadequate water supply, poor soils for pond construction (e.g. may be rocky), far away from markets and/or supplies, etc.

3. Poor farm and facility design: Pond dikes not compacted properly, leak a lot, may be too shallow, and consequently construction and maintenance costs become too high while optimum yields are not achieved. Poor accessibility to ponds, requiring workers to walk across difficult terrain to transfer fish from pond to vehicle or vice-versa.

4. Poor Investment Plan: Several farmers assume that to be a commercial fish farmer one must have several large ponds. Hence, they construct many ponds at once, which constrains their cash flow. Because of this, some farmers take a while to start production or may only afford to start production in one pond after all the investment.

5. Lack of Technical Knowledge: Start production before knowing what management options are available or how to farm fish.

6. Do not employ the right people. Entrepreneurs employ the right people who are qualified for a specific job. Hiring family members who have little or no desire to learn proper fish farming techniques is a liability because most people find it difficult to dismiss them even after it has become apparent that they are the reason for the poor performance of the fish farm.

7. Absentee Owners/Managers: Manage farms by remote control or telephone. No direct involvement in production and management activities of the farm.

8. Irregular and improper feeding: This ranges from complete lack of knowledge about the nutritional requirements and feeding of catfish to attempts at saving money by using cheap feeds. Some farmers just do not feed their fish because they think fish will grow as long as they are in water. They do not realize that like all animals, best performance would be obtained if the fish have a balanced diet and that the feed needs to be palatable, easily digestible and does not disintegrate into the water before the fish can consume it. Fish should be fed with the correct feed of the right quality by a conscientious person who is aware that fish should be fed according to feeding response. Fish may not always feed with the same intensity. They may not want to consume much in bad weather or with a sudden change in temperature; fish may also not eat when they are sick.

9. Fail to Use the Best Person for Feeding: The person feeding fish should be conscientious and keen to observe the fish and know their habits. Feed is not to be dumped into ponds or tanks, but fed according to the fishes feeding response. Feed is expensive (up to 60-70% of operating cost) and only the best laborer can obtain a low feed conversion and lowest cost.

10. Does not understand management regimes: Do not appreciate that different management levels have different requirements which consequently affects stocking rates. Stocking rates are a function of the specific management regime.

11. Focus on few large fish rather than Volume Production: Being more impressed with harvesting the few large fish rather than looking at the overall picture and appreciating total tonnage at harvest. Survival rates and average fish size matter when raising table-fish, because profit margins above operational costs generally range between 10 to 30% depending on one’s market. The net income is therefore largely a function of turnover.

12. Do not keep records and do not assess performance to re-adjust management practices accordingly after each cycle. A farmer is therefore unable to tell whether a profit or loss will have been made. Having money in one’s pocket after a sale does not imply one has made a profit. Records must be kept on all aspects of management to help the farmer evaluate and correct his/her management practices, for improving production and putting together a business plan.

13. Hobby farmers who fail to harvest at the correct time, as though they are taking care of wild-life in a game park. 14. Wrong objectives for investing in aquaculture. Some do it simply because their friends are doing it or because they are

targeting ‘free’ funds from donors or government. Nothing in this world is free. Always watch out for the hidden costs before making a final decision. Furthermore, pond or tank construction is costly and is not something one should undertake for the sake of it. Think objectively before you embark on fish farming. Farm fish as a business; as a source of employment and income for yourself and others. Invest in fish farming only if you have studied it and understand the challenges.

15. Expand the farm as a solution to low profit and yields. It is a bad business decision to expand a failing business without first finding out what the causes of the failure are and correcting them.

16. Believe consultants and newspaper reports that indicate fish farming requires little investment and results in huge profits. If it were that easy, everyone would be doing it. And the so-called consultants would be busy making money from growing fish; not from advertising their expensive training programs.


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3. Types of Aquaculture Production Systems in Nigeria Nigerian fish farmers use a variety of production systems with different levels of investment, different

management requirements and production potentials. Thus farmers have several options for entering fish farming depending on their physical and financial resources. With consumer preference clearly favouring catfish, commercial fish farming remains largely focused on this species, with only a few farms raising tilapias. However, tilapia production is expected to increase.

a. Earthen (Static) Ponds and Homestead Tanks The early colonial period efforts at fish farming involved tilapia

and carp farming in earthen ponds in areas where water was available through the water table or from flowing streams. A number of these ponds remain in production today following their rehabilitation, including removal of deep bottom mud. Early efforts lacked quality fish seed and feeds and pond production cycles were allowed to run up to a year or more. With infrequent harvests, ponds were not drained regularly and this resulted in accumulation of deep bottom mud, of high organic content limiting use and production in such ponds. Poaching of fish was also a major problem with earthen fish ponds. In the 60’s and 70’s, there was a homestead fish farming programme but it lacked good technical support, had limited availability of fish seed and quality fish feeds were not available during this period. In the homestead programme, thousands of concrete fish tanks were built in back

Table 3-b. Why some Fish Farmers Succeed 1. Know their Market before Starting Fish Farming: Identify their business opportunities and markets beforehand. 2. Know the Market Demand: Tailor their production to meet the market requirements in a profitable and reliable

manner. 3. Invest wisely, step-by-step. Start small and build up only if they are making profits. Do not think of expanding (build

more ponds for production) if/when they realize they are making losses. 4. Seek Advice only from Proven, Qualified Advisors: Are particular about where they source advice from and whom

they select as advisors. Select those with a proven track record, who have been vetted by professional organisations. 5. Do not cover up their mistakes but rather learn from them as well as from other farmers’ mistakes. 6. Keep and use their records as management tools. Track their expenditure and losses. 7. Follow recommended Best Management Practices. 8. Use the best feed locally available to them correctly; closely monitoring their Feed Conversions and cost. 9. Owners are Managers: Owners are involved in the running and/or management of the farm. 10. Market Driven Management: Invest and manage their farms based on the market opportunities and their resource

limitations. 11. Proper siting of the farms and adopt appropriate production technology. 12. Sell their fish to the market as soon as they reach market size and appreciate turnover. 13. Honor promises to their customers, even if occasionally it means they may have to make a no-profit sale or replace

fish at no charge. 14. Are able to analyze their farm data themselves and use the data they obtain to assess the farm’s production and

economic performance. 15. Use their own data as the primary basis for making management and investment decisions.

Photo 3. Fish Tank Farming near Ibadan.. This aquaculture system stems from the former homestead fish farm programme.


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yards with fish production centred on tilapias, but also including carp and catfish. However, most of these tanks of some 30 m2 area each, were poorly maintained and did not result in significant contribution to supply of fish. Many such tanks were used by hobbyists, who enjoyed having a few large fish to show their friends. Concrete tanks built during this early period also encountered problems with accumulation of wastes and algae as many were deep (2-3 m) and built into the ground to maintain cooler water in favour of the carp which were imported from Austria. Such conditions complicate routine sampling and harvest activities; they also had a negative impact on water quality as build up of decomposing organic matter and wastes may increase toxic ammonia levels and lower oxygen content in the water column. Such conditions stress fish resulting in slow growth. Furthermore, rich organic conditions may harbour disease and parasites. b. Tank Flow-through Fish Farming-Concrete Block Tanks

Many of the homestead tanks were abandoned. Nevertheless, the idea of using such tanks led to today’s fish farm estates and fish farm villages where many fish tanks are used through cooperative management for high catfish production (Photo 4). Theft of fish is easily controlled in complexes of well-supervised tanks, which were built above ground with concrete blocks. Facilities are established for pumping of water to flush out wastes and foul waters from tanks on a regular basis. With use of high quality fish feeds, very high fish productions are obtained in such tanks. Many fish tank owners have 2-3 contiguous tanks of 16 m2 each from which they are known to produce up to 1.5 tons of catfish per year in these semi flow-through systems. c. Recirculating Systems Some 100 recirculating aquaculture systems (Photo 5) have been constructed in Nigeria and have application in situations where water supply may be limited or irregular. Such systems use bio filters to

remove ammonia and maintain oxygen at satisfactory levels. The systems are very high tech and require 24 hour, seven day a week sophisticated management with constant use of pumps requiring constant electricity. The same water is recycled continuously with replacement of 5-10% of the volume daily to cover for evaporation and other loss. With the highly variable availability of electricity from the National Electrical Power Authority (NEPA), most individuals and the private sector are forced to invest in costly purchase of generators, which cost ten times more to operate than the cost of NEPA. The high cost of electricity has driven some owners to close their recirculating fish farms, while others have reduced use of electricity to maintain oxygen levels and to flush waste out of the tanks.

Photo 4. Fish Tank Farming where Flushing of the water is regularly done to remove wastes as

a partial Flow-Through aquaculture system.

Photo 5. Recirculating Aquaculture System in Ibadan with Large Bio-filters

for removal of ammonia.


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d. Earthen Ponds with Aeration Most fish farmers do not use aeration in Nigeria due to the limited, irregular availability of electrical supply. This is unfortunate as use of aeration could greatly increase production. As mentioned, use of

generators can be ten times more costly than use of the national electrical grid. A few farms installed different types of aerators, but had to curtail their use due to excessive cost. Paddle wheels (Photo 6) are used to circulate water in a few farms in Nigeria; however these have mechanical and electrical problems and high operating costs. With improved management, use of low amperage blowers and aerators could increase production and profit at low cost.

e. Cage Fish Farming Cage fish farming has been researched in Nigeria since the 1990s, but no commercial fish farm has been developed around use of cages as production units, even though these have met with commercial

success in Zimbabwe, Ghana and Uganda (Photo 7). Theft of fish and problems with longevity of materials used in building cages was a problem in trials of cage fish farming by an IFAD-assisted artisanal fisheries project in the 1990s. Presently efforts are underway to launch commercial cage fish farming in the SW. With good water exchange, cages with tilapia in Uganda have produced 180 kg/m3 of cage (FISH. 2006).

d. Need for Specialisations There is a need among farmers to reduce costs and this has brought many fish farmers to start producing their own fish fingerlings and their own fish feeds and to process their own fish for value addition as with smoked fish. Thus many farmers have invested in equipment for hatcheries, feed milling and fish smoking and to do this they have also invested in a costly generator. The feeds they produce are usually not of the high quality needed for water stability and rapid fish growth. The farmer who started out to produce table fish has felt forced to take on many other activities for which he/she is not well qualified to do. Such vertical integration of a fish farming operation requires resources which most small to medium scale fish farmers lack. Clearly Nigerian fish farmers need to return to their roots and produce whatever they are best qualified to do with their resources. And if it is to produce table fish, they should thus purchase their fingerlings from a well-equipped hatchery which has quality brood stock of known source, and purchase fish feeds from the best locally available feed mill. This mirrors how aquaculture development has occurred in Asia and it also helps develop an extended value chain. This also calls for good record keeping as most farmers do not really know if they are making profit. As shown later in this document, farmers can often make more money using high quality, more expensive fish feeds than from using feeds produced on-farm or from a poor quality, lower cost, locally made feed.

Photo 7. A low-volume, high density (LVHD) floating fish net cage with metal frame ready to put into the water in Lake Victoria, Uganda. Note metal frame and lockable, hinged top with dark shade cover. Such cages have produced up to 180 kgs/m3. These cages are built to withstand the harsh conditions of wind and wave action on Lake Victoria.

Photo 6. Aeration of pond water by paddle wheel in Ibadan.


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3. Site Selection Criteria Many investors and farmers enter into fish farming with no consideration for how or where they are going to market their fish. But this is the first factor that should be considered in selecting a site for a fish farm. Is there a good market for fish in the area? A well-informed investor should not only know of the presence of markets in the area, but of their sales capacity for fish. In other words the wise investor would investigate the market and have an idea of how many fish he could sell there on a daily basis. This market awareness could help the investor in designing his fish farm and the size of ponds. If a pond is harvested, there should be an immediate market for all the fish. Holding fish that have reached marketable size is costly to the farmer. a. Markets Most fish markets in Nigeria display live catfish for sale held in tubs and various basins. The choice of the hardy African catfish responds well to the limited conditions in which ice and refrigeration are unavailable. Catfish can be held for days at high densities in limited volumes of water in tubs in the market. Sale of live fish is common with consumers taking their fish home only to place them in a bucket of water alive till they are ready to cook them. With few refrigerators in homes, this live marketing system works well for the fishmongers and buyers. Such a system is not possible with tilapias. As input costs rise (feeds, energy, transport) and the selling price of fish remains the same, fish farmers are forced to find ways to reduce costs. Many farmers try to find cheaper feeds as this represents up to 60-70% of operating costs. Some imported feeds are loosing favour as farmers are taking more seriously use of locally manufactured, high quality, fish feeds. Farmers also try to improve survival of their fish and reduce injuries through improved handling to improve the appearance of their fish. Some farmers in the SW have found better markets for their fish in the SE or North, where fish sell for some 600 N/kg compared to 400-450 N/kg in the SW. Other farmers are trying to sell their fish at retail prices to eliminate intermediaries; others seek to add-value by smoking fish for markets in the North. This alleviates the seller from having to hold fish and it extends the shelf life of the processed fish. The cost structures in marketing of captured fish and farm-raised fish are different and marketing of farmed fish is usually apart from fish sourced in capture fisheries. With over fishing in rivers and lakes, catfish from the wild (termed “Eja odo” in Yoruba or River Fish) are generally very small (0.3-0.6 kg). These “God-given” fish are considered tastier by some and sell for N300/kg. These fish are usually smoked. Farmed raised catfish are termed “Agric fish” and are much larger (1-2 kg) than wild-caught fish which are subjected to over fishing, causing decreasing size of fishes. Farmed-raised fish sell for N400-450 in the SW, but fetch N600 and more in the SE and North. There may be gradual shifts in market trends and distribution of fish for sale, but given the present separation of markets in Nigeria, interconnection of these markets is not anticipated. Today, many fish farmers enjoy high demand and most fish are marketed at the farm to intermediate buyers. Still, fish farmers often complain of having a poor market for their fish. With market diversification underway into semi luxury products and growing fast food markets and the need to

Photo 8. Sale of live catfish. Use of tubs and basins are commonly used in markets to hold the hardy catfish.


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professionally process fish, it is anticipated that fish farmers will face a changing market structure in the near future. If farmers want to increase their margins, this could be facilitated by farmers forming marketing cooperatives, as has been done in Uganda and elsewhere. If modern live fish transport techniques can be employed, live fish could be transported in large quantities to be sold in better markets in the North and SE. By reducing the number of intermediate fish buyers, farmers could gain more control of their market and also benefit from a stronger profit margin in spite of increased input prices. Some State Governments are trying to assist farmers in marketing by setting up fish kiosks as markets for fresh fish. b. Water availability and quality Not just any water is satisfactory for fish farming. Water should be unpolluted and without risk of contamination for fish farming. Is there sufficient water available to manage the farm year round? A water

budget is needed to calculate how much water is required for a given fish farm. Water budgets should consider water loss due to seepage, evaporation as well as filling the pond perhaps twice during the year as required to replace water lost from harvests. Seepage depends on the quality of soils in the area and can be estimated by digging a hole of about a meter in depth and filling it with water till the soils are saturated. A stick can be placed in the hole and marked at the water level and water loss will indicate seepage for the given soil type. Evaporation varies with the location, seasons, temperatures and wind but can be estimated using climatological data. Many areas would have evaporation of at least a meter per year, but this will vary a great deal. Moehl et al (2006) recommended an allowable water loss to seepage and evaporation of 1-2 cm per day, although hot windy conditions in hot, arid areas may greatly exceed this. The water required for filling and

refilling the pond, as needed at harvests, can be calculated easily by determining the volume of the pond. An example of a water budget for a fish pond is shown in Figure 2 and summarizes an inflow of 1.8 litres/minute which equals 0.75 litres/minute/100 m2 of pond. Note that if a site without seepage is used, the water requirements are greatly reduced. Inflowing water to a pond can be quantified by use of a bucket of known volume and determining how much time is required to fill the bucket. Water quality is discussed later with parameters presented in Table 5. c. Quality of Soils for Pond Production Systems Soils need to be impermeable for pond construction. Clay should make up at least 20-25% of the soil; in testing the soils, one should be able to make a ball with the soil that should stick together when tossing it in the air several times.

Table 4. Calculating a Water Budget for a Static Water Fish Pond of 240 m2 area

1. Dimensions of pond: 12 m wide x 20 m long x 0.75 m average depth

2. Area of pond: 240 m2 3. Volume of pond: 180 m3 4. Volume of water required to fill pond twice: 360 m3 5. Daily Seepage Estimation: 2 cm, or 4.8 m3, in 24 hours 6. Annual Seepage Estimation: 4.8 m3 x 365 days =

1,752 m3 7. Evaporation Estimation: 1 m/year x 240 m2 = 240 m3 8. Annual Water Budget: - Filling Pond Twice 360 m3 (for pond harvests) - Seepage 1,752 m3 - Evaporation 240 m3 Total Water Required 2,352 m3 /year

= 6.4 m3 /day = 2.6 m3 /100 m2 area of pond, = 0.111 m3 /hour.

This equals an inflow of 1.8 litres/minute or 0.75 l/100m2/minute.

Figure 2. Soil map showing clay distribution.


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Clay soils are plastic and stick together when pressed between the fingers. Such soils have great expansion capacity as shown with cracks when they dry out. In building ponds, the arable top soils with organic matter should be moved aside to be placed on top of the dikes and sown with grasses for ground cover to prevent erosion.

4. Pond Construction Methods

Proper pond construction is essential for achieving good, profitable fish production. Ponds must be of the proper depths and dimensions as determined in part by the market demand. Up to some 1.5 m in depth, the

deeper ponds produce more fish; a good maximum water depth is about 1.2 m. Ponds are not dug, they are constructed. Ponds may be constructed by hand labour or by use of bull dozers and other heavy equipment. The best management begins with well-built ponds or tanks. Ponds should have gentle slopes on dikes as depicted in Figure 1; these require minimal maintenance and facilitate sampling and harvest of fish from the pond. Pond construction involves staking out pond dikes (tops and bottoms) and respecting the design of the pond as regards depths and heights of dikes. Earth used in pond construction should be compacted in layers of 15-20 cm. Work crews

involved in building ponds require close supervision to ensure the pond is constructed right the first time around. Poorly built ponds may leak and cost the farmer money in low productions and high water use. The most efficient pond construction involves digging only as much soils as are required to build the dikes. In other words, “cut should equal fill.” Aquaculture (fish farming) activities can be carried out in earthen ponds, concrete tanks or a combination of both. To select sites for commercial fish production, attention should be given to cost of construction and cost of operation (i.e. economics of feeding and harvesting). An earthen pond cross section is presented in Figure 1.

Some ponds are built in swamps and low-lying areas where the water table is near the surface. Such ponds often cannot be totally drained. Ponds should not be built in such areas and be built above the water table as ponds within the water table cannot be drained at will; a fish farmer should be able to drain his pond anytime as needed. Water entry and outlets should be by gravity flow and at the same location. A minimum of 1.5 m is required between the level of water supply and the drain as shown in Figure 3.

Photo 10. Ponds built in the Water Table are not acceptable as they cannot be controlled or drained at will. Many such ponds may lack water in the dry season.

Photo 11. The photograph above shows a harvest catch basin in use in Jinja, Uganda. Note the stand pipe that is tilted down to drain the pond. See the screen on top of the stand pipe. This catch basin measures some 1 m x 3

Photo 9. Pond Construction showing slope of dike and workers. Hand labour of ponds requires some 40 man-days of labour per 100 m2 of pond.


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To facilitate harvest of fish, a harvest or catch basin is recommended as shown in photograph #11. Pond construction is expensive and this has led many entrants to fish farming in Nigeria to build concrete tanks or to buy plastic tanks as production units. These are smaller units but are believed to be easier to manage as production units. Nigerian farmers have limited land and tank fish farming adapts well to their conditions, than larger, more expensive earthen ponds. It is also noted that the quantity of fish harvested from such smaller production units is more easily marketed than harvests from large fish ponds.

a. Manual Labour Many ponds are built by hand labour and specialized work crews are now building ponds in some areas. With good supervision, they can be built to high standards with high functionality for easy management and harvest. Some 40 man.days of labour are required for each 100 m2 of pond area when using hand labour. When building pond dikes, it is necessary to compact fill soils in dikes in 15-20 cm layers to avoid seepage problems. Field trials in Uganda have shown that farmers with deeper ponds achieve greater fish productions. Some ponds are relatively shallow with maximum depths at 50 cm to 75 cm and this may result in stunted fish and facilitate bird predation. In Uganda, Isayagi et al (2009) recommended a depth of about 1.2 m should be in the deeper waters. It is advised that the inlet and drain be at the same location in the pond (see Figure 3) as this will facilitate harvest. An incoming water supply above the drain area or catch basin can help reduce stress on fish during harvest. A photograph of a catch basin is shown in Photo 11; such a basin can greatly facilitate harvest of fish.

b. Use of Earth Moving Equipment Use of bulldozers can greatly speed up pond construction. A D-6 bulldozer can move some 50-60 m3 of earth per hour and can construct ponds very well in a short amount of time. However close supervision by a specialist in use of heavy equipment for pond construction such as an engineer is required; topographic surveying is also required during all pond construction to ensure proper depths and slopes are achieved. Dikes made with gentle slopes of 2:1 to 3:1 cost a bit more but avoid maintenance problems over time.

Figure 3. Cross Section of Dike of Fish Pond

Drain Canal

Water supply canal with inlet pipe to pond Minimum 15 cm drop

Stand pipe Drain

Drain pipe with anti seepage collars of cement.

Maximum Depth 1.2- 1.5m

1.5 m

Minimum of 1.5m between inlet and drain

Dike Slope 2:1

Note Inside Dike Slope 2:1 but preferably 3:1

Catch Basin area

Note Water Supply inlet & Drain at same end of pond to reduce stress on fish at harvest in catch basin.

Freeboard: Min 30 cm from water to top dike


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c. Best Management Practices for Siting of Fish Farms and for Pond Construction A summary of best management practices for identification of sites for fish farms and for pond construction is presented in Table 6.


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Table 5. A summary of Best Management Practices for Siting a Fish Farm and Pond Construction.

Area of Focus Comments 1. Market a. there should be a fish market near-by to allow for high capacity of sale of fish from

pond harvests. The market requirement is the first requirement for locating a fish farm.

2. Water Supply a. water could be obtained from boreholes, streams or lakes. Gravity flow water is cheapest and best source. Borehole water is an option with little risk but requires pumping. b. unpolluted, uncontaminated water is required c. year-round availability is needed in abundance according to a water budget plan. d. should be under total control of fish farm manager e. water should not be sourced from the water table; ponds built in the water table are uncontrollable and often undrainable and have large build up of bottom mud. f. borehole waters can be excellent, but may costly to pump and may require conditioning to remove carbon dioxide and improve oxygen content and temperature levels. g. open waters from canals and streams may be polluted or be contaminated from runoff from farm lands or towns. h. waters used in aquaculture need to be tested for quality as noted in the text. i. water with alkalinities less than 30 ppm (CaCO3) will require liming to bring up pH levels close to neutrality (7.0) for best fish production j. all water entering fish ponds or tanks needs to be screened to eliminate entry of predators, fish eggs and larvae. Long, fine mesh “socks” are best used to filter entry waters and require a trough to support them. k. waters over flowing in the standpipe should also be passing through a screen having a large surface area, much greater than the area of the stand pipe.

3. Soil Types a. loamy clay soils are impervious to water seepage and are easily worked in construction. Pervious sandy or gravely soils are undesirable. A soil auger with a 1.5 m extension can be used to take soil samples from different depths. A hole one meter deep can be dug to test the soil for seepage. The hole should be filled with water till soils are saturated, then seepage can be monitored and the viability of the site determined. b. if land used for ponds was once used for farming, be sure to test soils for undesirable residual chemicals such as DDT and other long-lasting chemicals. This is particularly necessary where cotton was farmed. c. arable, top soils should be removed from the site and not used in constructing dikes as such soils are pervious to water seepage. Top soils should later be used to spread on top of dikes for sowing with grass cover. d. clay soils are plastic and have high expansion capacity. They crack when dried.

4. Topography a. gently sloping (<1%), almost flat, open land is best for constructing ponds; large ponds are easily constructed on such land; forested land should not be considered as clearing cost may be excessive. Ponds should not be built in areas prone to flooding. b. ponds can be built on rolling, steeper land but they should be designed to follow topographic contours, i.e. the lay of the land, and, as a result, they are irregular in shape making management and harvest more complicated. Pond construction in such locations is also more costly as more “fill dirt is required than will be “cut” at the site. c. ponds being built to be supplied with water by gravity flow, require a minimum difference of 1.5 meters in elevation drop between water arriving to the pond and the drain canal behind the pond, so that a pond depth of 1-1.2 m can be achieved. (Figure 3)

5. Pond Construction a. Most earthen ponds are built with hand labour in Africa. For ponds larger than 1000 m2, heavy equipment is most effective as larger distances to move earth make hand labour costly. Work crews building fish ponds require close supervision for quality pond construction. b. top soils are removed from the site, later to be placed on top of dikes for sowing with grass cover


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c. a general survey of the site showing elevations, angles and distances is useful for designing the fish farm pond lay out, showing water canals and drainage canals. Ponds should be staked out with pegs to show pond lay out for tops and bottoms of dikes. d. The shallowest depth for production ponds should be no less than 60-80 cm and the deepest waters should be at least 1.2 m to 1.5 m depending on the slopes. Brood ponds for reproduction should be more shallow e. pond bottoms are hard and clean without stumps or obstructions and slope gently towards the central drain. f. pond dikes are to be compacted every 15-20 cm of soil depth. Compaction is very important and cannot be forgotten. Manual compaction is done with laborers using earth compactors or dammers and will assure no seepage of water. This will later minimize water use and greatly reduce repairs and maintenance costs. Dikes can be washed out from leaks that enlarge as water flows through them. g. the most efficient and low cost pond construction uses dug soils (cut) to build (fill) the dikes. So “Cut should equal Fill”. h. Slopes on the inside dikes should be 2:1 up to 3:1, whereas outside slopes could be steeper at 1.5:1 to 2:1. Gentle slopes require less maintenance and lower cost in the long run. i. the dike height between the water level and top of the dike is called the Freeboard and should be 15-30 cm depending on pond size. Standpipes or drain systems used should be in place to allow over flow during rains to maintain the freeboard. j. the entry pipe should be located above the drain pipe and harvest basin. By having facility to add water above the drain area, you reduce stress on fish during harvest and you keep the fish from swimming out of the lowest area in the pond. (see Figure 3). k. the stand pipe drain should be equipped with a screen having a large surface area to allow over flow of water without loss of fish. Stand pipes are usually of PVC and have an elbow that swivels in the pond bottom at the point where the drain pipe goes through the dike. Thus stand pipes can be “tilted down” to allow water to flow out of the pond. l. drain pipes under the dike require “anti seep collars” of concrete to avoid seepage along the smooth PVC pipe; these collars also help stabilize the pipe. m. ponds should be fully drainable all year round and should be open to receive sunlight. n. a harvest basin is very useful for efficient harvest of fish. These can best be constructed with cement and bricks inside the pond of dimensions 1.2 m x 3 m x 0.3 m deep (see photo in document).

o. in most cases, new ponds should be limed (Agriculture lime -1000 kg/ha) and filled. Fish should be stocked once the soils have become saturated with water….up to one week after filling. p. dikes should be covered with top soil and sown with grass cover to prevent erosion.

q. most ponds are rectangular with smaller ponds (100-500 m2) used for holding brood fish and spawning and fry rearing. Fry are often raised in tanks or hapas to 1-3 g size as this reduces predation and increases survival.

r. records should be kept of all aspects of pond construction including labour, materials, hire of equipment, etc.


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5. Suitable Fish Species for Farming

Note that the best fish for farming is one that does not reach sexual maturity until after reaching market size. The preference for catfish by consumers has determined the main fish for farming in Nigeria.

Fortunately, Clarias catfish reach sexual maturity at some 600 g or more average weight, so all food consumed by the fish to this weight goes for growth in body meat and not gonadal development. The preferred market size in most markets is around 1 kilogramme. The Heterobranchus bidorsalis is another favoured catfish in Nigeria which can be crossed with Clarias to produce a “Heteroclarias” variety which is said to be faster growing than the parents. These fish are preferred in the SS states, while consumers in the SW prefer the popular Clarias gariepinus. Most markets seek larger fish so fish farmers seek to raise fish to one kilogramme fish or more, but in some areas, demand is for smaller fish. Some consumers say the older, larger fish taste too oily or have a taste of bottom mud, whereas the smaller, younger fish are sweeter. To some extent the same applies to tilapia - Oreochromis niloticus. A few common carp, Cyprinus carpio, can be found in Nigeria and the “mirror carp” variety also exists along with grass carp, gold fish and koi carp. Other carp have been introduced but are no longer easily found. These fish grow very fast but have “floating bones” in their flanks (filets). There is a small ornamental fish industry in Nigeria, for export of indigenous species of Cichlids, Cyprinids and a

variety of catfish and other local species.

Photo 12. The catfish preferred in the Niger Delta, Heterobranchus bidorsalis. This species can be crossed with the Clarias to produce the variety “Heteroclarias”

Photo 13. Note Common carp and Mirror Carp (both Cyprinus carpio) left. Photo 14. tilapia, Oreochromis niloticus to right. Photo 15. Below a brood stock of Clarias gariepinus is pictured.


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Table 6. Water Quality Parameters for Fish Hatcheries and Farms

• Oxygen………….. … 4 ppm to saturation • pH………………….. 6.5-8.5 • Carbon dioxide…….. 0-15 ppm • Total CaCO3 Alkalinity 60+ ppm • Total CaCO3 Hardness 60+ ppm • Nitrate………………. 0-2.5 ppm • Magnesium…………. trace for buffer • Hydrogen Sulfide…… 0 ppm • Iron-Total…………… 0-0.5 ppm • Phosphorous………… 0.01-3.0 ppm • Temperature………… 28-32oC

6. Water Quality Management

Conditions for fish production are very different from terrestrial husbandries. Since fish are raised in water, in their own waste, good management is required to overcome the limiting conditions of low oxygen and ammonia build up, created by waste fish feeds and other wastes accumulating from the fish themselves. Such ponds have a high “organic load” with high biological oxygen demand (BOD) and deteriorating water quality brought about as the pond eco-system attempts to decompose the wastes. Usually, water quality is the most limiting factor in fish production and most fish kills, diseases of fish and unsatisfactory

growth can be attributed to degradation in water quality, which puts stress on fish. These conditions set the stage for fish parasites and diseases. Fish may go “off feed” due to stress and this only compounds slow growth and poor feed conversions with subsequent high cost of production. All of this underlines why it is advised to feed the best quality feed available. The more expensive quality fish feeds are more efficiently assimilated by fish and contribute little waste in ponds. In

comparison, cheap, poor quality fish feeds are poorly utilized by fish and may actually pollute ponds due to their poor quality ingredients and lack of water stability. Most fish farmers have little knowledge or concerns about water quality, even though its careful management can help reduce stress on fish and increase production. Management of water quality and prevention of fish diseases go hand in hand and capacity building is needed in this critical area. Desirable water quality parameters are presented in Table 5; readers are referred to the references (Boyd, 1998; Moehl et al, 2006; FISH. 2009) for more information.

7. Feed Quality: “The high cost of cheap fish feeds”. a. High Quality Fish Feed Manufacture

The best fish feeds produce the highest productions with limited environmental impact. High quality fish feeds are manufactured through extremely fine grinding, blending, conditioning and high temperatures (55-65oC), which de-toxify some compounds in feed components (as with soy beans, cotton seed meal and ground nut meal) to make all nutrients more available for consumption and efficient digestion by fish. The high temperature gelatinizes starches to add binding properties creating pellets having physical strength as noted by water stability. It is the sudden release of the high pressure and subsequent rapid expansion of the pellets as they pass out of the die that creates floating pellets (Jauncey, Sorensen and Areola, 2008). The best manufactured feeds receive an oil coating as shown in Photo 17, which makes them more desirable and palatable to catfish. Soy beans are one of the best plant sources of amino acids and are an important ingredient in most animal feeds, however, they contain anti nutrients that need to be transformed though cooking at high temperatures and pelletisation. Fish feeds are fed in water and therefore must be stable in water for at least 15 minutes, to remain together for complete consumption of each pellet by fish.

Photo 16. Water Qualilty Analysis is useful to improve fish production


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b. Fish Feed Formulation Criteria Jauncey, Sorensen and Areola (2008) presented comprehensive information regarding fish feed formulation and feeding husbandry. Generally catfish feeds for fry contain up to 50% crude protein (CP), and their recommended level for fingerlings is 46% CP, with juveniles being fed 42% CP while growers receive feed rated at 38% CP. Of course the smallest pellets are fed to larvae and fry and pellet size or diameter increases with fish growth.

Proximate analysis of catfish feeds should meet the following criteria: - Crude Protein – 38-50% depending on size of fish; some sources indicate levels at 32% for growers - Energy - 8.5-9.5 Kcalories/gram of protein - Fats - 4-6% increasing as protein increases - Carbohydrates- 20-35% - Fiber - < 4% Jauncey et al (2008) gave a good review of possible fish feed ingredients

c. Fish Feed Conversion Ratio A smaller quantity of high quality fish feed is required to produce one kilogramme of fish than poor quality feeds. The ratio of fish feeds to gain in weight of fish is called the Feed Conversion Ratio (FCR) and is expressed as, for instance, 1.5 : 1, which is to say 1.5 kilos of feed are required to achieve one kilo gain in weight of fish. FCRs are used to compare the cost effectiveness of feeds as shown in Table 6.

d. Water Stability Requirement

Quality fish feeds must remain intact or be structurally water stable for at least one hour. Poor quality feeds have little water stability and start fragmenting and “falling apart” soon after entering the water. Such feeds may not be consumed by fish and thus become pollutants in the pond or tank. Many of the artisanal fish feeds made on-farm fall into this category. Farmers may invest in a dry pelletizing machine and produce a smooth pellet, but it crumbles easily and has no stability in water. Other farmers make their fish feeds using a cooking process with wet pelletization for sinking pellets; cooked feeds have better structural strength for water stability be they sinking or floating. However, such feeds made “on-farm” are often poorly dried retaining moisture greater than 10%, causing the feed to rapidly become mouldy and unfit for feeding fish. Some local artisanal feeds may contain vitamin C, but of the unstabilised quality which is largely destroyed in processing. Some fish farmers claim some imported feeds or feed ingredients have caused disease problems. as was reported by Jauncey, et al, (2008). The industry obviously needs to put in place quality control measures.

e. Which type of feed to choose?

For some years, fish farmers in Nigeria have preferred high quality imported fish feeds, going along with the common belief, “if it is imported, it has to be better than locally made products”.

Photo 17. Artisanal, locally produced fish feeds on left compared with locally manufactured feeds on right with oil coating. Note the local feed is dry and high in fiber with poor water stability, whereas the high quality feed is oil coated and much more palatable to fish. High quality fish feeds are stable in water for at least one hour.


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However this preference is changing as the cost of imported feeds has increased and now high quality, lower priced, locally manufactured fish feeds are becoming tested and proven by farmers. Increasingly such feeds are available and farmers are benefiting from their use. In spite of this, perhaps as many as 50% of fish farmers still make their own (artisanal) fish feeds (Aquaculture Director, Federal Department of Fisheries, pers. comm.,2010); some use high quality imported feeds for the first two months of growth, then switch over to their “home made” feeds. Many of these farmers do not keep records and fail to grasp their total expenditures and economic results be they positive or negative. By investing in low-cost feed milling equipment they feel they can save money but fail to realize the cost of their total investment in not only inferior equipment but also in a generator as they cannot rely on the national electrical grid of NEPA. One small fish hatchery operator was paying N118/hour to operate his generator while the same farmer stated his NEPA costs were only N8.3/hour. f. Opportunity Cost Added to these costs are the lost opportunity cost. Use of poor quality fish feeds may add 1.5 to 2.0 months to the production period as the fish grow more slowly. So the farmer may only obtain 1.5 production cycles per year instead of 2 to 3 with high quality feeds. Even if the poor quality feeds produced similar yield per cycle, the high quality feeds could have up to 50% greater annual production. This translates in significantly higher yields and offers the farmer much higher revenues, showing the “high cost of cheap fish feeds”. A comparison of cost effectiveness of artisanal fish feeds made on-farm with a locally manufactured high quality fish feed are presented below in Table 7. Table 7. Comparison of cost effectiveness of artisanal and manufactured fish feeds. March 2010.

Item On-farm Fish Feed made by farmers

High Quality Fish Feed Manufactured Locally

Unit Cost/kg (Naira) 130 170 Feed Conversion Ratio 2.5:1 1.3:1 Amount Feed Required to produce 1 kg of fish (kg)

2.5 1.3

Total Cost of feed used to produce one kilo of fish

325 221

These results show the high quality, more costly feed to actually produce a kilo of fish at N104 (USD 0.70) less than the cheaper feed made on the farm. This is significantly less expensive. On an annual basis more profit could be gained with the more expensive feeds because of the shorter production cycle, which allows more production periods during the year than the less expensive feeds which have a longer growing period. Farmers should judge fish feeds on performance and not simply cost.

8. Pond Carrying Capacity Each pond has a carrying capacity or production capacity based on species of fish, water quality, temperature and quality of fish feeds. All agricultural activities have such a carrying capacity. A maize farmer would space planting his seeds at certain distances apart to allow for maximum production; too many seeds planted too close together would produce a small crop. The same is true for fish. Under the best of conditions in static earthen ponds in Nigeria, catfish productions of 10-12 tons per hectare have been achieved although some farmers claim productions up to 50 tons per hectare. This is possible as Asian catfish farmers achieve productions up to 200 MT/ha/year. For yields of 50 MT, it is necessary to stock ponds with catfish at a density of 6 fish/m2. This would assume a mortality of up to 20% and harvested fish averaging about 1 kg each in weight. Still many ponds are routinely stocked at 5-10 fish/m2.


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During rearing of juveniles, densities may be 50 fish/m2 or even more as their density would be reduced upon stocking in production ponds. Many fish farmers rearing fish in concrete block tanks stock fish for grow out at 15 to 30 catfish/m2 and achieve total productions of 750 kg in six months from 3 tanks of about 50m2 total surface area. This extrapolates to a production of 300 MT/ha/year, but this is by using the tanks in a partial flow through system to remove wastes and foul water with regular flushing of water. The less hardy tilapias cannot be stocked at such densities as Clarias as their tolerance for limiting conditions of low oxygen and accumulation of waste are very limited in comparison with catfish. Table 7 presents the factors that must be brought together to create a successful fish farming enterprise.

9. Fish Diseases

As fish production intensifies, so will the risk of fish disease outbreaks (Photo 18). To date there have been no reported fish disease outbreaks in Nigeria apart from minor incidences that cleared up with flushing of foul waters from ponds or tanks. Most fish farmers lack the means to treat diseases with chemicals or antibodies. Agricultural lime and common rock salt have been used by some farmers to sterilize ponds and “clean up their fish”. Farmers with recirculating systems have used feeds treated with antibiotics to control bacterial diseases in catfish. Clearly under conditions found in most African fish farms “an ounce of prevention is worth a pound of cure”. Fish farmers do not experience the gravity of disease outbreaks as found in poultry farms, but they should learn from the lessons of the poultry industry, which enforces entry to their farms only after chemical dips for shoes and car tires. Such measures are stringently enforced at fish farms in Europe and the USA. Good health management at fish farms depends on:

1. Good stocks of fish, 2. Good quality fish feeds and nutrition of fish,

and 3. Good management of water quality.

Table 8. Fish Farming Enterprise Management - Essential Components Fish farming enterprise is based on three essential components according to Schmittou, Jian and Cremer (1998). To be successful, these three principles must come together and include: 1. The Market: The farmer should know his market first and foremost.

2. Inputs: Quality and Quantity: Without these, the farmer’s production will be low.

• Water Quality - Successful fish farming requires good, year-round water quality. • Fish Stock - High quality fish stocks of known origins are essential for successful growth • Fish Feeds - The best quality fish feeds manufactured to the highest standards is needed for fast growth at low

cost Feed Conversion Ratios (FCR) 3. Farm Management: The fish farm manager and his team of staff must apply best management principles to achieve the

maximum fish productions.

Photo 18. Why is this catfish dead? The highly excessively rich, green water in this pond may indicate organic overload, which can create stressful conditions favoring increased fish parasites and diseases. Water quality plays an important role in fish diseases. Note that only live fish should be sent to a veterinarian for use in diagnosing diseases.


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a. Impact of water quality on fish diseases As already stated, good management of water quality can greatly reduce the risk of fish diseases and parasites. Water quality should be maintained so as to not stress the fish. Stress occurs when fish are subjected to poor environmental conditions to which the fishes normal adaptive response and tolerance levels are inadequate or exceeded. Symptoms of stressed fish include unusual swimming behaviour, not eating, gasping at the surface, and others, including mortalities. Bear in mind that several cloudy days limit photosynthesis and production of oxygen in water; such conditions, when followed by a cool rain, could cause a fish pond to “turn over” bringing up the oxygenless (anaerobic) bottom waters and causing mortalities of fish. Flushing the pond with fresh water can often relive fish of stress. Unusual behaviour including flashing and swimming together in a corner may indicate a disease or parasitic infestation and should be investigated by a fish disease specialist. The best fish farms use water test kits (including an oxygen meter or test component) to monitor their water quality, but very few farmers have such equipment in Nigeria. Nevertheless the use of a home-made, cheap, round secchi disc to measure water transparency can be of assistance. A secchi disk is painted in quarters in opposing black and white colours and is about 20 cm in diameter. The disk is weighted and lowered into the water with a light rope to determine the transparency of the water, which is affected by presence of phytoplankton, suspended solids and wastes, all of which contribute to the organic load. A visibility of <15 cm indicates the pond has low oxygen levels resulting from high feeding (high organic load) which should be reduced and the pond should be flushed out. Normal visibility in a “healthy” pond or tank should be >30 cm. Basically, fish farmers need to avoid high organic loads in their ponds and tanks as occurs near the end of the production cycle when feeding is at its highest. With the feeding of high quality feeds being fed according to “feeding response of the fish”, the farmer assures efficient ingestion of feeds with little wastes or pollution effects. Farmers should routinely walk in areas of the pond or tank where fish are fed to evaluate presence of waste feeds. If fish are really fed according to their feeding response, this area of pond should not have any accumulated wastes. b. Basic Fish Disease Treatment This manual is not focused on treatment of fish diseases, but here are several treatments that may be possible in the Nigerian context. Potassium Permanganate (KMnO4) is effective for fungus, some bacteria and external parasites at 2 ppm in ponds as a definitive treatment or as a dip at 10 ppm (1 gram/100 litres) for about 60-90 minutes. Note that use of KMnO4 and other chemicals could cause a drop in dissolved oxygen. Plain salt (NaCl) can be used on fingerlings with gill worms and some external protozoans at 10-25 grams per litre (25,000 ppm) of water for a short dip up to 20 minutes. One should remain with the fish during a dip treatment as chemical’s strength varies with water quality. Fingerlings can be kept in a dip net during the treatment. Use of salt is about the least expensive and most forgiving of all preventative treatments. Plastic containers should be used and zinc basins should be avoided.

Photo 19. Fish transport in Uganda. Note the use of porous baskets holding fish. These are held in a larger tub of water then fish are lifted out in the basket to be weighed without water before placing them in the transport box. Note the oxygen bottle to provide oxygen through diffusers in the transport box.


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10. Handling of Fish and Post Harvest Techniques Fish should always be handled in water as with sampling, during transport and at harvest. All efforts should be made to avoid stressing fish. Sampling should be carefully planned with all workers, equipment, nets, scales and necessary materials organized at the sample site before hand. Fish should not be fed prior to sampling as this will induce stress. Samples and harvests should be organized in the early morning hours to avoid handling fish during the heat of the day. Fish should not be held at high densities in hapas or tanks for unnecessarily long periods. When transferring live fish to a new location, the farmer should seek to avoid changing the water temperature by more than 3.5oC at a time. Fish transported in plastic bags or in fish transport boxes (Photo 19) should be acclimatized slowly (Photo 20) to their “new water environment”. After a long transport in plastic bags with oxygen, the bags with fish should be placed in the new pond and floated in the water till the waters reach the same temperature. Only when the water temperatures are the same should the fish be

released into the pond or tank. It is advisable to quarantine fish for a few days on arrival at a new location. Salt baths of 2-3% (NaCl) can be used as an external disease prophylactic treatment. Salt can also be used in transporting fish live in hauling boxes. After harvest, catfish should be transferred to the market as live fish for rapid sale. Tilapias should be held on ice or in a cooler. In view of rising input costs to farmers, many are now seeking to add value to their harvested fish as with smoking. Markets for both smoked and fresh fish are better in the North and SE of Nigeria when compared with the SW, where most fish farms are located. A summary of Best Management Practices for Fish Farm Management follows in Table 9.

Photo 20. Acclimatization of fish after transport in plastic bags with oxygen. Bags with fish are floated in the new pond water until the temperature of the waters are similar to within 3oC.


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Table 9. Summary of Best Management Practices for Fish Farm Management. Area of Focus Comments

1. Market Know the market before starting a fish farm. There should be a fish market near-by to allow for high volume sale of fish from pond harvests. The size of the daily sales of fish may be a factor in deciding the size of fish ponds or tanks.

2. Water Quality a. Year-round availability and the best quality are required as discussed. All water entering the pond or tank is screened/filtered through a fine mesh sock supported by a gutter. b. Increase water productivity through liming and feeding which result in “green water” phytoplankton blooms. c. The capability to understand and test water quality is needed for commercial fish farm management. A water test kit for measuring up to 10 or more parameters is best for most farms. An oxygen meter is a necessity for intensive fish farms. d. Keep records of all water quality analysis and other aspects of farm management. Farmers need comprehensive records to learn from their mistakes and successes.

3. Stock Quality a. Fish stock should be of known source (Dutch variety, etc) and be part of a breeding programme for continuous stock improvement; be sure fish fingerlings are not from unknown wild stocks of questionable species caught by fishermen. Fish fingerlings should be certified disease free. Farms should have tanks or ponds to quarantine fish initially to confirm the quality of their health. b. Fish for stocking in production ponds should be at least 10 cm in total length and preferably up to 15 cm in size. This will greatly reduce mortalities and ensure high survival of stocked fish. Fish of this size are very hardy and resistant to handling and transport. c. Fish fingerlings should come from a certified fish hatchery with procedures for conditioning fish (2 days without feed) for transport in tanks and/or plastic bags. Fingerlings should have been graded to have similar size fish. Certified hatchery should have standardized procedures for grading and handling fish and preparing them for transport. d. Fish for stocking should be in good condition without sores or injuries on their skin; uniform skin color is another indicator of good health. Fish should be acclimatized slowly to the pond environment. Fish should have good overall appearance and be lively. e. With catfish, stock the pond assuming a carrying capacity of 10-15 tons/ha, which will call for a stocking density of 2 fish/m2 assuming a mortality of 10% using 15 g fish fingerlings for stocking. Assume a harvest size of at least 800 g per fish. f. With tilapias, stock the pond assuming a carrying capacity of 5-8 tons/ha with use of quality fish feeds. Calculate stocking rate based on a harvest weight of 400-500 g/fish. Stocking should be done with monosex male tilapias as they grow twice as fast as females. Fish can be sexed visually by hand or sex reversed tilapias can be used. Mixed sex mono species cultures of tilapias will lead to stunted fish and over population. Catfish can be stocked at 1 catfish for each 10 tilapia to control reproduction. Catfish can be stocked up to 2 months after the tilapia are stocked.

g. records should be kept regarding all fish stocks and growth.

4. Pond Management a. A gate or ball valve or similar mechanism should be at the entry for all ponds to be able to open and close the water supply. b. filter or screen all water entering the pond through a fine screen sock of “saran” cloth. The sock should be supported in a trough to ensure that it does not tear. This filter requires regular cleaning to empty it of debris & waste. For cleaning it is best to have a second sock to install so the “dirty” sock can be turned wrong side out and properly cleaned. Note that water entering the pond should fall at least 15-20 cm. The filter will prevent all fish from escaping through the inlet. c. Do not allow water to continuously flow into and out of ponds. In ponds that do not leak, water productivity can be improved to have growth of phytoplankton in blooms of “green water”. This is highly desirable in raising catfish and tilapia. d. precautions should be taken to limit access of herons and other predaceous birds to the ponds. This can be achieved using nylon lines stretched across ponds at intervals of 20 cms.


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This is especially needed in fingerling ponds. Note that some birds transmit parasites that disfigure the skin of fish. e. the pond water level should be topped up to replace water lost to evaporation and seepage. f. monitor pond dikes for holes and cracks that cause leaks. These should be plugged and when the pond is drained, any holes or weaknesses in the dikes can be properly repaired. g. do not allow cattle to use ponds for watering. h. tethered goats and sheep may be used to feed on grass on dikes to keep the grass low and this could avoid spending money on labour to cut grass. i. ponds can be sampled regularly, once a month or so with comprehensive records kept.

j. comprehensive records are to be kept of all farm management activities including purchases of inputs and sales of fish.

4. Fish Feeds Quality a. fish feeds should be manufactured with the best quality ingredients which are clearly attached to the bag with proximate analysis. Feed companies should exercise quality control standards. b. fish feeds should be manufactured according to the highest standards with fine grinding and blending followed by pelletization. This makes the feeds more digestible to the fish. c. storage of fish feeds should be in a clean, dry depot with pesticide control d. the person feeding fish should be considered the most important labourer at the farm. This person should be observant and able to report on changes in behaviour of fish and to keep feeding records. e. feeding; fish should be fed in the same area of the pond and according to feeding response. Thus the quantity of fish fed in a given pond may vary according to the desire of fish to eat. Fish may not always be interested in feeding and can change behaviour under the influence of the weather, variations in water chemistry or disease. f. With a conscientious person feeding, the feed conversions and cost of feeding should be low. g. feeding should follow recommendations of the feed producer; the better feed suppliers furnish a feeding table to follow based on average size of fish and size of pellets available. Such tables provide an estimated amount to feed daily, but each fish farmer should feed according to feeding response of the fish.

5. Farm Management a. the best manager is one who is also the owner of the farm and lives at the farm. b. team building is a management tool for the workers at the farm. Regular meetings should be held with staff to strengthen human capacity and create a team spirit. Each worker is important to the farm enterprise and this needs to be communicated to them. This management approach will contribute to improved management and hopefully prevent theft at the farm by employees. c. Sampling should be well organized with all equipment, scales, nets and record keeping materials on site before starting the sample. Samples should be carried out in the early morning hours when cooler temperatures prevail. Avoid stressing fish. d. When sampling fish, they should be graded, to maintain fish of a fairly uniform size in each pond. Shooters can be separated and stocked in a pond for fast growers. e. Fish to be transported need to be held in tanks for 2 days without food to condition them for transport. f. Handling of fish should always be done in water in buckets. Tubs can be used to hold water and fish can be counted and sorted using plastic hampers with holes which are positioned in the tubs with water. When fish are to be weighed, the hamper with fish is lifted out of the water and the fish can be quickly weighed in the hamper without water; the hamper weight is tared prior to counting and sorting the fishing. The fish are then returned to water. g. Harvest of fish should be easy on a well-managed farm. All equipment, nets, buckets, tubs, scales and record keeping materials are put in place in advance. The market is ready to receive the fish. Hapas or cages are placed in a nearby pond to receive any undersized or small fish. The transport equipment is on site to transport the fish to market or to holding tanks. The workers are available for the seining and harvesting of fish in the early hours of


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the day. h. All sampling and harvest information are to be well documented. Such records are used in planning for the next crop and for business management. Eventually good records will be used in establishing a business plan which can be used in applying for bank loans if needed.

11. Sampling and Harvest of Fish Prior to sampling and harvesting all equipment and nets (seine and dip nets or scoop nets, buckets, scales and note pad for record keeping) are positioned beside the pond or tank. Everything is well-positioned and organized for an efficient sample or harvest. Sampling should not involve

seining the entire pond or tank. Efforts should be made to avoid undue stressing of fish. Seining should be rather quickly done in only a corner or quarter of the pond or tank. A short general purpose seine can be used with only one person moving one end of the net into the pond and the other person holding his end of the net at the side of the pond. Fish may or may not be baited with feed prior to seining. But the actual time spent seining is minimized so as to reduce disturbing the fish to a minimum. Fish sampled are weighed and counted back into the pond. Fish are always to be kept in water. Buckets for weighing are tared with water before seining. Fish are put into the bucket with water and reweighed, then the fish are counted back into the pond or tank. For such operations, plastic hampers with holes can be used to hold fish live in a large tub, then fish can be weighed dry in the hamper and moved to a transport box or tank for holding. One person should be in charge of maintaining all records using forms elaborated beforehand.

12. Processing of Fish

Some farmers process their own fish to add value as with smoking or dressing out the fish for sale as fresh frozen fish. With the increased competition and rise in cost of inputs, farmers are devising new ways to maintain a good profit margin. However the processing of fish needs to be carefully evaluated as it is time consuming and requires abiding by standard procedures and sanitation requirements, especially if an export market is desired. Some farmers prefer to move their fish to better markets in the SE or North where the price remains higher than in the SW.

Nigerians appreciate smoked catfish and an increasing

quantity of farmed catfish are now being smoked (Photo 23). Traditional smoking is declining due to the high risk of fire outbreaks and its impact on the health of fish smokers. Improved methods include use of chorkor fish smoking units with multiple trays, which were developed in

Photo 21. Harvest of fish with Seine net.

Photo 22. Counting of fingerlings across a “sorting table”. Sale of fingerlings by reputable hatcheries to small fish farmers may include an exact count plus 5% for mortalities.

Photo 23. Metal fish smoker units in Ibadan with a smoking capacity of some 120 kg fresh


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Ghana as well as use of metal welded fish smoking boxes with capacities up to 120 kg of fish. With help from a government programme and subsidy, there has been a great increase in use of the metal smokers.

With growth of the fast food industry and more discerning consumers, there is need to establish modern

fish processing with quality controls to meet established local and international standards. 13. Environmental Issues

As with all agricultural enterprises, aquaculture can impact the environment in different ways, the main one of course being on the aquatic environment. Normal conditions in farming imposes intensities of planting or stocking densities far beyond what is found in the natural environment. Unlike terrestrial husbandries, fish are raised in their waste and special precautions are needed to ensure management of such an ecosystem, where wastes cannot be simply shovelled out as with poultry or pig farming. With elevated densities of fish stocked in ponds and feeding of fish, the pond environment can become stressed with waste causing water chemistry to have elevated biological oxygen demand (BOD), high ammonia and other aberrations uncommon in nature. Aquaculture farms can contain such conditions in ponds, however it is upon harvest of organisms that the natural environment is polluted with “stressed waters”, when waters are released at draining of the pond. In most situations in Africa the ponds are small and impact on the environment is very limited. Waters released from small ponds are quickly diluted and dispersed into the environment with little impact on the chemical environment and ecosystem. In view of this the Environmental Protection Agencies (EPA) in some countries, such as Nigeria, have restrictions on water release only on aquaculture farms of 50 hectares in surface area and larger. In fact an Environmental Impact Assessment (EIA) is required for such large farms in Nigeria. Aquaculture regulations and laws vary from country to country, but in areas of high potential with many small fish farms as found in SW Nigeria, it might be advised to carry out an EIA to establish a baseline status of the environment. Best management practices are essential to effective aquaculture management and should include comprehensive documentation, regular water chemistry analysis both in on farm and off farm waters. To avoid impact on biodiversity, only endemic species should be farmed, and measures should be taken to control release of fish into the wild. Best management practices include use of high quality fish feeds and these can contribute to environmental degradation over time through additions of Nitrogen (N) and Phosphorus (P). For each ton of fish produced, some 1,800 kg of feed are used assuming a 1.8:1 feed conversion ratio (FCR). Assuming the 1.8 tons of fish feed would be of high quality, the feed would contain some 86.4 kg of N and 18 kg of P. The fish produced with the feed would contain about 22.5 kg of N and 8 kg of P, leaving the difference of about 63.9 kg N and 10 kg of P to enter the environment. Since fish are poikilothermic, their body temperature fluctuates with that of their surrounding environment. Thus fish expend no energy to maintain their body temperatures as homothermic animals. Fish are also supported by their aquatic environment and do not require heavy skeletal structure to support themselves as with cattle for example. In aggregate, these conditions unite to make fish a highly efficient convertor of feeds. Although fish feeds are generally higher in crude protein than farm animals such as poultry, their feed conversion8 is much more efficient and thus less polluting to the environment. As an example, in highly rich ponds, tilapias or catfish may achieve feed conversions of 1:1, which is not possible with

8 Feed Conversion is expressed in a ratio that is derived from the weight (kg) of feed used to achieve one kilogram of gain in

weight of fish. This is often referred to as the FCR.


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poultry who may transform feeds in a 1.5:1 conversion ratio. Thus even though fish feeds are higher in protein and more expensive than poultry feeds, fishes highly efficient use of feeds helps keep the cost of their husbandry low, and minimizing the impact on the environment. It is also noted that different aquaculture systems can impact the environment in multiple ways. For example, the raising of fish in cages in water bodies can impact drinking water supplies and biodiversity. Care should be taken to monitor aquaculture systems through regular use of water chemical analysis of basic parameters. All efforts should be made to maintain the integrity of the water quality. Towards this goal, a general review and documentation should be carried out of baseline water chemistry parameters and biodiversity in project areas.

14. Planning the Fish Farm Business “If you fail to plan, then you plan to fail”. In operating a farm business, it is crucial to maintain

comprehensive records to enable the farmer to learn from mistakes and to better plan for the next crop. Each farmer wants to increase his fish production and reduce operating costs. This will not happen by accident and calls for good record keeping and serious planning.

The peak harvest season for many fish farmers is just prior to entrance of school when money from fish

sales are used to pay school fees and during the holidays in December. It is important for each farmer to know his market and look for windows of market opportunity that may not be fully occupied. Figure 6 presents the Supply and Demand for fish. Such a calendar could be compiled for each location.

Table 10. Fish Farming Calendar of Supply and Demand.

Months J F M A M J J A S O N D SUPPLY Rainy Season, Stocking X X X X X Peak Pond Harvest Season

X X

DEMAND Cash Shortages after Holidays-

X X

Easter X Paying School Fees X High demand, low availability-Due to festivals/celebrations

X X X X X X

Good business practices call for a solid, well thought out business plan. This is the basis for good management and obtaining bankable loans. It is useful to discuss this with a successful business friend to better understand the practicality and usefulness of a business plan as a tool for management. Below is an outline of a typical Business Plan.


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BUSINESS PLAN Mission Statement of Business State clearly in 2-3 sentences what you intend to do in business. 1. Executive summary a) Description of your proposed business 1) describe your product or business 2) support with diagrams, illustrations or pictures (if available) b) Summary of your proposed marketing method- design ponds or tanks to a size that all the fish produced could be marketed in one day. 1) describe the market you’re aiming for- look for value added, niche markets for catfish or tilapia. 2) outline the way you plan to reach your market – The fish farmers should seek to reach buyers through as many approaches as possible to provide the best profit, such as direct sales at the farm as well as through retailers. c) Summary of your financial estimates 1) state the total sales you aim to reach in each of the first three years 2) state the estimated profit for each of the first three years 3) state the estimated starting capital you’ll need 2.Statement of objectives a) Statement of the desirability of your product or service 1) describe the advantages your product or service has, its improvements over existing products or services 2) state the long-range objectives and the short-range objectives of your proposed business 3) describe your qualifications to run the business 4) describe the ‘character’ you want for your business, the image you’d like your customers to see, such as hygienic conditions of highest standard, live fish sales with cleaning and dressing of fish as per customer preference. For example, samples of cooked fish could be given to customers along with recipes. 3.Background of proposed business a) Brief summary of existing conditions in the type of ‘industry’ you’re intending to enter 1) where the product or service is now being used 2) how the product or service is now being used b) Detailed explanation of your place in the industry 1) describe the projections and trends for the industry 2) describe competition you face 3) state your intended strategy for meeting competition 4) describe the special qualities of your product or service that make it unique 4.Marketing strategy a) A description of your marketing strategy 1) design the farm with different sizes of ponds to meet different market demands and be able to sell all fish harvested from a particular pond. 2) describe the market you plan to reach 3) keep costs low with feeding of quality fish feeds by a feed manager who feeds by feeding response


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4) under price the competition and make profit by tight management and low costs with lowest Feed Conversion Ratios. 5) describe in detail how you plan to distribute your product or service (retail shops, door to door, etc.) 6) describe the share of the market you expect to capture 5. Selling tactics a) An outline of the activities to be used in selling the product or service 1) state the methods you expect to use to promote your product or service (word of mouth, radio, newspapers, etc.) 2) include a sample brochure or other promotional literature 3) present any data which supports your ability to meet your sales goals (i.e. actual orders, potential customers, etc.) 4) explain the margins of safety you’ve allowed in your sales forecasts b) Propose entering different fish markets as in the North and SE, where prices remain high. 6.Plan of operation a) Description of the proposed organisation 1) show an organisation chart describing the needed business functions and relationships 2) describe the key positions and identify the persons to fill them 3) list equipment or facilities and the space and location required b) Farm pond operations 1) stagger pond stocking to allow one pond to be harvested per month, to maintain cash flow 2) manage to maintain low feed conversions and best management practices. 3) plan to purchase fingerlings and stock ponds every month to assure regular harvests 4) maintain proper storage of fish feeds without pests and moisture 5) practice proper sanitation programme of sterilizing tanks and liming ponds before restocking. 7. Supporting data a) Information required to support the major points in the business plan 1) a set of drawings of the product(s) to be made or a detailed description of the service to be offered 2) show a list of the equipment you’ll require for your business and estimates of the cost of that equipment 3) List the capital equipment you’ll need and its estimated cost. 4) List a price schedule for your product line or service 5) Include your market survey data (perhaps from your focus group) 6) supply the following financial data: – projected statement and balance sheet for the first two years by the month – Income statement for two years – cash flow projection for two years 8. Conclusions and summary a) statement of proposed approach in starting the new business 1) state the total capital you’ll need and the safety factor you’ve used 2) state how much profit you expect and when you expect to show it 3) decide what percentage of ownership you want for yourself and your partners 4) indicate the total capital you’ll need and how it’s to be made up: – your share of the starting investment


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– how much you’ll need from others and when you’ll need the money – state what share of the business you’ll give to investors or lenders 5) state your planned schedule for starting your business


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References

(1) AIFP Project. 2004. Inventory of Fish Farms in Nigeria, Aquaculture and Inland Fisheries

Project, published by National Special Programme for Food Security. Project Technical Document. 148 pp.

(2) Agrodok. 2008. Small-scale freshwater fish farming. Agrodok Pub.#15. By Eira Carbollo,

A. van Eer, T. van Schie and A. Hilbrands. Pub. Agromisa Foundation and CTA, Wageningen. 84 p.

(3) Atanda, A. N. 2007. Freshwater fish seed resources in Nigeria, pp 361-380. In M. C.

Bondad- Reantaso (ed.) Assessment of freshwater fish seed resources for sustainable aquaculture FAO Fisheries Technical Paper. No. 501. Rome, FAO 628p.

(4) Boyd, C.E. 1998. Water Quality for Pond Aquaculture. International Center for Aquaculture

and Aquatic Environment. Research and Development Pub. No. 43. Auburn University, Alabama. USA.

(5) Dallimore, John, TNC Partners and F. Areola. 2006. Diagnostic on SME’s and

Intermediary Organisations in Fresh Water Fish Farming in Southern States of Nigeria. World Bank Micro-Small-to Medium Enterprise Project for Catfish. 43 p.

(6) Federal Department of Fisheries (FDF). 2007. Fisheries Statistics of Nigeria, Fourth Edition

(1995-2007). Publication of the Federal Department of Fisheries.

(7) FDF. 2009. Nigeria National Aquaculture Strategy. Assisted by FAO. Formally approved by Government. 18 p.

(8) FISH. 2006. Brochure with Cost Benefit on Cage Fish Farming in Uganda. USAID-assisted

“Fisheries Investment for Sustainable Harvest” (FISH) project. Cooperative Agreement: 617-A-00-05-00003-00. Dept. of Fisheries and Allied Aquacultures: Auburn University, Alabama, USA. 2 p.

(9) Isayagi, Nelly, K.Veverica and W. Daniels. 2009. Manual for the Commercial Pond

Production of the African Catfish in Uganda. USAID-assisted “Fisheries Investment for Sustainable Harvest” (FISH) project. Cooperative Agreement: 617-A-00-05-00003-00. Dept. of Fisheries and Allied Aquacultures: Auburn University, Alabama, USA. 222 p.

(10) Jauncey, Kim, P.L. Sorensen and F. Areola. 2008. A Short Handbook – Catfish Feed for

Nigeria. Materials, Storage, Handling, Stock and Quality Control, Ingrediants, Feed Formulation, Feed Use and Technical Aspects of Feed Manufacture. Sponsored by CDE, Brussels. 25 p.

(11) Miller, J.W. and Tunde Atanda. 2008. Fish Farm Village: A Model for Replication from

Nigeria? Technical Note. SARNISSA web site. 4 p.


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(12) Moehl, J., M. Halwart & R.E. Brummett. 2005. Report of the FAO-WorldFish Center workshop on small-scale aquaculture in sub-Saharan Africa: revisiting the aquaculture target group paradigm. CIFA Occassional Paper 25. Food & Agriculture Organization of the United Nations, Rome.

(13) Moehl, J., R.E. Brummett, B.M. Kalende & A. Coche. 2006. Guiding principles for

promoting aquaculture in Africa : benchmarks for sustainable development. CIFA Occasional Paper 28, Food & Agriculture Organization of the United Nations, Accra, Ghana.

(14) Muir, J., N. Gitonga, I. Omar, V. Pouomogne and I. Radwan. Hidden Harvests: Unlocking

the Potential of Aquaculture in Africa. Technical Review Paper. NEPAD-Fish for All Summit. 22-25 August 2005. Abuja, Nigeria. 56 p.

(15) National Special Programme for Food Security. 2005. Fish Pond Construction and

Management: A Field Guide and Extension Manual. Nigeria. 54 p. (16) Potenkham, Kamthorn and Miller, J. 2006. Manual on Catfish Hatchery and Production.

A Guide for Small to Medium Scale Hatchery and Farm Production Aquaculture and Inland Fisheries Project (AIFP). Published by National Special Programme for Food Security (NSPFS) 29 pp.

(17) Schmittou, H.R., J. Zhang, and M.C. Cremer. 1998. Principles and Practices of 80:20

Pond Fish Farming (in China). American Soybean Association. 93 p. (18) USAID MARKETS. 2006. Nigerian Aquaculture Marketing Study. By Susana Ohen and

Graham Dixie for USAID MARKETS. Power Point Presentation. 59 p. (19) World Bank. 2006. Getting Agriculture Going in Nigeria: Framework for a National Growth

Strategy. Report No. 34618-NG. 108 p. includes reference to Mini Paper by James Miller, “Prospects for Nigeria’s Fisheries Sub Sector. 9 p.

(20) World Fish Center. 2009. World Fish Medium-Term Plan. 2010-2012. Reducing Poverty

and Hunger by Improving Fisheries and Aquaculture. 99 p.


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Annex 1. The value chain for aquaculture provides employment opportunities in many ways as shown below.

Suppliers of Gear-Nets, etc.

Suppliers of Fish Seed

Suppliers of Fish Feeds

Technical Assistance Extension

Handling of Fish and Feeds for Transport and

Logistics

Smallholder Fish Production Through

Clusters of Farmers for Maximized

Competitiveness

Transport of Live & Dead

Fish Live Fish Markets

Consumers

Dead Fish Markets

Restaurants

Fish Processing Drying,

Smoking

Consumers

Direct Sales to

Consumers Auto

Consumption


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Annex 2. Conversion Tables and Useful Information

English to Metric Conversions Length 1 inch = 2.54 centimeters (cm) 1 foot (12 inches) = 0.283 m 0.39 inch = 1 cm (10 millimeters) 1 foot (12 inches) = 30.5 cm 1 yard (3 feet) = 0.91 meters (m) 1 mile (5,280 ft) = 1.609 kilometers (1000 m) Area 1 square inch = 6.45 cm2

0.15 inch2 = 1 cm2 1 foot2 = 929 cm2 1 yard2 (9 feet2 ) = 0.84 m2 1.2 yards2 = 1 m2 (10,000 cm2 ) 1 acre (4,840 yards2 ) = 0.4 hectares 2.47 acres = 1 hectare (10,000 m2 ) Weight 1 ounce = 28.35 grams 1 pound = 454 grams (0.454 kg) 1 Gallon Water = 3.78 kg (8.3453 pounds) 1 ton (2,000 lbs) = 908 kg 2.205 pounds = 1 metric ton Volume 1 Gallon = 3.72 liters 1 acre foot (43,560 ft3) = 1,233.5 m3 (2,718,144 pounds) (water) 1 ft3 (7.48 gal) = 28.3 liters (0.02832 m3)

Flow Rate 0.035 ft3 /second = 1 liter/second 1 ft3/second = 28.32 liters/second 1 gallon/minute = 3.785 liters/minute 0.264 gallons/minute = 1 liter/minute 1 ft /second = 450 gallons/minute Fish Production 1 kg per hectare (kg/ha) = 1.12 pounds per acre (lb/ac) 1 pound per acre = 0.893 kg per hectare Concentration of Chemicals 1 milligram per liter (mg/L) = 1 part per million (ppm) 2.72 pounds = 1 ppm per acre foot of water 1 gram per cubic meter = 1 mg/Liter All references to water are for fresh water.

Useful Information 1 Gallon = 8.34 lbs or 3.78 kgs Temperature F=1.8 x C + 32 C= F – 32 1.8

Formulas Area

Square: A = s2 Rectangle: A = l x w Triangle: A = base x height

2 Circle: A = r2

Trapezoid: A = top + bottom x h 2 Volume

Cube: V = S3 x Rectangular Box: V = length x width x ht Cylinder: V = r2 X length

Circle Circumference = d


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Annex 3. Pond Management Record Forms

Pond Stocking Records Fish Pond Management Sheet

Farm: ___________________ Period of Management:_________________ Manager: ____________

Pond No.

Date Stocked

Species Number Stocked

Average Weight

(g)

Total Weight

(kg)

Source of Fish

Cost per piece (N)

Comment


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Annex 4. Fish Sampling Records Ponds should be Sampled bi weekly

Farm: ____________________ Period of Management:_________________ Manager: ____________

Pond No.

Date of Sample

Days of Production

No. Fish Sampled

Total Weight

(kg)

Average Weight

(g)

Estimated Total

Biomas (kg)

Estimated Weight Gain (kg)

Comment


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Annex 5. Fish Feeding Records With High Quality Feeds, Fish Should be Fed at 6% body weight in first 6 weeks; 5% for next month; 4% for next month; then 3-4%till harvest; Feed should not be dumped into ponds, but fed according to feeding response. Farm: ____________________ Period of Management:_________________ Manager: ____________

Pond No.

Estimated Total Biomass

(kg)

Feeding Rate (%)

Weight of total daily feed

ration

Type of feed

Comment


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Annex 6. Daily Fish Feeding Records Farm: ____________________ Month:_________________ Manager: ____________Ponds: _______

Date Pond Number Comments/Observations

1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18 19 20 21 22 23 24 25 26 27 28 29 30 31 With High Quality Feeds, Fish Should be Fed at 6% body weight in first 6 weeks; 5% for next month; 4% for next month; then 3-4%till harvest