ffzg syntax 1

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1SYNTAX 1: word classes

11.. GGRRAAMMMMAARR AANNDD HHIISSTTOORRIICCAALL OOVVEERRVVIIEEWWSyntax is the study of the ways words, phrases and clauses combine in order to form

larger units. Syntax studies:

items and their arrangements (Do | I | know | you | from | somewhere?) and transformations (John is ready to eat - John now wants to eat; John can

now be eaten).

There are two levels of analysis in syntax: surface level and deep level.

John is eager to please. - John is easy to please. -> these two sentenceshave similar surface structures visually but different deep structures

(meaning)

To swallow safety pins is quite stupid. - It is quite stupid to swallow safetypins. -> different surface, similar deep structures

What is the meaning of transformation in syntax ?

To establish the meaning of a sentence we have to paraphrase it or transform it.I saw an elephant in my pyjamas:

- I saw an elephant that was wearing my pyjamas.

- I saw an elephant while wearing my pyjamas.

Grammar is:

1. systematic study of morphology and syntax2. set of rules and examples3. book containing such rules4. system in the mind acquired from infancy (abstract, the speaker knows

whether sth is acceptable)

Prescriptive rules (extralinguistic) state how people should use a word (You shouldntend a sentence with a preposition), and descriptive rules describe how certain

patterns function and how people use it (Present Continuous is used to express an

action happening at the time of speaking.)

Name three factors in explaining prescriptive rules.

Latin - considered to be the perfect language (It is I vs. It is me)

Logic - two negatives give a positive (I didnt see nobody = I saw somebody)Tradition - older forms are just, you know, better. HYPERCORRECTION - applying a prescriptive rule when it is now needed in order

to sound smarter, more educated or posh

Standard English is a variety not restricted to any region, public language of official

communication, taught in schools (and to foreign students), written and explained in

grammars, dictionaries, guides, identified with educated English, public language of

official communication.

Refers to grammar, not accent. When something is not standard (non standard, sub

standard) there is usually no problem in understanding it but social/extra linguistic

judgement is making it look bad (because it is ungrammatical in standard English) -e.g. He aint coming.


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Language properties important for grammar:

1. Complexity - out of sight, out of mind = invisible idiot2. Productivity - we can be productive by breaking existing rules (This jacket is

very you)

3.

Arbitrariness - we find different word order patterns around the world and allare equally logical

4. Duality (double articulation) - level of sound and level of meaningGrammaticality (competence) refers to the knowledge of a language, and

acceptability (performance) refers to the usage of a language.

Something can be fully grammatical but not acceptable -> Has anyone really been far

as decided to use even go want to do look more like?

Acceptability is a matter of degree between unacceptable and fully acceptable.

Parsing - stating parts of speech; based on the Latin traditionRote-learning - rules and definitions had to be memorised and recited, without

understanding

HISTORICAL OVERVIEW

Plato -> divided the sentence into ONOMA (N) and RHEMA (V)

Aristotle -> added SINDESMOI (all other words in a sentence - pron, prep,

adv...); word = a component of the sentence having meaning of its own, but

not further divisible into meaningful units

The Stoics -> increased the number of word classes, introduced more precisedefinitions and indentified case as a nominal grammatical variation

Dionysius Thrax -> studied the skills of reading and writing, introduced 8 parts

of speech - name, verb, participle, article, pronoun, preposition, adverb and

conjunction

Varro -> first comparative grammarian, converted the technical terms of Greek

into Latin, distinguished between inflection and derivation

Priscian -> his grammar is the only complete surviving grammar of Latin from

Middle Age

William Bullokar -> first grammar of English

J.C.Nesfield -> his grammar was used as a standard grammar textbook in

schools

John Wallis -> his grammar was not based on the rules of Latin grammar


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22.. MMOORRPPHHOOLLOOGGYY AANNDD WWOORRDD CCLLAASSSSEESSMorphology is the study of the structure and content of words.

What is the difference between syntax and morphology?

The difference between syntax and morphology is that syntax begins with words and

their study (they are the starting point) , while words are the end point of

morphology.

Morpheme is a minimal linguistic unit which has meaning or a grammatical function.

Allomorph is a different realization of the same morpheme.

Same morpheme appears in 3 different allomorphs -> horses /iz/, beds /z/, cats /s/.

Word is a minimum free form, the smallest unit of language that can stand alone.

Lexeme is a group of word forms that share the same basic meaning, similar forms

and the same word class. e.g. take, took, taken, taking, takes.

Orthographic words are linguistic units separated by spaces in written text.

Grammatical words are word forms associated with certain grammatical properties

(tense, number, word class).

Same orthographic words, belonging to the same lexeme but different grammatical

words - One sheep, two sheep, fall asleep...

Token is an each occurrence of a word in a written or spoken text. POJAVNICA

Types are different word forms which occur in a text. RAZLINICAAnd then we saw the trailers and the movie. -> 9 tokens, 7 word typesmagnifying, magnifies, magnify, magnifying, magnify, magnified

-> 4 types, 6 tokens, 1 lexeme

Major word classes:

1. Lexical words (open classes) : nouns, full (lexical) verbs, adjectives, adverbs main carriers of meaning in a text polimorphemic - consist of more than 1 morpheme

2. Function words (closed classes) : prepositions, determiners, pronouns, auxiliaryverbs, conjunctions

indicate relations between lexical words or larger units, cannot beheads of phrases

monomorphemic - consist only of 1 morpheme3. Inserts : interjectionsLexical vs. function words

I just called to say I love you. F: I - to - I - you. L: just - call - say - love (Lexical words

are easier to understand - Arriving tomorrow!)


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What kinds of morphemes are there?

1. Free - can stand alone, appear in isolationa) lexical - open classes (girl, pretty, go)b) functional - closed classes (and, in, the, he)

2.

Bounda) roots (-mit, -fer) - have no meaning in isolation, but acquire meaning incombination with other morphemes, Latin words

b) affixesi. derivational - [change the meaning of a word] prefixes (un-, re-,

sub-), suffixes (-ish, -ate, -ly)

ii. inflectional - [do not change the meaning of a word] suffixes (-s, -ing, -est)

Affix is a morpheme that attached to a word creates a new word.

Infixes (bound morphemes inserted between other morphemes that creates a newword) are called the ultimate affixes.

Levels of grammatical analysis:

1. Morphological - analyses the structure of words (books - book + s)2. Syntactic - analyses the way words combine into phrases (nice books)3. Semantic - analyses the meaning of the form (books are objects in the world)

What is the -ing issue?

It is a borderline case when it comes to word classes.Hes dancing in the club. - verb, refers to an actionHis dancing is awful. - gerund (-ing noun) [poss.det (his) is used with a noun]Dancing people are funny. - participle* -ing nouns = gerunds | -ing verbs and -ing adjectives = participles


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33.. PPHHRRAASSEESS AANNDD CCLLAAUUSSEESSConstituent is an element within a larger structure.

English students like this novel. [English students] [like] [this] [novel]. [English] [students] [like] [this] [novel].

Immediate constituents = phrases

Ultimate constituents =words

A phrase consists of words belonging to particular word classes that are combined in

certain ways to make larger units. Identified by substitution ([They] [are reading] [it].)

/ wh-question (Who likes this novel?) / movement ([This novel] [is liked] [by English

students] test. Each phrase may consists of premodification, the head and

postmodification. [by [English students]] NP embedded within PP

What types of phrases are there?1. Noun phrase - our old (PREMOD) radio (HEAD) in the garage (POSTMOD)

Complex NP - clause embedded in a NP

(the plan to rob the bank is silly)

2. Verb phrasea) Lexical (full) - function as the main verb, head of the verb phrase, can

appear in isolation or with other verbs, refer to actions, states,

processes (go, run, choose)

b) Modal - the way in which an action is performed, auxiliary verbs (can,must, may, should)

c) Primary - most important, most basic in English, both main and auxiliaryverbs (be, have, do) [How do you do that thing you do?]

- head/main verb = in a verb phrase can only be lexical or primary, they can

be alone or preceded by auxiliary verbs [We have lots of fun collecting the

stamps]

- finite vs. non-finite

- discontinuous/split VPJennifer hasjustcome home. I will always love you

3. Adjective phrase - an adjective can have attributive position (in front of anoun) -Jaws is a good movie. or a predicative position (after a verb) -> Jaws is

a good movie (attributive) - The movie Jaws is good

4. Adverb phrase - adverb adverbial, adverbs = word class, form class, a kind ofform; adverbial = function within a clause

5. Prepositional phrase - PP = preposition + NP (prepositional complement)[in a car under the bridge]

- extended PPs - with a premodifier (backto the future, exactly at noon)

- stranded/deferred preposition - not followed by its prepositional

complement or its prepositional object, What are you looking at?


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A clause is the smallest grammatical unit that can express a complete proposition. It

is formed by combining phrases.

A sentence is an independent utterance, a discourse.

a) Simple sentence - single clause (I left my head and my heart on the dancefloor.)b)

Complex sentence - 1 main/matrix clause with 1 or moredependent/subordinate clauses (If I said that, would you hold it against me?)

c) Compund sentence - 2 or more independent clauses, both can stand alone(Im out in the club and Im sipping that bub.)

Predicate as 1 unit? Who ate the baloney sandwich in the basement while youwere dancing the night away? The mouse did.

Clause/Valency patterns (the number in the type of syntactic elements required by the verb):

1) Intransitive = S + VSarah and Michael disappeared.

2) Monotransitive = S + V + OdThe whole family saw the play.

3) Ditransitive = S + V + Od + OiMaria gave him the keys.

4) Complex transitive = S + V + Od + Co / S + V + Od + AobligatoryWe can make you a superstar. / She put her hand on my shoulder.

5) Copular = S + V + Cs / S + V + AobligatoryYou are the one, Neo. / Honey, Im home.

Clause elements:

1. Subject - She likes him. -> agent/doer of action- It was seen by Ricky. -> in the passive S can be moved after the verb

- empty subject/empty it/dummy pronoun -> Its raining.has no meaning, just a grammatical role

2. Object - typical object = a NP (You crashed my BMW convertible)a) direct object - affected entity S did sth to O (She bought a new dress.) or

more rarely unaffected entity (Do you speak Zulu?)

b) indirect object - beneficiary Oi benefited/received sth from S (A passer-bygave me this jacket.)

3. Complement/predicative1) subject complement/predicative - typical realisations: NP, AdjP, PP

This is Dr Stefan Frank. He seems happy. He is also in good shape.

verbs: linking

2) object complement/predicative - typical realisations: NP, AdjP, PPThey elected him President. I cant get this open. They left me in a state of shock.

verbs: make, find, consider...


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4. Adverbial - complements the main verb (the action), adds more informationtypical realisations: PP, AdvP, NP - Your toast is on the table

- adverbial complement/obligatory adverbial - if we leave it out theresa drastic change in the meaning of a clause, or the clause becomes

incomplete -> Maria was home.- adjunct/optional adverbial - sentence can function without it; can

appear more than one in a clause, in different positions; She played the

guitar (in the garden). In intransitive pattern, monotransitive,

ditransitive, copular and complex-transitive (all of them).

Peripheral clause elements.

1) Conjunctions - link phrases or clauses (Jane is here and you are not.)2) Parentheticals - style in which additional information are enclosed within

parentheses (round brackets) and embedded in the text (As the chart

(right) shows... , ...when the party came to power (1979))

3) Prefaces - typical realisation: NP, not a part of the main clause, in front ofthe main clause, introduces the topic, has the same reference as the

pronoun in the main clause (This woman, she must be ninety!)

4) Tags1. question tags - for agreement, for emphasis -> It looks good, doesnt it?2. declarative tags - for emphasis, to stress the idea from the main clause,

form: S+V -> Hes alright he is.3. noun phrase tags - at the end, after the main clause, opposite of

preface, the same as the pronoun in the main clause, to clarify thereference of the pronoun -> She is beautiful, your neighbour.

5) Inserts - can be used in isolation, at the end, at the beginning -> Goodmorning, Charlie. / Yeah, I know. / Hold on,please.

6) Vocatives - function, to address somebody -> Dude, wheres my car?


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44.. VVEERRBBSSTwo meanings:

part of speech, lexical category, word class a function

Typesof verbs:

1. lexical/full - go, run, choose -> function as main verbs2. modal - should, would, must -> function as auxiliary verbs3. primary - be, have, do -> function as main and auxiliary verbs

Simple VP - consists of only 1 verb -> I believe you

Complex VP - consists of 2 or more verbs, main verb is always at the end

-> They should be giving me chocolate.

Regular verbs take 4 morphological forms:

1.) base form (walk)

2.) s form (walks)3.) ed form (walked)

4.) ing form (walking)

Irregular verbs can take up to 5 forms (spelling changes - stop, stopping)

Multi-word lexical verbs:

1. Phrasal verbs -> The plane has taken off.a) intransitive -> Hold on! Ill be there in a jiffy.b) transitive -> Why did you have to bring itup?c)

copular -> turn out, end up, wind up

2. Prepositional verbs - lexical verb + prep -> Can you cope with it?a) with prepositional object -> Im listening to Cher.b) with object and prepositional object -> The film reminds me of you.

3. Phrasal-prepositional verbs - lexical verb + adverbial participle + prepDont take it out on me!

a) with prepositional object -> Im looking forward to our trip.b) with object and prepositional object -> Everyone gets

rejected from time to time, put it down to experience.

4. Free combinations - Come back, you fool!Copular verbs -> You are sweet. You are a maniac. You are in tears. You are what you eat.

a) Current copular verbsi.state of existence (seem, appear, remain) -> He is sad.

ii.sensory perception (look, feel, sound) -> The soup tastes wonderful.b) Result copular verbs - result of a process of change (become, grow, end up) ->

The exercise proved useful.

Middle verbs -> You resemble my cousin Vinnie. - stative monotransitive verbs which

normally do not allow the passive (because transitive verbs usually allow the passive).Causative verbs -> X causes Y to do sth - I made my friend dance the forbidden dance.


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Finite vs. Non-Finite

FINITE

can occur as the VP of independent clauses have tense contrast

show concord with the subject have mood (indicative/imperative/subjunctive) only the 1st verb is finite in finite VPs -> She calls him every day. modal and/or primary verb - can go, will go, has gone, is going, had

gone, would have gone; morphologically tensed -> present - goes, past -

went.

NON-FINITE

cannot usually occur as the verb phrase of independent clauses all the verbs are non-finite in NF VP -> He smokes. - To smoke like that

must be dangerous.

infinitive - (to) go, -ed participle: gone, -ing participle - goingContrasts in the VP:

1) Tense - present / past / future

- grammatical category of time

Tense vs. time = tense is a grammatical category that refers to linguistic

forms, while time is an extra-linguistic category and refers to hours,

minutes etc. (it can be measured).

2) Aspect - the way the speaker perceives the situation

---> simple (unmarked / perfect / progressive / perfect progressive)3) Modality - unmarked (no modals) / marked (with modals)

4) Voice - active / passive

5) Mood - indicative (fact, state, statement) / imperative (command) / subjunctive (advice,hypothesis, insistence)

6) Negation/Question - positive / negative / interrogative

Word order in complex VP

MPPPM (modality, perfect, progressive, passive, main verb)

By June, you will have beenbeingtaughtsyntax for three months.

Dynamic vs. stative verbs

DYNAMIC = actions

STATIVE = states

a. perception - notice, hearb. emotions/attitudes - adore, agree, desire, hate, love, like, respect,

want, wish

c. intellectual states - forget, know, realize, remember, understandd. possession - belong, have, owe, own, possess


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Progressive vs. Simple

Im looking at you.Im listening to you.-> the subject has control over actions

-> S is the agent

I see you.

I hear you.

-> no control over the situation

-> S is the experiencer

Present tense vs. Future time

I leave tomorrow. -> action is certain to take place (fixed, predetermined), its apart of a schedule, a timetable, the situation is established by someone else, not

by the subject, an impersonal plan, not under human control.

I am leaving tomorrow. -> a future arrangement, plan established by the subject, apersonal plan, can be controlled.

A. Present Simple1. future time - schedule -> The plane leaves at 12:30.2. historic present - to make the situation more vivid, immediate -> We leave for

Beijing tomorrow.

3. instructions - I take thee, to be my wife.4. instantaneous present

a. actions happening in a sequence - little or no duration, dynamic verbsb. actions happening at the same time

5. performative verbs - you do an action by saying the sentence -> I pronounceyou man and wife.

B. Present Continuous (Present Progressive)1. action happening now (in progress at the moment of speaking) -> Im dancing

the night away.

2. action happening around now, around the moment of speaking -> Im readingA Game of Thrones.

3. to express a future arrangement -> They are going out tonight.4. historic present ->5. annoyance - with always, constantly -> Hes always buying me flowers.6. a kind of behaviour, a temporary action -> Are you wasting my time - are you

just being kind? *youre kind -> a permanent characteristic

C. Past Simple1. finished past actions -> Jenny bought the newspaper yesterday.2. repeated actions in the past -> I often drank milk when I was a kid.3. finished past state -> They lived in Australia for 10 years.

Past Simple vs. Used To

I lived here -> refers to only one period, there wasn't a break in that period I used to live here -> refers to two periods - a period in which I lived here, and

a period in which I didn't live here


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D. Past Continuous (Past Progressive)1. action in progress over a period of time in the past -> It was getting darker.2. interrupted action in the past, background action for another past action ->

While I was having a bath, the phone rang.

3.

2 parallel actions in progress in the past -> While he was knitting, she wasplaying soccer.

Past Simple vs. Past Continuous

He often bought milk. -> past habits, repeated action in the past

He fell asleep while he was buying milk. -> single event over a limited period of time

E. Present Perfect Simple1. an unfinished past state (with stative verbs) -> They have lived in Australia for

10 years.

2. an experience at some point in your life -> I have ridden a horse. [I rode in2003.]

3. result in present - current relevance -> The Republicans have won theelections.

F. Present Perfect Continuous1. an unfinished past action (with dynamic verbs) -> Tom has been repairing the

BMW.

2. an action which has just stopped -> Why are you so red in the face? - Ive beenrunning.

Perfective vs. Imperfective duration

- duration is not an important factor, the only important thing is psychological time

which refers to the speaker's perception of the temporal aspect of the situation

The passive voice

be + past participle - refers to states, more formal, more often takes anagent (They are worried.)

get + past participle - more dynamic, refers to changes of states, moreinformal and conversational, rarely takes an agent (They got worried.)

1) short passives (agentless) -> He's been killed.2) long passives (with an agent) -> He's been killed by a spider.

Uses of the passive:

1. when we focus on the action rather than the agent -> The house next doorhas been bought by a Mr Jones.

2. the agent is not important -> The bridge was built in 1964.3. the agent is obvious -> The streets are swept every day.4. the agent is unknown -> Your car has been moved.5. avoiding to mention the agent -> This letter has been opened!6. the agent is generic (=people) -> He is said to be dangerous.


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Modals and semi modals

always followed by infinitives, used to show the way in which the actionhappened

1) central modals - single-word elements = true modals -> can, could, may, might,shall, should, will, would, must2) semi modals - multi word constructions -> had better, have to, be going to, besupposed to, be able to, ought to

modal meaning:a) personal (intristic) - permission, obligation, volition, intention;

refers to human control of actions and events, verbs are usually dynamic, the

subject is normally a human being

b) logical (extrinsic) - prediction, logical necessity, possibility;refers to logical status of states and events, S can be non-human, verbs can be

stative

You must be tolerant. -> both!

MUST vs. HAVE TO

He must wear an uniform. -> the speaker feels it is necessary

He has to wear an uniform. -> thats the ruleI must stop smoking. -> I feel that

I have to stop smoking. -> it is starting to affect my health

You must see this film. -> the speaker feels it is necessary

You have to see this film. -> obligation (e.g. homework)

MUST = the necessity of the situation is subjective and internalHAVE TO = the necessity is objective and external

MUSTN'T (obligation) vs. DON'T HAVE TO (no external obligation)

You mustn't wear a uniform - prohibition (order)

You don't have to wear a uniform - lack of obligation

CAN vs. MAY

You can park here. -> It is possible for you to park here. - possibility (external)

You may park here. -> You are allowed to park here. - permission (internal) =

possibility created by the speaker

CAN vs. MAY vs. MIGHT vs. COULD

The road is blocked. -> fact

The road can be blocked. -> It is possible to block the road. - general or

theoretical possibility

The road may/might/could be blocked. -> It is possible that the road is blocked

- situational possibility [may is stronger, might is remote, could is more

objective]


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WILL vs. GOING TO

WILL

a) prediction -> My car will be at the mechanics next week.b) instant decision (prediction made at the moment of speaking) -> We dont

have any sugar. - Oh, OK, Ill buy some!c) prediction about the present -> He will be home by now.GOING TO

a) prediction based on present facts (external evidence) -> Shes going tohave a baby. Its going to rain.

b) intention, decision made before the moment of speaking - prediction basedon internal evidence -> We dont have any sugar. - I know, Im going to buysome.

WILL vs. PRESENT CONTINUOUS vs. GOING TO

1. What will you do when you leave school? -> prediction - deciding at themoment of speaking

2. What are you doing when you leave school? -> future arrangement - it ismade in the past, before the moment of speaking

3. What are you going to do when you leave school? -> intention - before themoment of speaking and up to the moment of speaking

FUTURE CONTINUOUS

1. Ill study at 6. Ill be studying at 6. -> It will be in progress, Ill start before 6.2. Well be flying at 30 000 feet. -> a routine - inevitable arrangement (future asa matter of course)3. When will you come again? -> deciding now

When will you be coming again? -> more polite, inevitable, we just want to

know the time of the action

SHALL vs. WILL

SHALL - in 1st

and 3rd

person Sg -> prescriptive rule!, more formal

He will regret it. -> inevitable

He shall regret it. -> I will make this more inevitable- the speaker creates inevitability

We shall never surrender. -> resolution

Thou shall not steal. -> order

This company shall not be liable for loss. -> formal promise

I shall always be a miss, insisted miss Marple. -> personal promise

PAST SIMPLE vs. USED TO

I used to live here as a child (and I live here now.)

refers to 2 periods: 1 - in which I lived there, 2 - in which I didnt = there hasto be a break, we cannot say Ive lived here...

I lived here as a child (and I live here now.) -> Ive always lived here. - refers to 1 period


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What do MUST and MAY and SHALL have in common?

- if there is a speaker involved, they're all personal

The subjunctive mood

presentsubjunctive (base form)I recommend that she (not) go there.

The committee demands that we be there on time.

USES:

a) in that - clauses - They insist that he resign (AmE) / should resign /resigns (BrE), usually in formal commands and requests

b) in expressions - God save the Queen, Come what may, Long live theKing, So help me God, God forbid -> optative forms

pastsubjunctive (were subjunctive)If she were smart, shed sell ASAP. -> formal

Suppose everyone were like you. -> formal

If she was smart, shed sell ASAP.I wish I was your lover.

-> expressing wishes and imaginary past actions, hypothesis

-> indicative - less formal

If only, imagine, as if / as though, Id rather...

Indirect questions

What is she doing? - He wants to know what she is doing.

Who was Hamlet? - Hamlet was a prince.He wants to know who Hamlet was. - He wants to know who was Hamlet.


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55.. NNOOUUNNSS AANNDD NNOOUUNN PPHHRRAASSEESSTypes of nouns:

1. Propera. personal names - James Bond, Jupiterb. place names - London, Birmingham, Brazilc. organization names - Nokia, Toyota, the European Uniond. time names - August

grammatical properties: no contrast of number, we dontusually use determiners; exceptions: the White House, the

Cape of Good Hope = multi-word expression, phrasal names

2. Commona. Countable

i. Concrete - book(s), day(s), woman/women, town(s)ii. Abstract - idea(s), situation(s)

b. Uncountablei. Concrete - furniture, luggage, homework, money

ii. Abstract - information, air, loveThere is no grammatical difference between concrete and abstract nouns,

only semantical.

Countable vs. uncountable = connected with how we see the world, not

with how the world really is

Do you like chicken? -> food, meat

Do you like chickens? -> animalsPlural uncountable nouns

Those pants look smashing. -> plural (-s, plural determiner, plural verb)

uncountable (a pant, two pants)

Proper nouns functioning as common nouns - have articles and have plural

We keep buying useless stuff just to keep up with the Joneses. -> the whole family Every large city should have a Hyde Park. -> a place like Hyde Park Mario has always wanted a Picasso. -> a picture of Picasso There were no Shakespeares in the 19th century. -> people like Shakespeare You could do an Arnold Schwarzenegger - just break it! -> an action typical of this

person

Package nouns ---> 4 classes of countable common nouns:

1. QUANTITYa. Collective nouns

i.people, animals, things -> family, committee, staff, teamii.of-collectives + Pl [C] nouns - individuals put in a group, forms after

them: countable -> a small group of musicians, crowds of people, a

huge bunch of flowers, a flock of geese


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b. Unit nouns - start with a mass and than you break it into individual,uncountable -> with a little bit of luck, give a chunk of chocolate

c. Quantifying nouns - forms after them: uncountable or plural countablenouns -> a kilo of cheese/apples, life is like a box of chocolates, Ive told

you that a hundred times2. QUALITYa. Species nouns - refers to the type of the item, entity, to a kind of

quality, forms after them: uncountable, plural countable, singular

countable with a zero determiner -> we need a different type of energy,

there are several species of trees here.

Number

1) Regular plurals: -(e)s -> horses, days, spies, atlases, waltzes, pianos, volcanoes2) Irregular plurals:

a) MUTATION - vowel change -> foot - feet, goose - geese, tooth -teeth, ox - oxen (Germanic Pl ending), brother - brethren (in

religious or dramatic context) ! BUT still life - still lifes

b) fireman - firemen, Frenchman - Frenchmen (if man is used as the 2ndunstressed part of the compound we use the weak pronunciation of

the vowel - Sg and Pl are pronounced the same)

c) VOICING - 13 exceptions - calf - calves, elf - elves, half - halves, knife- knives, leaf, life, loaf, self, sheaf, shelf, thief, wife, wolf

3) Zero plurals:a) animals -> sheep - sheep, deer - deer, cod - codb) numerals used as determiners -> DEFINITE NUMBERS: two hundred ofcars, five thousand of people; INDEFINITE NUMBERS (of-phrase)

hundreds of people, thousands of cars

c) other -> aircraft, series, species4) Foreign plurals

a) Latini.-us -> -i -> stimulus -> stimuli, focus -> foci, corpus -> corpora,

genus -> genera

ii.-a -> -ae -> antenna -> antennae, formula -> formulaeiii.-um -> -a -> addendum -> addenda, stratum -> strataiv.-ex/-ix -> -ices -> appendix -> appendices, index -> indices

b) Greeki.-is -> -es -> analysis -> analyses, basis -> bases

ii.-on -> -a -> criterion -> criteria, phenomenon -> phenomenac) Italian

i. -o -> -i -> libretto -> libretti / librettos (musicians vs. regularpeople), tempo -> tempi

d) Frenchi. bureau -> bureaux or bureaus, plateau -> plateaux or plateaus

ii. chassis -> chassis, rendezvous -> rendezvousiii. (army) corps -> corps


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5) Nouns with no number contrasta) ONLY SINGULAR

i. the noun news -> The news is good.ii. -ics -> Linguistics is awesome. (physics, mathematics)

iii.diseases -> Measles is not so pleasant. (rickets, herpes)iv. games -> Anyway, is darts a sport? (dominoes, billiards)

b) ONLY PLURALi. binary nouns (two parts) -> scissors, tweezers, trousers, tights

ii. aggregate nouns (indefinite number of parts) -> plural marking:arms, clothes, good, outskirts, remains, troops; no plural

marking: cattle, livestock, people, vermin

6) Collective, aggregate or zero plurala) Collective - The family is/are nice. The team is/are playing well. both Sg and Pl, even if we use Pl verb form, the determiner is Sg

b) Aggregate - Those arms are dangerous. These cattle are grazing.c) Zero plural - That/Those series is/are excellent.

7) Compoundsa) plural marker at the end (close-up -> close-ups, take-off -> take-offs, gin-

and-tonic -> gins-and-tonics)

b) plural marker at the beginning (commander-in-chief -> commanders-in-chief, passer-by -> passers-by, brother-in-law -> brothers-in-law)

c) appositive relation (woman doctor -> women doctors, manservant ->menservants, man-eater -> man-eaters.

Case

Nominative case = Common case

Genitive case = marked by s-> the ladys opinion, the horses mouth, the bosss secretary,-> the students enthusiasm

(the students enthusiasm -> Pl *zero genitive+)

Zero Genitive

1. with plural nouns ending in -s -> my friends' house2. with classical Greek names ending in -s -> Socrates' wife, Achilles heel3. with English surnames ending in -s -> Jones' or Jones's, Dickens or Dickenss

Genitive or of-phrase?

These are fathers trousers. -> with human possessors we to use the genitive form Lets go to the font of the house. -> inanimate nouns go better with of-phrases There were strong objections from the islands inhabitants / the inhabitants of the

island. -> sometimes we can use both


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Genitive meanings

1) Possessive genitive -> Mr Bonds gadgets - Mr Bond owns gadgets2) Attributive genitive -> the victims courage - the victim was courageous3) Subjective genitive -> the prisoners arrival - the prisoner arrived4)

Objective genitive -> the prisoners release - they released the prisoner

Genitives of time, measure and location

TIME

This weeks programme sucks big time. A man deserves a few weeks holiday.

MEASURE

Pandora was released today on 10 000 dollars bail. I want 3 years supply of whiskey.

LOCATION

the worlds best universities Africas first arts festival Croatias leading yoga experts

Determiner or modifier?

a. the specifying genitive -> *the neighbours+ dictionary - whose dictionary?-> functions as a determiner - this dictionary

-> the determiner always refers to the head noun

b. the classifying genitive -> a *womens+ university - what kind of university?-> functions as a modifier - we can use another adjective, noun...-> a French university, a feminine university

Independent genitive

1. elliptic genitive - the head noun is omitted, the genitive stands on its own-> JLos glass is almost empty, and so is Oprahs.-> His devotion is like fathers.

2. conventional independent genitive - dont need to mention the head noun ->sbs home, shops... -> Im at Jerrys. We might go to Harrods (Harrods).

Double genitive (post-genitive) - we have an indefinite noun followed by an of-

phrase, which contains either a possessive pronoun or a Saxon genitive

-> Georges sister - the sister, his sister-> She is my friend. Shes a friend of mine.

-> the only one I have

-> you know which one

Group genitive - if the noun phrase contains elements after the head noun, we add

the genitive marker after the noun phrase

-> King of Thailands visit, the girls next doors bicycle,someone elses house


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Gender - a grammatical classification of some linguistic elements as either masculine,

feminine or neuter (nouns, pronouns, adjectives, determiners, verbs)

In English gender is not a grammatical category (in Croatian it is) but it influences

morphology.

Glumac je stigao. - Glumica je stigla. --> obligatory formsThe actor has arrived. - The actress has arrived.

NATURAL GENDER (biological sex) GRAMMATICAL GENDER

male / female masculine, feminine, neuter

(extralinguistic) (truly linguistic categorisation)

Grammatical gender

Gender was assumed to be a basic grammatical feature of all languages because it

was found in Lation, thats why it is studied in English even though it is not agrammatical category.

Specyfing masculine/feminine contrast in nouns

1. different nouns -> father - mother, son - daughter, bull - cow2. suffixes -> actor - actress, waiter - waitress3. different modifiers -> male nurse, female officer, woman doctor4. man/woman as a second part in compounds -> chairman, Englishman,

policewoman

Avoiding sexism

spokesman - spokeswoman -> spokesperson!Someone has left his umbrella. -> his or her, their.

The customer can leave his or her belongings here.

Customers can leave their belongings here.

Determiners - All (PRE) the (CENT) other (POST) people started dancing.

1. PREdeterminersa. all, both, half, whatb. multipliers -> once, twice, three times, double

2. CENTRAL determinersa. articles -> zero article, a, an, theb. demonstrative determiners -> this, that, these, thosec. possessive determiners -> my, your, his, hers

3. POSTdeterminersa. SLOT 1

i. ordinal numbers -> first, fourthii. semi-determiners -> same, other, next

b. SLOT 2i. cardinal numbers -> one, two, three, four

ii. quantifying determiners -> many, few, every


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Modifier or determiner?

Shall I compare thee to a summer's day. - what kind of day - modifier

She was suspicious of her wealthy brother's girlfriend. - whose girl -

determiner

My best friend's wedding will be at the beginning of June. - whose wedding -determiner

The firm has captured a lion's share of the UK market. - what kind of share -

modifier

The indefinite article

1. He wants to marry a rich heiress. specific use -> specific individual, but not named unspecific use -> any person of that kind

2. Janet is a singer. classifying use -> a member of a class or entities

The zero article

Do you like sugar? -> uncountable nouns He doesnt like birds. -> plural countable nouns We usually have lunch at noon. -> with meals, a fixed expression Marica is at university studying English. -> primary function of the institution My dad went to the school to see my teacher. -> the building Peters in bed. -> primary function Shes been appointed (the) head of the company. -> unique role, position by car, train, post, e-mail, cheque, credit card at Easter, at night, on MondayThe definite article

1. Fred bought a radio and a TV, but he returned the radio.-> anaphoric reference -> referring back to previously mentioned item

2. She tried to open the front door, but she couldnt get the key into the lock.-> indirect anaphoric reference -> the previously mentioned noun is not

repeated but following elements are related to it

3. Im trying to find the book that you mentioned. They destroyed the city ofTroy.

-> cataphoric reference -> we use it because of some elements that appear

after the article

4. Pass the salt, please. Could you turn on the dishwasher, please?-> situational use -> unique in context


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Generic reference - discussing all the members of the class

An African elephant has larger ears than an Indian.

-> any elephant

The African elephant has larger ears than the Indian elephant.

-> one typical member of the class to represent the whole classAfrican elephants have larger ears than Indian elephants.

-> most common

1. You can never use the definite article with plural compounds with men toexpress a generic reference.

The Chinese are nice. The Frenchmen are nice.(specific or generic) (specific, never generic)

2. The rich dont understand the poor.-> all the rich people and all the poor people

Possessive determinersI

you

he

she

it

we

they

my

your

his

her

its

our

their

DETERMINERS

(before a noun,definite meaning)

mine

yours

his

hers

-

ours

theirs

PRONOUNS

(used on their own,indefinite meaning)

Demonstrative determiners

this watch - these watches -> entities which are near

that watch - those watches -> entities which are far away

ANAPHORIC REFERENCE -> Ill give you some advice. This advice will help you.-> indefinite

CATAPHORIC REFERENCE -> Those students who wish to apply can do so.

Quantifying determiners1) inclusive - refer to the maximum quantity of the head nouns

-> all those things, both hands

-> each guest vs. every guest

-> each = focuses on the individual, with 2 or more reference, Sg/Pl verb

-> every = focuses on the individual as a member of a group -> Sg verb

2) large quantity - much interest, many people, plenty of / a lot of / lots of3) moderate/small quality - some news, enough room, several people, a bit of4) arbitrary/negative individual or amount - any information, either, neither, no


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Determiner or pronoun?

Determiner determines a noun while pronoun stands instead of a noun.

That is /my/ friend Tom. - determiner

The boy is /mine/. - pronoun

/His/ books are great. - determinerI believe this is /yours/. - pronoun

A few vs. few / A little vs. little

A few/a little denotes a medium quantity and has a positive meaning,

while few/little has a negative meaning (not enough).

We had a little money so we bought some pizza. (+)

We had little money so we couldn't buy ourselves a pizza. (-)

I have few friends. (-) I have a few friends. (+)

Few is used with countable, whilst little is used with uncountable nouns.

Numerals as determiners

How many books do you nee?

I need 2 books. -> determiner

I need 2. -> head of the noun phrase

The first three pages were stuck together. -> ordinals usually come 1st

Semi-determiners (AKA adjectives meet determiners)

-> they modify nouns, but their meaning is not descriptive

the beautiful shoe -> The shoe is beautiful.the other shoe -> The shoe is other.

-> they can be used as pronouns

This book is nice. - This is nice -> determiner as pronoun

Wh-determiners = what, which, whose

a) interrogative clauses - Which witch watches which Swatch watch?b) relative clauses - Solar energy is an idea whose time has to come.What car? -> general

Which car? -> limited number of choices

Pronouns - used instead of noun phrases

Types of pronouns:

1. Personal pronouns - gramm. categories: person, case, number, gender Wheres the blood? It is on the dance floor. -> non-personal reference strong personal relationships -> for vehicles (ships, cars), with

instruments (knife), the sea, countries (England is proud of her poets.)

2nd person: What do you think? you two, you guys, you all, yall, youse,yous, yalls (possessive of yall)


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3rd person:a. My old friend Aristarchoss is now... He is Greek and likes musaka.

-> anaphoric reference (antecedent = NP that pro refers to + pronoun)

b. She arrived at Heathrow. Vittoria Vetra was a strong woman.-> cataphoric reference (pronoun + antecedent) Generic use of personal pronouns: people in general

-> We/You/One/ can never be too careful.

-> They say its bad luck to spill salt. Archaic:

Romeo, Romeo! Wherefore art thou Romeo? - S case (you)

With this ring, I thee wed. - O case (you)

Thy kingdom come, Thy will be done. - poss det (your)

Love thine enemy. Thine be the glory. - poss pron (yours)

Know thyself. - reflexive pronoun (thy)

Abandon all hope ye who enter here. - 2nd person plural - S (you)

2. Reflexive pronouns -> I - myself, you - yourself / yourselves, he/she/it -himself / herself / itself, we - ourselves, they - themselves

Co-referential with a NP, agree with it in gender, number and person,they have the same reference, they refer to the same thing.

3. Reciprocal pronouns have generic forms (unlike reflexive) -> each other more commonly

than one another

! Jack and Jill like themselves. -> Jack likes himself and Jill likes herself.Jack and Jill like each other. -> Jack likes Jill and Jill likes Jack.

4. Indefinite pronounsa. compound pronouns -> anybody, someone

-> every, some, any, no + body, one, thing

-> no one or no-one, not noone.b. quantifying pronouns -> all, both, some

-> have the same form as quantifying determiners

-> Some people are here. -> determiner

I like some, but not all. -> pronoun

I like some of them. -> pronoun

c. the pronoun one-> substitute: one, ones

-> Youre the one I need. (=person)-> Id like a book. This is a good one. (=book)

These are good ones. (=books)

-> often proceeded by determiners or adjectives - the one, the other

one, the coolest one

-> instead of a noun - the one mentioned before or established from

the context

-> generic: one, ones, oneself-> One should never lose ones head.


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5. Wh-pronounsa. interrogative - who, whom, whose, which, what

-> Who do you think you are? Whose is this house?

b. relative - who, whom, which, that, -> The woman who/that was driving was Judy.-> The actor who/whom/that/ you saw is excellent.

66.. CCOOMMPPLLEEXX NNOOUUNN PPHHRRAASSEESSgreat (PRE) clubs (HEAD) in Paris (POSTMODIFICATION)

1) a noun phrase which contains a premodifier or a postmodifier-> a good book, a book on the shelf

2) a noun phrase which contains a postmodifying clause-> a book which I bought

HEAD: noun - the man in the mirror pronoun - the one I need, all of you adjective - the poor

PREMODIFIERS

adjective - that tall girl participle - broken arrow, exhausting task noun - office furniture, market forces minor premodifying types (not so productive and not so frequent):

genitive - a mans heart

adverb - the then president sentence - come-to-bed eyes

POSTMODIFIER

prepositional phrase - a man from the tax office finite clause - the girl who has everything non-finite clause - some kids playing in the snow

Appositive noun phrase - Prime Minister Gordon Brown

minor types adverb - the road back adjective - something strange reflexive pronoun - she herself

permanent characteristic - a timid man temporary state - an afraid man Premodification is associated with permanent or characteristic features. Postmodification is more explicit than premodification (gives us more

specific and clear information), premodification is more vague.


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Ultimate order of premodifiers:

Determiners +

Opinion + Size + Age + Colour + Participle + Origin + Material + Noun + Determiner +

Head.

Simple or Complex?

What youre saying is not acceptable.I know that you are Polish.

They can make you what you want.

She is where the wild roses grow.

The relative clause does not make a sentence complex because it does notfunction as a constituent of the sentence. It does not have a clausal

function but the phrasal function of a postmodifier within the NP. The NP is

complex, but the sentence is simple.

Multiple postmodification

the great book on grammar that you stole

her loss of confidence which ensued

-> both elements modify the head noun

77.. AADDJJEECCTTIIVVEESS AANNDD AADDVVEERRBBSSADJECTIVES

1.

Premodifiers in NPs - attributive position -> a cool dude2. Subject or object complements in clauses - predicative position

-> The town is red. They painted the town red.

3. Can be premodified by the intensifier very -> Theyre very happy.4. Take comparative and superlative forms

Types of adjectives:

a) Central adjectives - attributive and predicative -> happy people, these people arehappy, intelligent geese, these geese are intelligent

b) Peripheral adjectives - only attributive or only predicative -> utter nonsense, thisguy is afraid

Adjective or adverb?

adjective + -ly = adverb

Bill drove a rapid car. He drove rapidly.

Bill drove a fast car. He drove fast.

ADJ: Norma arrived in the late afternoon. ADV: She arrived late in the afternoon.

ADJ: Take a deep breath. ADV: Breathe deep/deeply.

ADJ: I caught an early train. ADV: We finished early today.


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Positions of adjectives:

1. Predicative: This information is stupid.2. Attributive: stupid information3. Postpositive: something stupid, notary public, attorney general

ADVERBS

Types of adverbs:

1) Simple (closed class) -> just, only, well2) Compound (closed class) -> somehow, anywhere3) Derivational (open class) -> adj + -ly -> oddly, interestingly

ffzg syntax 1

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