fighting over how to build peace volusia county ps workshop 2012 gary armstrong, ph.d. william...
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Fighting Over How Fighting Over How to Build Peaceto Build Peace
Volusia County PSVolusia County PS
Workshop 2012Workshop 2012
Gary Armstrong, Ph.D.William Jewell College
Situation: Fall 1918Situation: Fall 1918
Surprises in WilsonSurprises in Wilson’’s s War Termination DiplomacyWar Termination Diplomacy
Wilson never called for republic in Wilson never called for republic in Germany and effectively gave up on Germany and effectively gave up on German democratizationGerman democratization
Wilson demanded Wilson demanded ““regime changeregime change”” to to catch up to American domestic opinioncatch up to American domestic opinion
Wilson lost control of armistice policyWilson lost control of armistice policy Wilson opposed key military components Wilson opposed key military components
of armisticeof armistice
Wilson on Regime Change & Wilson on Regime Change & Bolshevik ProblemBolshevik Problem
"The spirit of the Bolsheviki is lurking everywhere, "The spirit of the Bolsheviki is lurking everywhere, and there is no more fertile soil than war-weariness.and there is no more fertile soil than war-weariness.
"There is grave unrest all over the world. There are "There is grave unrest all over the world. There are symptoms of it in this country -- symptoms that are symptoms of it in this country -- symptoms that are apparent although not yet dangerous.apparent although not yet dangerous.
"We should consider too the condition of Germany. "We should consider too the condition of Germany. If we humiliate the German people and drive them If we humiliate the German people and drive them too far, we shall destroy all form of government, and too far, we shall destroy all form of government, and Bolshevism will take its place. We ought not to Bolshevism will take its place. We ought not to ground them to powder or there will be nothing to ground them to powder or there will be nothing to build up from.build up from.
William Wiseman, British envoy, Notes of a Conversation, Oct. 16, William Wiseman, British envoy, Notes of a Conversation, Oct. 16, 1918, in Fowler, 1918, in Fowler, British-American RelationsBritish-American Relations, p. 284. , p. 284.
Wilson: Problem of Regime Wilson: Problem of Regime ChangeChange
Navy Secretary Josephus Daniels (diary for October 21): Navy Secretary Josephus Daniels (diary for October 21): "Why don't you Senators sometimes give me credit with "Why don't you Senators sometimes give me credit with not being a damned fool?" When the Senator persisted, not being a damned fool?" When the Senator persisted, Wilson finally asked him, Wilson finally asked him, ““Had you rather have the Had you rather have the Kaiser or the Bolsheviks?Kaiser or the Bolsheviks?””Interior Secretary Franklin Lane (diary for Oct 22 1918): Interior Secretary Franklin Lane (diary for Oct 22 1918): President told Cabinet he "was afraid of Bolshevism in President told Cabinet he "was afraid of Bolshevism in Europe, and the Kaiser was needed to keep it down -- to Europe, and the Kaiser was needed to keep it down -- to keep some order. He really seemed alarmed that the keep some order. He really seemed alarmed that the time would come soon when there would be no time would come soon when there would be no possibility of saving Germany from the Germans. This possibility of saving Germany from the Germans. This was a new note to me." was a new note to me."
Sen. Ashurst, D-AZ
PWW, 51: p.403, 415
PershingPershing’’s Armistice Lists Armistice List& Conflict with Wilson& Conflict with Wilson
PERSHING to Wilson, Oct 26PERSHING to Wilson, Oct 26
1) German withdraw from Fr, 1) German withdraw from Fr, Belg Belg
2) German withdraw from AL 2) German withdraw from AL
3) German withdraw over Rhine 3) German withdraw over Rhine and Allies get bridgeheads and Allies get bridgeheads
4) Unrestricted transport of US 4) Unrestricted transport of US troops to Europetroops to Europe
5) repatriation of all POWs 5) repatriation of all POWs
6) surrender of all u-boats and 6) surrender of all u-boats and u-boat bases, u-boat bases,
7) return of all railway stock.7) return of all railway stock.
PERSHING to Wilson, Oct 27
Wilson doubts advisability of most of Pershing’s list
Wilson approves only
#1 and #7
Why is Ending a War so Hard?Why is Ending a War so Hard?What Makes Getting to Peace so What Makes Getting to Peace so
Difficult?Difficult?
Paul Kecskemeti, Paul Kecskemeti, Strategic Strategic Surrender Surrender (1958)(1958)
The Problem Illustrated: Dollar The Problem Illustrated: Dollar AuctionAuction
The Problem ElucidatedThe Problem Elucidated
KecskemetiKecskemeti’’s Solutions Solution
What is Peace?What is Peace?Negative/Positive ConceptionsNegative/Positive ConceptionsSt. AugustineSt. Augustine’’s Classic Conception:s Classic Conception:– ““The peace, then…The peace, then…– of the body lies in the ordered equilibrium of all its parts; of the body lies in the ordered equilibrium of all its parts; – the peace of the irrational soul, in the balanced adjustment of the peace of the irrational soul, in the balanced adjustment of
its appetites; its appetites; – the peace of the reasoning soul, the harmonious the peace of the reasoning soul, the harmonious
correspondence of conduct and conviction;correspondence of conduct and conviction;– peace between mortal man and God in peace between mortal man and God in ““ordered obedience, ordered obedience,
guided by faith, under Godguided by faith, under God’’s eternal laws eternal law””;;– peace between man and man consists in regulated peace between man and man consists in regulated
fellowship.fellowship.– peace of home lies in ordered harmony of authority and peace of home lies in ordered harmony of authority and
obedience between members of family living together;obedience between members of family living together;– peace of political community is ordered harmony of authority peace of political community is ordered harmony of authority
and obedience between citizens.and obedience between citizens.– peace of Heavenly City lies in perfectly ordered and peace of Heavenly City lies in perfectly ordered and
harmonious communion of those who find their joy in God.harmonious communion of those who find their joy in God.– ““Peace, in its final sense, is the calm that comes of order.Peace, in its final sense, is the calm that comes of order.””– Order is an arrangement of like and unlike things whereby Order is an arrangement of like and unlike things whereby
each of them is disposed in its proper place.each of them is disposed in its proper place. City of God, City of God, Book XIX, Chap 13Book XIX, Chap 13
Levels of Rational Levels of Rational War Terminations War Terminations
TruceTruce == MinimalMinimal
Balance ofBalance of == MediumMediumPowerPower
LiquidateLiquidate == HighHigh Conflict Conflict
ReorientationReorientation == IdealIdeal
““The HingeThe Hinge””Of Modern US Foreign PolicyOf Modern US Foreign Policy
Woodrow WilsonWoodrow WilsonPresident 1913-1921President 1913-1921
1856-19241856-1924Only President to know personally what Only President to know personally what defeat in war was likedefeat in war was likeOnly President with PhD in Political Only President with PhD in Political ScienceScienceSecond President to win Nobel PrizeSecond President to win Nobel PrizePresident Princeton University, 1902-President Princeton University, 1902-19121912Domestic Policy Accomplishments:Domestic Policy Accomplishments:– Federal Reserve createdFederal Reserve created– First graduated income taxFirst graduated income tax– Labor legislationLabor legislation
Massive Stroke, 1919Massive Stroke, 1919
WilsonWilson’’s Proposed Revolution s Proposed Revolution in World Politicsin World Politics
Collective Security in Collective Security in League of NationsLeague of Nations
National Self-DeterminationNational Self-DeterminationDemocracyDemocracy
The Case for WilsonThe Case for Wilson
““European System” failedEuropean System” failed
Liberal Democratic PeaceLiberal Democratic Peace– No 2 Liberal Democracies have ever gone to No 2 Liberal Democracies have ever gone to
war against each otherwar against each other– No Liberal Democracy has suffered famineNo Liberal Democracy has suffered famine– No Liberal Democracy has committed No Liberal Democracy has committed
genocidegenocide
A MapA Map
http://online.wsj.com/article/SB10001424053111904106704576583203589408180.html?mod=WSJ_hp_LEFTTopStories
Decline in Wars?Decline in Wars?
Human Security Report, 2005Human Security Report, 2005
Wars Less DeadlyWars Less Deadly
Theodore RooseveltTheodore Roosevelt
1858-19191858-1919War with Spain, 1898War with Spain, 1898US President, 1901-1909US President, 1901-1909First US President to win First US President to win Nobel Peace PrizeNobel Peace PrizeBreaks with Republican Breaks with Republican Party, 1912Party, 1912Reunion with Republican Reunion with Republican Party, 1916Party, 1916Expected Nominee, Expected Nominee, President 1920President 1920
Clash of Basic Clash of Basic PrinciplesPrinciples
Political Morality = Political Morality = Civilian Morality Civilian Morality
US ExceptionalUS Exceptional
Peace from Peace from Liberal Liberal DemocracyDemocracy
Peace from Peace from International LawInternational Law
Political Morality = Political Morality = Special MoralitySpecial Morality
US Normal Great US Normal Great PowerPower
Peace from Balance Peace from Balance of Powerof Power
Peace from Spheres Peace from Spheres of Influenceof Influence
Senator Henry Cabot LodgeSenator Henry Cabot Lodge1850-19241850-1924
• Among first Harvard PhD in Among first Harvard PhD in HistoryHistory
• US Senate, 1893-1924US Senate, 1893-1924
• Becomes Senate Majority Becomes Senate Majority Leader & Senate Foreign Leader & Senate Foreign Relations Committee Chair after Relations Committee Chair after November 1918 electionsNovember 1918 elections
• Detested Wilson: Detested Wilson: ““That might That might fly at Princeton, but certainly not fly at Princeton, but certainly not at Harvard!at Harvard!””
Lodge on PeaceLodge on Peace
……My view is a simple one. Nelson once said that the My view is a simple one. Nelson once said that the best diplomatists in Europe were his hundred-gun best diplomatists in Europe were his hundred-gun ships. Mr. President, the best diplomatists in Europe ships. Mr. President, the best diplomatists in Europe at this moment are the armies of France and Italy, of at this moment are the armies of France and Italy, of England and the United States. The best men to England and the United States. The best men to carry on discussion with Germany are Haig and carry on discussion with Germany are Haig and Pershing and Diaz, and over all the great commander, Pershing and Diaz, and over all the great commander, Marshal Foch. Those are the negotiators with whom I Marshal Foch. Those are the negotiators with whom I would leave the question of peace. They will win it. would leave the question of peace. They will win it. They will win it on German soil. They will bring back They will win it on German soil. They will bring back the peace which the whole American people desire, the peace which the whole American people desire, for they desire, I believe, unconditional surrender, and for they desire, I believe, unconditional surrender, and unconditional surrenders are not obtained by clever unconditional surrenders are not obtained by clever discussion and exchange of notes. They are won by discussion and exchange of notes. They are won by armies in the field. armies in the field.
Lodge, Senate Debate on War Termination, October 10, 1918Lodge, Senate Debate on War Termination, October 10, 1918
Comparing Comparing PeacePeace
Lodge “10 Irreducible”August 1918
Wilson“14 Points”February 1918
The CasesThe Cases
Expectations of PeaceExpectations of Peace““Scientific PeaceScientific Peace””Transform World Transform World Politics through Politics through Liberal Democratic Liberal Democratic PeacePeaceCollective SecurityCollective SecurityGermany: Torn Germany: Torn between between ““reintegratereintegrate”” and and ““punishpunish””
Expectations of Peace
Peace through Total Victory
World Politics will not change
Alliances Contain & Restrain
Germany
Kecskemeti: Levels of Rational Kecskemeti: Levels of Rational War Terminations War Terminations
TruceTruce == MinimalMinimal
Balance ofBalance of == MediumMediumPowerPower
LiquidateLiquidate == HighHigh Conflict Conflict
ReorientationReorientation == IdealIdeal
““The Lamb From the SlaughterThe Lamb From the Slaughter””
US Political ContextUS Political ContextWilsonWilson’’s 1916 Coalitions 1916 Coalition
US Political Context: US Political Context: Balance of Power in CongressBalance of Power in Congress
YearYear SenateSenate HouseHouse
19121912 Democrats: 51Democrats: 51
Republicans: 44Republicans: 44
Democrats: 291Democrats: 291
Republicans: 135Republicans: 135
19141914 Democrats: 56Democrats: 56
Republicans: 40Republicans: 40
Democrats: 230Democrats: 230
Republicans: 196Republicans: 196
19161916 Democrats: 54Democrats: 54
Republicans: 42Republicans: 42
Democrats: 214*Democrats: 214*
Republicans: 215Republicans: 215
19181918 Democrats: 47Democrats: 47
Republicans: 49Republicans: 49
Democrats: 192Democrats: 192
Republicans: 240Republicans: 240
Geopolitics: 1914Geopolitics: 1914
Situation: Fall 1918Situation: Fall 1918
Geopolitics: 1920Geopolitics: 1920
Dead States / New StatesDead States / New Statesafter World War Iafter World War I
Dead:Dead:
New:
Military Deaths in World War IMilitary Deaths in World War ITotal KilledTotal Killed Total Killed Total Killed Total KilledTotal Killed% of armed% of armed % of % of % of % of
CountryCountry forcesforces men 15-49men 15-49 populationpopulation
ScotlandScotland 26.426.4 10.910.9 3.13.1FranceFrance 16.816.8 13.313.3 3.43.4BritainBritain 11.811.8 6.3 6.3 1.61.6RussiaRussia 11.511.5 4.5 4.5 1.11.1SerbiaSerbia 37.137.1 22.722.7 5.75.7
GermanyGermany 15.415.4 12.512.5 3.03.0TurkeyTurkey 26.826.8 14.814.8 3.73.7
USAUSA 2.7 2.7 0.4 0.4 0.10.1
Ferguson, Pity of War (1999), p. 299
Versailles Treaty, 1919Versailles Treaty, 1919
Create League of NationsCreate League of Nations– Article 10Article 10
Recognize New States: Poland, Yugoslavia, Recognize New States: Poland, Yugoslavia, Czechoslovakia, Austria, Hungary, Baltic Czechoslovakia, Austria, Hungary, Baltic RepublicsRepublicsCreate Mandates in Middle East, Africa, AsiaCreate Mandates in Middle East, Africa, AsiaGerman war guilt (Art 231)German war guilt (Art 231)German war reparationsGerman war reparationsGerman disarmamentGerman disarmamentWar Crimes Trials (Art 228)War Crimes Trials (Art 228)
Congress of Vienna, 1815Congress of Vienna, 1815
Include all GPsInclude all GPs
Stability (not Justice) Stability (not Justice) is Job 1is Job 1
Balance of Power is Balance of Power is route to safetyroute to safety
Stay out of Domestic Stay out of Domestic PoliticsPolitics
Elites run things bestElites run things best
Signing VersaillesSigning Versailles
Versailles Peace Treaty DebateVersailles Peace Treaty Debate
First US President going abroad for First US President going abroad for diplomatic negotiationsdiplomatic negotiations
First proposed League of NationsFirst proposed League of Nations
First proposed treaty requiring US to end First proposed treaty requiring US to end ““isolationismisolationism””
First time US Senate invoked clotureFirst time US Senate invoked cloture
First time US Senate rejected a peace First time US Senate rejected a peace treatytreaty
WilsonWilson’’s 3 Great Reformss 3 Great Reformsto World Politicsto World Politics
National Self-Determination National Self-Determination
DemocracyDemocracy
Collective Security & International Collective Security & International OrganizationOrganization
Problem: Wilson’s Problem: Wilson’s Collective SecurityCollective Security
League of Nations in first 26 Articles of League of Nations in first 26 Articles of TreatyTreaty
Collective Security & Article 10Collective Security & Article 10
ControversiesControversies– Shantung PeninsulaShantung Peninsula– Danzig CorridorDanzig Corridor– FiumeFiume– SudetenlandSudetenland
League of NationsLeague of NationsCollective Security & Art 10Collective Security & Art 10
““The Members of the League undertake The Members of the League undertake to respect and preserve as against to respect and preserve as against external aggression the territorial external aggression the territorial integrity and existing political integrity and existing political independence of all members of the independence of all members of the League. In case of any such aggression League. In case of any such aggression or in case of any threat or danger of or in case of any threat or danger of such aggression the Council shall advise such aggression the Council shall advise upon the means by which this upon the means by which this obligation shall be fulfilled."obligation shall be fulfilled."
Versailles Controversy: Versailles Controversy: Shantung PeninsulaShantung Peninsula
Germany acquired Germany acquired extensive rights in extensive rights in 18981898
Treaty gave Treaty gave GermanyGermany’’s area to s area to JAPAN, not ChinaJAPAN, not China
Contradiction in Contradiction in Self-Determination: Danzig Self-Determination: Danzig
CorridorCorridor
Danzig: 65% Danzig: 65% GermanGerman
Corridor outside Corridor outside Danzig: Germans Danzig: Germans 45%45%
SudetenlandSudetenland
3 M 3 M GermansGermans
1 M 1 M HungariansHungarians
0.5 M Poles0.5 M Poles
Total Pop: Total Pop: 15 M15 M
Red areas indicate Red areas indicate >> 80% German in 1930 80% German in 1930 censuscensus
Collective Security: Pro/ConCollective Security: Pro/Con
ProPro– All states have interest in stopping aggressionAll states have interest in stopping aggression– Deter aggressionDeter aggression– US now has vital interests around worldUS now has vital interests around world
ConCon– Great Powers wonGreat Powers won’’t go to war without vital interestt go to war without vital interest– CS makes world politics rigid by freezing territorial CS makes world politics rigid by freezing territorial
status quostatus quo– Cannot Define Cannot Define ““aggressionaggression””– Endangers US constitutional systemEndangers US constitutional system
Problem: DemocracyProblem: Democracy
Fate of DemocracyFate of DemocracyDemocraticDemocratic DemocraticDemocratic
StateState FoundingFounding Regime Regime CollapsesCollapses
ItalyItaly 19251925GermanyGermany 19191919 19331933CzechoslovakiaCzechoslovakia 19181918 1938*1938*PolandPoland 19191919 19261926AustriaAustria 19201920 19331933HungaryHungary 1920*1920* 19321932EstoniaEstonia 19181918 19341934LatviaLatvia 19201920 19341934
Locarno Treaty 1925Locarno Treaty 1925
Actually 7 TreatiesActually 7 TreatiesGermany accepted into European order, Germany accepted into European order, admitted to League of Nationsadmitted to League of NationsGermany, Belgium, Britain, France, Italy agree Germany, Belgium, Britain, France, Italy agree form defensive pactform defensive pactFrance re-confirmed defense pacts with Poland France re-confirmed defense pacts with Poland and Czechoslovakiaand CzechoslovakiaGermany pledged to use arbitration for any Germany pledged to use arbitration for any dispute with Poland and Czechoslovakiadispute with Poland and Czechoslovakia
German LeaderGerman LeaderGustav StresemanGustav Streseman
1878-19291878-1929
Son of Berlin beer distributorSon of Berlin beer distributor
Won Nobel Peace Prize for LocarnoWon Nobel Peace Prize for Locarno
View of Weimar: View of Weimar: VernunftrepublikanerVernunftrepublikaner
Chancellor, Germany, Aug-Nov 1923Chancellor, Germany, Aug-Nov 1923
Foreign Minister, Nov 1923-1929Foreign Minister, Nov 1923-1929
““FulfillmentFulfillment”” Policy ( Policy (à la Nixon to China)à la Nixon to China)
“…gain a free hand to secure peace change of borders in the East and…later incorporation of German territories in the East”
PopulationPopulation(M)(M)
19131913 19201920 19281928 19381938
USSRUSSR 175175 127127 150150 180180
USAUSA 9797 106106 119119 138138
GermanyGermany 6767 4343 55.455.4 68.568.5
BritainBritain 4646 4444 4646 4848
FranceFrance 39.739.7 3939 4141 4242
Relative Industrial PotentialRelative Industrial Potential(UK 1900 = 100)(UK 1900 = 100)
19281928 19381938
BritainBritain 135135 181181
USUS 533533 528528
FranceFrance 8282 7474
GermanyGermany 158158 214214
USSRUSSR 7272 152152
Defense Expenditures Defense Expenditures $M, current$M, current
YearYear GermanyGermany UKUK FranceFrance USSRUSSR USAUSA
19331933 162162 512512 498498 722722 699699
19341934 452452 333333 524524 707707 579579
19371937 3,2983,298 1,2451,245 890890 3,4463,4461,6211,621
19381938 7,4157,415 1,8631,863 919919 5,4295,4291,1311,131
Military Aircraft ProductionMilitary Aircraft Production
19321932 19351935 19371937 19391939 19411941 19441944
FranceFrance (600)(600) 785785 743743 3,1633,163 ---- ----
BritainBritain 445445 1,1401,140 2,1532,153 7,9407,940 21K21K 26K26K
USAUSA 593593 459459 949949 2,1952,195 26K26K 96K96K
GermanyGermany3636 3,1833,183 5,6065,606 8,2958,295 12K12K 40K40K
USSRUSSR 2,5952,595 3,5783,578 3,5783,578 10,38210,382 15K15K 40K40K
LodgeLodge’’s Strategys Strategy
Assume 3 camps: Irreconcilable, Reservationist, Pro-Assume 3 camps: Irreconcilable, Reservationist, Pro-LeagueLeagueDeath of a thousand cutsDeath of a thousand cutsQ: Will League have its own military or authority to Q: Will League have its own military or authority to summon military of members?summon military of members?Q: Is Art 10 obligatory? Will the US be obliged to fight Q: Is Art 10 obligatory? Will the US be obliged to fight for ____ and ____ and ____?for ____ and ____ and ____?Q: Does Art 10 supercede authority of Congress to Q: Does Art 10 supercede authority of Congress to declare war?declare war?Q: Q: ““What will your League amount to if it does not What will your League amount to if it does not contain powers that no one dreams of giving it?contain powers that no one dreams of giving it?”” (Senator Borah)(Senator Borah)
Some of LodgeSome of Lodge’’s 14 s 14 ReservationsReservations
US can withdraw from League on momentUS can withdraw from League on moment’’s notices notice
US assumes no obligations under Art 10US assumes no obligations under Art 10
US has exclusive authority over its territoryUS has exclusive authority over its territory
US refuses Art 156-58 (Shantung)US refuses Art 156-58 (Shantung)
US will not provide any funds to League without US will not provide any funds to League without Congressional approvalCongressional approval
US reserves the right to increase armaments if threatened, US reserves the right to increase armaments if threatened, even if League has disarmament requirementseven if League has disarmament requirements
Vote on Lodge Amendments: 39 Yes, 55 NoVote on Lodge Amendments: 39 Yes, 55 No
Vote on Versailles Treaty (with no amendments): 38 Yes, 53 Vote on Versailles Treaty (with no amendments): 38 Yes, 53 NoNo
Their DefeatsTheir Defeats
Enduring Debate about VersaillesEnduring Debate about VersaillesVersailles Versailles ““Too HardToo Hard””– Severe peace terms created climate for NazisSevere peace terms created climate for Nazis– Had US joined, GB+France+US could have stopped Had US joined, GB+France+US could have stopped
Hitler Hitler
Versailles Versailles ““Too FlawedToo Flawed””– Collective Security would not workCollective Security would not work– Treaty contradictions undermined moral confidence in Treaty contradictions undermined moral confidence in
new international ordernew international order– Even if US had joined, appeasement and war still highly Even if US had joined, appeasement and war still highly
likelylikely
Link: Pro-Link: Pro-WilsonWilson
Margaret MacMillanMargaret MacMillan
B 1943, TorontoB 1943, TorontoGreat grand-daughter of David Great grand-daughter of David Lloyd GeorgeLloyd GeorgeD.Phil., OxfordD.Phil., OxfordProfessor of History and Professor of History and interntational relations, University of interntational relations, University of TorontoToronto2007: became Warden, St. 2007: became Warden, St. AnthonyAnthony’’s College, Oxford Us College, Oxford U2002: 2002: Paris,1919Paris,19192007: 2007: Nixon & MaoNixon & Mao
MacMillanMacMillan’’s Evaluations Evaluation
A Bad Argument: A Bad Argument: ““The final crime of The final crime of World War I was the Treaty of Versailles, World War I was the Treaty of Versailles, whose harsh terms would ensure a whose harsh terms would ensure a second war.second war.”” ( (The EconomistThe Economist))– Her view: This excuses actions and inactions Her view: This excuses actions and inactions
of all leaders, 1919-1939of all leaders, 1919-1939
Hitler did not make war because of Hitler did not make war because of Versailles. He found it convenient to claim Versailles. He found it convenient to claim so.so.
KissingerKissinger’’s Evaluations Evaluation
Framers of Versailles achieved the Framers of Versailles achieved the opposite of what they intended: a stronger opposite of what they intended: a stronger Germany.Germany.
German grievances were bound to grow German grievances were bound to grow as balance of power inexorably shifted in as balance of power inexorably shifted in GermanyGermany’’s favor.s favor.
Locarno Treaties (1925) showed the Locarno Treaties (1925) showed the future.future.
Kissinger on LocarnoKissinger on Locarno
““The Locarno Pact was greeted with exuberant The Locarno Pact was greeted with exuberant relief as the dawning of a new world order. The relief as the dawning of a new world order. The three foreign ministers – Briand, Chamberlain, three foreign ministers – Briand, Chamberlain, and Stresemann – received the Nobel Peace and Stresemann – received the Nobel Peace Prize. But amid all the jubilation, no one noticed Prize. But amid all the jubilation, no one noticed that the statesmen had sidestepped the real that the statesmen had sidestepped the real issues; Locarno had not so much pacified issues; Locarno had not so much pacified Europe as it had defined the next battlefield.Europe as it had defined the next battlefield.””– Kissinger, Kissinger, DiplomacyDiplomacy
Making a Failed Peace?Making a Failed Peace?
Some ConclusionsSome Conclusions
Great War & Versailles Debate show rival Great War & Versailles Debate show rival American traditionsAmerican traditions
Fate of WilsonFate of Wilson’’s Reformss Reforms
Isolationism TriumphsIsolationism Triumphs