Stress and Coping

Table of Contents

List of Tables and Figures.......................................................................................3Chapter 1 - Background to the Study......................................................................4

Introduction.........................................................................................................4Statement of the Problem.....................................................................................4Justification for the Study....................................................................................6Purpose of the Study............................................................................................7Significance of the Study......................................................................................9Objectives of the Study.........................................................................................9Research Hypotheses.........................................................................................10Operationalization of Terms..............................................................................10

Chapter 2 – Literature Review...............................................................................12Perceived Stress.................................................................................................12Coping................................................................................................................15

Dispositional and Situational Coping...........................................................19Gender and Coping........................................................................................19Adaptive and Maladaptive Coping................................................................21

Substance Use - An Emotion-Focused Coping Mechanism..............................22Cannabis........................................................................................................22Cigarettes.......................................................................................................25Alcohol...........................................................................................................26

Students at the Mona Campus of the UWI.........................................................29Chapter 3 - Methodology.......................................................................................34

Sample................................................................................................................35Research Design................................................................................................36Instrumentation..................................................................................................37Procedures for Collecting Data.........................................................................38Data Analysis.....................................................................................................39

Chapter 4 - Results.................................................................................................41Perceived Stress Levels Among Respondents....................................................44

Perceived Stress and Gender.........................................................................45Objective1. Frequency of Substance Use as a Coping Mechanism...................46

Substance Use Coping and Gender, Residential Status and Faculty............47Hypothesis One..............................................................................................47

Objective 2. The Substance Most Frequently Used as Coping Mechanism.....48Objective3. Coping Styles Most Frequently Used by Students.........................49Objective 4. Analysis of the Impact of Expectation of Substance Effect on the Relationship between Level of Perceived Stress and Substance Use Coping. . .50

Hypothesis 2...................................................................................................51Students’ Perceptions of Substances.............................................................52

Chapter 5 - Discussion...........................................................................................53Objective1. Frequency of Substance Use as a Coping Mechanism...................53Objective 2. The Substance Most Frequently Used as a Coping Mechanism. .54Objective3. Coping Styles Most Frequently Used by Students.........................56

Gender and Coping........................................................................................57

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Objective 4. Analysis of the Impact of Expectation of Substance Effect on the Relationship between Level of Perceived Stress and Substance Use Coping. . .57Limitations.........................................................................................................58Recommendations..............................................................................................59Suggestions for Future Research.......................................................................60Conclusion.........................................................................................................60

References..............................................................................................................62Appendix A............................................................................................................68Appendix B............................................................................................................73

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List of Tables and Figures

Figure 1.1 Folkman and Lazarus’ Transactional Stress and Coping Model……..17

Figure 1.1 Gender Distribution at the University of the West Indies, Mona Campus……………….……….....30

Table 1.1 Population Distribution at the University of the West Indies, Mona Campus…………….......................31

Figure 3.1 Research Design Diagram……………………………………………35

Table 3.2 Sample Selection ……………………………………………………...37

Figure 4.2 Gender Distribution…………………………………………………..38

Figure 4.1 Faculty Distribution…………………………………………………..39

Table 4.1 Age Distribution……………………………………………………....40

Figure 4.3 Perceived Stress Frequency Distribution..…………………………... 42

Table 4.2 Stress Category Distribution by Gender……………………………....43

Figure 4.4 Substance Use Coping Distribution…….................... ……………….43

Table 4.3 Distribution of Substance Use Coping Scores by Gender…………….44

Figure 4.5 Relationship between Perceived Stress and Substance Use Coping…………………………………………………………..……….45

Table 4.4 Frequency of CCA Use……………………………………………….46

Figure 4.6 Means Plot of Expectation of Substance Use and Substance Use Coping Mean Scores……………………………......48

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Stress and Coping

Chapter 1 - Background to the Study

Introduction

Levels of perceived stress among students of the Mona campus of the

University of the West Indies and the coping styles in which they engage are the

areas of interest for this research. How students cope with “daily hassles” or life

events has consistently been an area of interest for researchers (Matheny, Ashby

& Cupp, 2005; O’Hare & Sherrer, 1997; Dyson & Park, 2006; Robotham &

Julian, 2006; Shang & Zhang, 2007; Gencoz, Gencoz, & Bozo, 2006; Herrington

et. al, 2005; Sasaki & Yamasaki, 2007; Struthers, Perry & Menec, 2000).

However, this researcher is particularly interested in students’ choice of coping

style and more so whether they use substances as part of their approach to coping

with stress. This issue will be examined in this study, along with associated

topics inclusive of trends in their coping behaviours.

Statement of the Problem

Perceived stress and coping are areas which have been thoroughly

researched in the United States, Europe, Japan and in some developing nations

(Matheny & Cupp, 2005; Matheny, Ashby, & Cupp, 2005; Gencoz, Gencoz &

Bozo, 2006, & Yamasaki, 2007; Struthers, Perry & Menec, 2000). However,

research in this field has been limited in the Caribbean. Furthermore, examining

the use of psychoactive substances as coping techniques for perceived stress is an

even less studied area in the Jamaican setting. Most of the research conducted in

Jamaica has been focused on life events or physiological aspects of stress and not

on perceptions of stress (Lindo, 2003; Duncan, 2000; Scott-Fisher, 1999). In

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Stress and Coping

addition, several of the studies were focused on specific groups such as

adolescents, primary school students or vocational groups such as teachers,

doctors, and police officers (Oo, 2002; Williams, 1993; Edwards, 1988;

Freckleton, 1984; Andrews, 1980). Understanding the relationship between

perceived stress and coping, particularly the use of substances as an effort to cope

is crucial for the development of appropriate health education programmes.

Carver (1997) discusses the categorization of coping styles into emotion-focused

and problem/solution-focused. He describes the former as approaches which do

not result in any change in the stressful situation but in the feelings aroused by it

and the latter as attempts to solve the problem. Carver’s categories will be

employed in this study. Substance use as a coping technique will be classified as

an emotion-focused technique. It is arguable that some substances such as

depressants have calming effects on an organism (Coomber, Oliver, & Morris,

2003) and as such may be useful in addressing the actual problem. However, in

this study, this and other beneficial effects of substances are seen as methods of

managing the emotions evoked by the stressful situation. Studies have been

conducted which demonstrate an association between the use of alcohol as a

tension reducer and problem drinking among college students (O’Hare & Sherrer,

1997). Problem drinking was defined in O’Hare and Sherrer’s study as the

consumption of alcoholic beverages significantly correlated with arrests and

incidents reported to campus security. This finding is significant for the current

study although the focus is not on problem drinking or other problematic

substance use. Its significance lies in the recognition of the potential for the

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Stress and Coping

development of problem drinking behaviours out of the use of drinking as a

tension reducer. Graduates of the University of the West Indies become leaders in

Caribbean society and as such are predisposed to experiencing high demands

placed on their coping resources. Developing healthy coping skills will be an

invaluable accomplishment for students, future leaders in commerce, government,

medicine, and other areas. As such, the undertakings of the present study can be

appreciated in light of its potential for contributing to the development of the

students at the Mona campus of the University of the West Indies. Given the

relationship between stress-coping and health, Sarafino and Ewing (1999) noted

that "being able to assess and reduce student stress is an important concern for

college counseling and health centers because of students' many adjustment and

physical health problems" (cited in Matheny, Ashby & Cupp, 2005).

Justification for the Study

The use and abuse of substances by University students is a perennial and

pervasive problem internationally (O’Hare & Sherrer, 1997; Baer et. al, 2001).

Several studies have shown that binge drinking, cannabis and tobacco misuse are

prevalent on University campuses in the United States of America and in Europe

(Baer et. al, 2001; Wallenstein, Pigeon, Kopans, Jacobs, Aseltine, 2007). An

association has also been found between the use of alcohol as a tension reducer

and problem drinking (O’Hare & Sherrer, 1997). Studies have repeatedly shown

that individuals use drinking in an attempt to cope with stress (P.E. Baer,

Garmezy, McLaughlin, Pokorny, & Wernick, 1987; M. Seeman, Seeman, &

Budros, 1988 as cited in Taylor, 2003). Perceived stress varies from person to

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Stress and Coping

person, making the transition into university life an experience rated more or less

stressful by different individuals. Arguably, perceived stress may influence one’s

ability to cope and also the methods employed in the coping process. It is

therefore, crucial to understand the relationship between perception of stress and

the use of substances as coping techniques among students of the University of

the West Indies, Mona Campus.

The lack of data on the prevalence of substance use among students of the

Mona campus makes reliance on national data and overseas data for college

campuses mandatory for this study. However, local trends indicate first use of

cigarettes and alcohol to occur at ages 15 and 13 respectively for males (Douglas,

2000). Studies have not yet been conducted which seek to identify whether

substance users in Jamaica engage in the use of substances for their tension

reducing effects or more so as a social practice. The current research focuses on

the use of substances as a coping mechanism for stress and will identify students’

perceptions of the potentially harmful and beneficial effects of substances.

Purpose of the Study

Substance use has been studied as a subset of problematic behaviours.

The use of substances is seen as contributing to health problems by some and as a

means of enjoyment or entertainment by others. This study examines the use of

substances by university students as a coping mechanism for stress. The students’

perception of the substances as having harmful, beneficial, or mixed effects upon

them is the value placed upon the use of the substances. The substances which

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will be focused on in this study are Cannabis Sativa (Ganja), Nicotine

(Cigarettes), and Alcohol (CCA).

The study seeks to identify the drug of choice among students of the

University of the West Indies when experiencing feelings of stress. It is also

designed to determine whether these students’ perception of the drugs’ effect on

them will impact upon whether they engage in the use of substances as a coping

mechanism for stress. The study provides information regarding the following:

i. Levels of perceived stress

ii. Most frequently used coping styles

iii. Students’ perceptions of the effects of substances (CCA)

iv. Frequency of students’ use of CCA as a coping mechanism

If significant relationships and patterns are identified in the research, the

information will be passed on to the University’s Health Centre. The aim of this

is to inform their development of substance awareness programmes. For instance,

posters on health issues are regularly displayed at the Health Centre. Given the

information generated by this research, staff at the facility may be able to develop

posters or other campaigns to educate students about the effects of substances.

The necessity of passing on the data will depend on students’ responses to items

on the Stress and Coping Style Questionnaire. One such item asks respondents to

identify which of six drugs are addictive. Of the six drugs, it is a well

documented fact that all but cannabis and ecstasy are agreed upon to be

chemically addictive (Taylor, 2003). Health centre staff and administrators may

find it a worthwhile task to provide more information on drugs of addiction if a

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Stress and Coping

large percentage of students are currently misinformed about substances such as

heroine and crack/ cocaine.

Significance of the Study

There is currently no literature available on the topic of stress, coping, and

substance use as a coping mechanism of students at the Mona Campus of the

University of the West Indies. The current work is the first of its kind in this

setting. Additionally, it will contribute to the literature on stress and coping in

Jamaica a topic which has not been adequately examined in this country. The

research which has been conducted has focused primarily on stress responses,

indicators and the implications of high stress levels for certain vocations (Duncan,

2000; Henriques-Piper, 1998). Furthermore, the distinctive aspect of this research

is that it is looking at substance use as a coping mechanism which has not yet

been examined locally. This feature allows for contribution to be made to the

literature on substance use among Jamaicans, and particularly university students

in Jamaica.

Objectives of the Study

The major objectives of the study are as follows:

1. To provide reliable data on the frequency of substance use as a coping

technique among students at the Mona campus.

2. To discover the substance most frequently used as a coping technique by

students at the Mona campus.

3. To discover the coping style most frequently used by students at the Mona

Campus.

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Stress and Coping

4. To analyze the impact of expectations of the substance as a mediating

factor between the level of perceived stress and the use of substances as a

coping mechanism.

Research Hypotheses

The hypotheses which will be tested in this research are:

1. There will be a positive relationship between the level of perceived stress

and the use of substances as a coping technique.

2. The likelihood of the use of substances as a coping technique will increase

if the substances are considered to have positive effects.

Operationalization of Terms

The following key concepts discussed in this study are delineated as

follows:

i. Perceived stress will refer to the individual’s appraisal of stressful

situation(s) in his/ her life.

ii. Coping will refer to the resources, both internal and external, which

the individual possesses and employs to manage the stress. Coping

will be categorized into two types:

a. Solution-focused coping - incorporates methods which seek to

address the problem.

b. Emotion-focused coping – incorporates methods which seek to

reduce the emotional distress being experienced as a result of

the problem.

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Stress and Coping

iii. Substance Use is being delineated as the use of any psychoactive

substance, including but not limited to cannabis, cigarettes, and

alcohol.

iv. Substance use- An emotion-focused coping mechanism refers to the

use of psychoactive substances in efforts to reduce the emotional

distress experienced as a result of levels of perceived stress.

In light of the relationship between perceived stress and coping which has

been demonstrated in previous research (Matheny & Ashby, 2005; Herrington et.

Al, 2005) the current study will examine the dynamics of that relationship as it

pertains to students at the Mona campus of the University of the West Indies.

Extant literature in this field will be reviewed highlighting the findings related to

gender (Matheny, Ashby, & Cupp, 2005) and the various dimensions of coping

such as situational and dispositional coping (Sasaki & Yamasaki, 2002);

maladaptive and adaptive coping styles (Gan, Shang, & Zhang, 2007). Findings

related to the use of substances as a coping mechanism (O’Hare & Sherrer, 1997)

and the potential harmful (Baer et. al, 2001; Abel, 2003) and beneficial effects

(Coomber, Oliver, & Morris, 2003) of substance use will also be discussed.

Prevalence data for Jamaica will also be presented (Douglas, 2000). The

discussion of the research methodology will present the details of sample

distribution, research design and data analysis used in the study. The findings and

discussion will present the trends in the sample and demonstrate significant

relationships between variables. Limitations, recommendations and suggestions

for future study arising from the work will also be presented.

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Stress and Coping

Chapter 2 – Literature Review

Perceived Stress

Stress has been studied in different ways by different researchers.

According to Hans Selye, an organism responds to external threats with set

physiological patterns of reaction (as cited in Taylor, 2003). Selye further posits

that after repeated stimulation, the system naturally becomes worn and the

resources exhausted, laying the groundwork for disease. Selye’s theory continues

to inform research falling under the disease model of stress, which is most often

the utilized in medical research (Taylor, 2003). The study of stress has often been

undertaken from a physiological or neuropsychological point of view. Taylor et.

al (2004) point out that stressful experiences can be noted as areas in the

amygdala are activated whenever there is something new or unexpected in the

environment, particularly when there are signs of danger.

Matheny and Ashby (2005) point out that stress was originally a physics

term referring to the pressure applied to materials to investigate their resilience,

and when the pressure exceeded the tolerance of the material, its molecules were

unable to spring back and maintain the integrity of the material. They further

illustrate that when used in relation to the human condition it is suggested that

excessive environmental stressors may challenge the homeostatic capacity of the

organism to maintain physical and psychological balance. Stress, as it is currently

used, is an umbrella term including stressors, the stress response, and stress

symptoms (Matheny & Ashby, 2005).

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Stress and Coping

Stressors have been defined as events and/or conditions that are external to

the individual which place demands upon the individual’s resources (Brunswick,

Lewis, & Messeri, 1992). Lazarus and Folkman (1987) conceptualized stress as

“daily hassles” which they describe as uncontrollable aspects of everyday life

which tend to evoke irritation in individuals; an example is traffic on the way

home from work. It has also been operationalized by Holmes and Rahe (1967) as

life events (as cited in Taylor, 2003). Holmes and Rahe defined stressful life

events as those which cause high levels of emotional distress. Some examples

they provide are death of a loved one, divorce, and moving. Lazarus and

Folkman (1987) found that daily hassles are better predictors of current and

subsequent psychological symptoms than life events. They argue that this is

because ordinary stressful experiences of daily living, inclusive of those which are

the products of life events and those which arise out of other merely adventitious

encounters contribute to a person’s experience of stress. Furthermore, research

has shown that one’s interpretation of the difficult experience is what determines

how stressful it is on that individual. Appraisal is the construct which captures

the idea of perceived stress. It concerns the implications of the event (stressor)

for one’s personal well-being. In other words “What does this mean for me

personally?” (Lazarus & Folkman, 1987).

Herrington et al (2005) support Lazarus and Folkman’s position and argue

that the prevailing stress model is a transaction model that views stress as

resulting from an imbalance between perceived demands and perceived resources.

It has also become widely accepted that the impact of stressful experiences is to

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some degree determined by one’s perception of its demand upon their coping

resources (Cohen, Kamarck & Mermelstein, 1983). The extent to which a

harmful or potentially harmful encounter between the person and the environment

is stressful depends on the meaning or significance of that encounter, which in

turn is based on the personal agendas and coping resources the person brings to

the situation (Gruen, Lazarus & Folkman, 1988).

The measurement of stress has also been an area which has sparked much

debate. However, as perceived stress is the focus of the present study, an

instrument which measures individuals’ perception of stress rather than actual

exposure to stressful experiences has been selected for use in data collection. The

Perceived Stress Scale developed by Cohen, Kamarck and Mermelstein (1983)

was incorporated into the Stress and Coping Style Questionnaire used in this

study. The authors discuss the benefit of using objective measures of stress which

focus on elements of actual external factors and ask respondents to state whether

they have experienced any of the stated events. An example would be living in an

extremely noisy environment and having respondents rate how many nights per

week they were exposed to the noise. On the other hand, Cohen, Kamarck and

Mermelstein (1983) put forward the superiority of measures which take into

consideration the reality that individuals “actively interact with their environment,

appraising potentially challenging or threatening events in the light of available

coping resources” (p.386). The Perceived Stress Scale (PSS) was designed to

measure the degree to which situations in one’s life are appraised as stressful.

This made it an appropriate instrument to suit the objectives of this study. The

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psychometric properties of the PSS will be discussed in further detail in the

methodology section of this research report.

Coping

Dressler (1991) defines coping as cognitive and behavioral attempts to

alter events or circumstances that are threatening (as cited in Dyson & Renk,

2006). Matheny and Ashby (2005) have delineated the concept as coping

resources, coping styles, and coping behaviors. Herrington et. al (2005) define

coping as those personal characteristics and possessions drawn upon when

managing stressful events. For the purposes of this study, coping will be

discussed primarily as it relates to coping mechanisms. Lazarus and Folkman’s

transactional stress coping model provide the conceptual framework for much of

the research in this area. The current usage of the term coping mechanism is best

summarized in DeLongis and Holtzman’s (2005) work. They define coping as

adaptively changing cognitive and behavioral efforts to manage psychological

stress. However, it must be noted here that the discussion of coping mechanisms

incorporates the understanding that individuals present with both internal and

external coping resources, both of which are subsumed within the concept of

coping mechanisms. The dynamic interaction between the demands placed upon

the individual by the experience appraised as stressful and the responses

manufactured in an effort to either reduce the distress or solve the problem is at

the crux of the current study.

Sutton and Lachman (1996) postulate that the study of coping is rooted in

individual differences in reaction to stress, with the assumption that how

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individuals cope is largely a function of personality characteristics, which result in

global coping styles. They argue that the literature shows that stress and coping

processes are widely understood to be affected by both personality and

environmental factors. Some studies have demonstrated that personality traits

such as neuroticism and hardiness affect both the individual’s appraisal of the

stressful experience and the use of coping strategies or mechanisms (Bolger,

1990; Florian, Mikulincer & Taubman, 1995 as cited in Sutton and Lachman,

1996). Measuring personality traits and extensive environmental factors are

beyond the scope of this research. However, some environmental factors were

examined, namely school, home, and relationship. Struthers, Perry and Menec

(2000) argue that academic stress poses a significant challenge for students and

when appraised negatively, can have adverse effects on students’ motivation and

performance.

Evidently, several models for understanding the relationship between

stress and coping have been postulated. However, Lazarus and Folkman’s (1987)

transactional stress and coping model serve as the theoretical framework for the

present study. They argue that adaptation to a stressor is influenced by the coping

processes in which people engage following that stressor (Lazarus & Folkman,

1984 as cited in Park, 2005). Park (2005) explicates Lazarus and Folkman’s

theory in a forthright manner:

This model focuses on cognitive appraisals of the situation and the coping strategies that follow from this appraisal. Cognitive appraisal involves making initial attributions about why the event occurred; determining the extent to which the event is threatening, controllable, and predictable (primary appraisal); and deciding

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Primary AppraisalIs the situation controllable,

challenging, irrelevant?

Stress and Coping

what can be done (secondary appraisal). These appraisals, in turn, influence the coping efforts put forth by the individual.

Lazarus and Folkman’s transactional stress and coping model is illustrated

diagrammatically in figure 2.1.

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Stressful experience

Coping Efforts

Solution Focused: Directed at changing the problemEmotion Focused: Directed at adjusting emotional distress

Stress and Coping

Secondary Appraisal

What are the resources available to cope with the situation?

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Stress and Coping

Figure 2.1 Folkman and Lazarus’ Transactional Stress and Coping Model

According to Lazarus and Folkman’s theory, the coping process begins

with the individual’s perception of the stressful situation. A judgment must be

made about the severity of the threat to the individual’s sense of equilibrium.

That judgment is made within the context of the individual’s abilities to address

the situation. And ultimately, these cognitive evaluations impact upon the coping

mechanisms engaged in by the individual to address the stressful experience.

Some coping researchers distinguish between problem-focused coping strategies

(attempts to directly change the problem) and emotion-focused coping strategies

(attempts to regulate the distress) (Park, 2005). Lazarus and Folkman (1987)

describe these two functions of coping as: (1) to change the actual terms of the

troubled person-environment relationship - problem-focused coping; (2) to

regulate emotional distress, categorized as emotion-focused or cognitive coping.

Other researchers have categorized coping styles as adaptive or maladaptive.

DeLongis and Holtzman (2005) argue that there is a lack of consistency across

studies regarding which coping strategies are adaptive and maladaptive for

dealing with stressful events. The reasons they provide include methodological

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Stress and Coping

differences across studies and lack of fit between methods and conceptual models

of coping.

Various research findings indicate that some types of emotion-focused

coping, particularly talking with others about the stressful experience, are helpful

in coping (Nolen-Hoeksema & Larson, 1999 as cited in Park, 2005). On the other

hand, other emotion-focused strategies, such as avoidance, tend to be related to

continued distress, while problem-focused coping tends to be more consistently

related to better adjustment outcomes (Aldwin, in press as cited in Park, 2005).

These findings would seem to support DeLongis and Holtzman’s view that the

findings are sometimes contradictory.

Dispositional and Situational Coping.

Some researchers discuss coping in terms of dispositional versus

situational coping. Sasaki and Yamasaki (2002) delineate dispositional coping as

a trait approach to coping – a long term, personality based approach to dealing

with stress. They outline situational coping as a state or transient method of

coping the individual may engage in depending on the situation. They argue that

dispositional coping can impact upon situational coping but that this is not always

the case. Sasaki and Yamasaki (2002) also found that an increase in dispositional

emotion expression, cognitive reinterpretation, and problem solving predicts

reductions in mental distress. These findings challenge the notion that emotion-

focused coping consistently leads to continued emotional distress or fewer

measured adjustment outcomes than problem-focused coping.

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Stress and Coping

Gender and Coping.

As it relates to gender differences in coping, some studies suggest that

men are more likely to use problem-focused coping strategies and women are

more likely to use emotion-focused strategies (La France & Banaji, 1992; Larson

& Pleck, 1998 as cited in Matheny, Ashby & Cupp, 2005). Matheny, Ashby and

Cupp (2005) argue that it is unclear whether women actually experience

emotional reactions more frequently than men but that they seem to express their

emotions more frequently and more intensely (Grossman & Wood, 1993; Brody

& Hall, 1993; Sprecher & Sedikides, 1993; Fujita, Diener, & Sandvik, 1991 as

cited in Matheny, Ashby & Cupp, 2005). The authors further postulate that such

gender differences likely result from the combined effects of biology, prenatal and

perinatal factors, culture, and family influences. In a meta-analytic review of 50

studies of sex differences in coping, Tamres et al. (2002) found women to be

significantly more likely than men to use social support, to ruminate longer over

stressors, and to engage in positive self-talk (cited in Matheny, Ashby & Cupp,

2005). Taylor, Klein, Lewis, Gruenewald, Gurung, and Updegraff (2000)

speculated that the greater use of social support by women has a biological

basis (cited in Matheny, Ashby & Cupp, 2005). When women are faced with a

threat they are more likely to engage in a "tend-and-befriend" response while men

are more likely to engage in a "fight-or-flight" response. The greater likelihood of

a woman's making a tend-or-befriend response may be attributed to the larger

production of the bonding hormone, oxytocin (Taylor, Dickerson, & Klein, 2001).

However, the differential reinforcement of the use of social support by one's

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Stress and Coping

reference group may account for its greater use by women. A study among

southern African Americans revealed that active coping was a buffer for the

effects of stress for black women. Whereas for black men, it exacerbated the

effects of stress (Dressier, 1985 as cited in Matheny, Ashby, & Cupp, 2005).

Evidently, gender differences in coping have been well established in the

literature.

Adaptive and Maladaptive Coping.

Gan, Shang and Zhang (2007) provide a different perspective on the issue

of adaptive and maladaptive coping styles. They termed their conceptual

framework the situation-strategy fit. This is described as the goodness of fit

between appraisal of control and coping strategies. When situations are perceived

as controllable, and problem-focused strategies are utilized, this may be referred

to as situation strategy fit. Likewise, when a situation is perceived as

uncontrollable and emotion-focused strategies are used, this may also be seen as

situation-strategy fit. Gan, Shang and Zhang (2007) suggest that emotion-focused

coping methods may be the most suitable in cases where the situation is appraised

as uncontrollable. This is logical as if there is nothing or very little the individual

can do to adjust the situation, it would be advisable to adjust one’s response to it

and also to seek ways of altering the emotions related to the stressful situation.

On the other hand, applying emotion-focused coping methods to situations over

which the individual has greater levels of control may produce fewer results than

applying solution focused methods. However, it may be argued that emotion-

focused methods may be applied first to alter the individual’s emotional response,

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Stress and Coping

allowing for a more rational approach to the solution-focused methods. The use

of mood-altering substances as a coping mechanism is arguably one such

emotion-focused method which positively alters the emotional state of the

individual and allows for greater focus when using problem-focused methods.

This hypothesis will be discussed in greater detail in the next section.

Substance Use - An Emotion-Focused Coping Mechanism

As previously discussed, emotion-focused coping mechanisms are those

which seek to reduce the emotional distress experienced as a result of the dynamic

interplay of internal and external phenomena during experiences perceived as

stressful. Carver (1997) includes substance use in the category of emotion-

focused coping mechanisms. He also includes the use of substances on the Brief

COPE. Cannabis sativa, cigarettes, and alcohol (CCA) will be the substances

under examination in this study. This decision was based upon prevalence data

for Jamaica which indicates that these are the dominant drugs of choice (Abel,

2003).

Cannabis.

The Cannabis plant has three varieties: cannabis sativa, cannabis indica,

and cannabis ruredalis (Canadian Senate Special Committee on Illegal Drugs,

2002). The most common form of the substance is cannabis sativa which

produces the substance that is smoked. Cannabis sativa is a psychoactive

substance also known as marijuana, pot, weed, ganja, among other names. It is

classified as a psychoactive substance because of its effects on the central and

periphery nervous systems. The use of Cannabis Sativa has sparked much

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Stress and Coping

international debate. Some countries have passed laws allowing the substance to

be used therapeutically, others have passed laws allowing its use for any reason,

while others still have outlawed use of the psychoactive substance. Nations such

as the United States and Jamaica continue to have laws that make cannabis use

illegal. This may be contrasted with the prevailing high illegal use rates in these

two countries (Canadian Senate Special Committee on Illegal Drugs, 2002; Abel,

2003). On the other hand, nations such as Spain allow free personal use of the

substance and report relatively low usage rates.

One of the reasons that cannabis use remains controversial is the debate

over whether it is to be considered a gateway drug. Gateway drugs, which consist

of cannabis, alcohol, and tobacco, are those which are thought to lead to the use of

other illicit substances or hard drugs. The Canadian Senate Special Committee on

Illegal Drugs (2002) operationalized the term as the “theory suggesting a

sequential pattern in involvement in drug use from nicotine to alcohol, to cannabis

and then to ‘hard’ drugs”. Furthermore, in regard to cannabis, they offered that the

theory rests on a statistical association between the use of hard drugs and the fact

that these users have generally used cannabis as their first illicit drug. Fergusson

and Horwood (2000) present the arguments for and against Cannabis Sativa being

described as a gateway drug. In the argument supporting this description, it is

held that cannabis is a "gateway" drug whose usage encourages other forms of

more serious illicit drug use (Kandel & Faust, 1975 as cited in Fergusson &

Horwood, 2000). The stage theory of substance use holds that the development of

substance use and abuse follows a generally lawful progression in which the

24

Stress and Coping

individual makes transitions from using legitimate drugs including alcohol and

tobacco to various forms of illicit drug use (MacCoun, 1998 as cited in Fergusson

& Horwood, 2000). The authors outline the assumptions of the stage theory of

substance use and abuse as follows:

(a) those using illicit drugs will invariably have used licit drugs but (b) not all of those using licit drugs will move to using illicit drugs. In this sequence, the use of cannabis can be seen as the first step in a process in which individuals make a transition to the use of illicit drugs. It has been suggested that this transition, in turn, increases the likelihood that cannabis users will progress to taking other illicit, and potentially more harmful, drugs (Fergusson & Horwood, 2000, p.506).

Challengers of stage theory argue that the overlap between users of more

harmful drugs and those who use cannabis may be explained by other common

factors such as similar life choices and other personality or environmental factors

(Huba, Wingard & Bentler, 1981; Hays et al, 1987 as cited in Fergusson &

Horwood, 2000). Hence, the argument against the categorization of cannabis as a

gateway drug lies in the fact that there are other predisposing factors which

predict hard drug usage and studies have not yet conclusively shown that cannabis

is the cause of the transition.

Cannabis Sativa is a well known substance in the Jamaican context. It is

expected that a large number of the sample in this study, perhaps as much as 15%,

will report using this substance. 1997 prevalence data indicates that 27 per cent

of the secondary school population had used cannabis at some point in their lives

(Abel, 2003). However, the use of this substance remains an issue of national

debate. This is the case as findings continue to emerge which support both the

25

Stress and Coping

position that cannabis use has negative effects and that there are some beneficial

effects to its use, often times, depending on the mode of delivery. As it relates to

smoking the substance, there have been findings which suggest an association

between smoking cannabis and increased violent behaviour (Howard & Menkes,

2007). Wendel Abel (2003), then consultant psychiatrist at the University of the

West Indies, reported that studies have shown that cannabis use is associated with

short term memory impairment and psychomotor retardation and may affect the

performance of persons carrying out demanding jobs such as pilots and operators

of heavy vehicles. He further reported that long term use of cannabis via

inhalation increases the risk of lung diseases such as chronic bronchitis and lung

cancer. 

On the other side of this argument are those who contend that cannabis use

has mostly beneficial outcomes. In one study, Coomber, Oliver and Morris

(2003) reported that persons using cannabis for its therapeutic properties

perceived it to be highly effective in treating their symptoms, in complementing

existing medication, and in producing fewer unwanted effects of their medication.

This is a crucial factor in nations determining whether to legalize personal use of

the substance. In Canada, this was one of the reasons for the Special Committee

on Illegal Drugs making the recommendation for the Government to amend the

Controlled Drugs and Substances Act to create a criminal exemption scheme,

under which the production and sale of cannabis would be licensed (2002).

Another popular argument for legalizing the use of Cannabis in Jamaica is

for religious purposes. Rastafarians have long lobbied for the legalization of

26

Stress and Coping

cannabis for use in their religious rituals. Nevertheless, the use of cannabis in

Jamaica, even for therapeutic consumption remains illegal.

Cigarettes.

The World Health Organization describes Tobacco use (including

smoking) as being causally linked to a number of chronic diseases including

several cancers, Chronic Obstructive Pulmonary Disease (COPD), and

cardiovascular diseases. On a global level, the organization reports that a recent

study suggests that 4.83 million deaths were attributable to smoking in 2000

(Ezzati and Lopez, 2004 as cited in WHO Global Infobase). The organization

further reports that over half of these (2.69 million deaths) were among people

aged 30 to 69 years, resulting in a large number of premature deaths. As it relates

to comparisons between developing and developed countries, there were equal

numbers of deaths due to tobacco. However, findings revealed that there were

greater numbers of diseases associated with smoking in developing countries.

The organization attributes this to the fact that smoking related deaths occur at

younger ages in developing countries, accounting for a larger loss of life from

premature mortality in developing countries relative to developed countries.

Prevalence data for Jamaica revealed that in 2006, 37% of 13-15 year old males

and females from a sample of 1854 rural and urban students had smoked a

cigarette at some time in their lives. The health concerns associated with cigarette

use for smokers and those inhaling the second hand smoke have been well

documented. As a result, smoking cigarettes as a coping mechanism for stress

among UWI Mona students has more scientific support for concern than does the

27

Stress and Coping

use of cannabis. The prevalence of smoking as a coping mechanism in the

present sample is expected to be higher than that of cannabis use, at perhaps 20%.

Alcohol.

Alcohol use has also had a long and colourful history globally. Nations

have come full circle from having alcohol consumption outlawed to allowing its

use, to regulating its use, and in some instances, discouraging its use. The

Jamaican experience with alcohol has been closely linked to the nation’s

experience with slavery and the slave trade, as alcohol was one of the primary

derivatives from the sugar cane industry. Prevalence data from Professor

Kolawole Soyibo’s study (1995) indicates that 54.4 % of 16-17 year olds in the

sample of 1,345 rural and urban Jamaican youths had consumed alcohol in their

lifetime (WHO).

The use of CCAs is being classified as an emotion-focused way of coping

as it does not directly address the problematic situation. It is arguable that CCA

use indirectly addresses the situation as the reduction of tension may allow the

individual the mental composure to engage in problem solving. However, a more

suitable example of a mixed coping approach, incorporating aspects of both

emotion-focused and problem-focused coping is the use of social support as

presented by Gencoz, Gencoz, and Bozo (2006). Their findings were as follows:

Social support was viewed as a mixed coping style since it might encompass different types of resources such as emotional support - being convinced that one is loved and cared for, tangible support - attaining the required instrument for the solution of the problem, and informational support - attaining the required information for the solution of the problem. Thus, this type of coping may include features of both problem-focused and emotion-focused coping.

28

Stress and Coping

Some research indicates that coping styles vary between cultures

identified as being collectivistic and those identified as being individualistic (Gan,

Shang, & Zhang, 2007; Gencoz, Gencoz, & Bozo, 2006). Jamaica may be

considered a nation in transition from a more collectivistic way of being among

individuals and groups to a more individualistic way of being among members of

the society. Gencoz, Gencoz, and Bozo (2006) propose that Turkey is one such

nation, and as such may engage in more social support seeking methods of

coping, and examine this style as separate from emotion-focused and problem-

focused. As aforementioned, they outline how social-support may or may not

incorporate aspects of both emotion and problem focused approaches to coping.

Like Turkey, Jamaica is a developing nation experiencing the transition into

higher levels of traditionally Western individualism. However, this author

postulates that rather than pursuing social support coping styles, individuals may

tend towards substance use as a coping mechanism to deal with increasing levels

of stress in their increasingly complicated and socially distant lifestyles. This

pattern may obtain for UWI students in the Jamaican context, who though

somewhat insulated from the society, are nevertheless impacted upon by the

prevailing cultural norms.

The underlying implication of the current research is that higher levels of

perceived stress will be linked to more frequent use of emotion-focused coping

styles. With substance use being a subset of emotion-focused coping

mechanisms, this style is expected to have a higher frequency among those

29

Stress and Coping

scoring higher levels of perceived stress. It is arguable that individuals who

appraise various situations negatively and experience them as extremely stressful

and perhaps even uncontrollable are more likely to engage in distress-reducing

emotion-focused coping mechanisms. Gan, Shang and Zhang (2007) posit that

situations perceived as uncontrollable are well dealt with by engaging in emotion-

focused coping styles. It is the postulation of this researcher that substance use as

one such emotion focused coping mechanism will be engaged in by persons

experiencing higher levels of stress perceived as uncontrollable.

Studies have shown that individuals consistently report feeling a reduction

in tension after the use of alcohol (O’Hare & Sherrer, 1997). It is this

researcher’s position that this is an emotion-focused means of coping. It is the

individual’s attempt to reduce the distress (s)he is experiencing as a result of a

stressful event or perception of something as stressful.

Studies demonstrate that the onset of tobacco and alcohol use occurs

primarily in early adolescence (Douglas, 2000). One may therefore question the

importance of conducting a study among a young adult population, since the

likelihood of them already beginning substance use is increased. The necessity

rests in the increased chance of first use or increased use under high levels of

perceived stress (Brady & Sonne, 1999).

Students at the Mona Campus of the UWI

The Mona Campus of the University of the West Indies has been

consistently registering a significantly higher proportion of female relative to

male students. The current gender distribution of the total student body is

30

Stress and Coping

approximately 71% female to 29% male. Chart 1.1 illustrates the gender

distribution trends in the university over the past three years.

Figure 1.1 Gender Distribution at the University of the West Indies, Mona Campus (Data Source: http://www.mona.uwi.edu/opair/profile/student-demographics.pdf)

Jamaicans constitute the majority of the student body with 91% of the

student body being citizens of Jamaica. 52% of the student population is under 24

years old; 27% are between 25 and 34; and 8% are above 45 years. 72% of the

student population currently resides off campus. 2,364 students are presently

enrolled in the Faculty of Social Sciences. This constitutes 36.4% of total

enrollment. The ratio of students enrolled in the Faculties is Social Sciences (36):

Humanities and Education (26): Medical Sciences (18): Pure and Applied

Sciences (19): Law (1). Faculty enrollment according to gender is displayed in

Table 1.1.

31

Stress and Coping

Table 1.1 Population Distribution at the University of the West Indies, Mona

Campus

Faculty Males Females Total

Humanities and Education 351 1330 1681

Law 7 39 46

Medical Sciences 268 870 1138

Pure and Applied Sciences 545 721 1266

Social Sciences 590 1774 2364

Total 1761 4734 6495

The impact of stress is a reality for university students. There are also

unique aspects of that status which bring additional challenges to the student.

However, as previously noted, the degree to which one is affected is determined

more by their perception or appraisal of the stressor than the actual objective

reality of the experience. Abouserie (1994) suggests that approximately one in

ten students may need professional support to reduce their levels of stress (as

cited in Robotham & Julian, 2006). Though these statistics are based on U.S.

populations, it may be argued that the situation at Mona may be similar, since

many of the experiences of University students are similar. However, research is

32

Stress and Coping

necessary to support such a postulate as there are also a multitude of differences

between students at the UWI and students in the U.S.A.

Coping mechanisms of students may be similar to those in the general

population. It is of interest to note, however, that university students have high

expectations of substances such as alcohol to function as agents of relaxation and

tension reduction (Rauch & Bryant, 2000). This is an important relationship to

the study of coping mechanisms employed by university students. Research has

shown that university campus life provides students many opportunities for

growth, however, it is also often associated with serious psychological distress

(Aspinwall & Taylor,1992; Leong, Bonz, & Zachar, 1997 as cited in Gan, Shang

& Zhang, 2007). In attempts to help students cope with this stress, preventive

programs have been administered to university students in both Western and

Eastern countries (e.g., Fontana, Hyra, Godfrey, & Cermak, 1999; Hirokawa,

Yagi, & Miyata, 2002; Nicholson, Belcastro, & Duncan, 1989 as cited in Gan,

Shang & Zhang, 2007). The main component of these preventive programs has

been cognitive-behavioral stress management training, particularly relaxation

training and coping skills training. The authors argue that understanding the

process by which university students experience and cope with psychological

distress is crucial for the success of these programs. This will also be the case at

the University of the West Indies, making the current research a beginning step in

the process of understanding coping among its students.

Wallenstein et. al (2007) found that 80.7% of the students surveyed on

college campuses in the U.S.A. had consumed alcohol at some time in the past

33

Stress and Coping

year. Furthermore, more than 44% reported having at least one heavy-drinking

episode (5 or more drinks in a single session for men, 4 or more drinks per session

for women). Although these statistics relate to what obtains in the U.S.A., the

paucity of literature available in this area locally forces reliance upon such data.

However, prevalence data for Jamaican 13th graders in 1997 suggests 28% of that

segment of the population had consumed alcohol in the past 30 days.

Studies of substance use behaviours might be considered more robust if

individual personality factors are considered. One important factor is locus of

control. Gan, Shang and Zhang (2007) describe Rotter’s locus of control concept

as one of the most important personality variables affecting mental health. The

perceived stress scale on the Stress and Coping Style Questionnaire examines the

level of control the individual feels (s)he has over events in his or her life. Hence,

locus of control as it relates to perception of stress is an element which will be

incorporated in this study.

The literature on stress and coping is vast. However, the primary areas of

focus of this research include the relationship between perceived stress and

coping styles, particularly substance use as a coping mechanism, the impact of

substance expectation on the use of substances as a coping mechanism, and the

effect of variables such as controllability of experienced stress on perceived stress

scores. These variables will all be examined by factors such as gender, faculty

and ethnicity.

34

Stress and Coping

Chapter 3 - Methodology

The Perceived Stress and Coping study employs quantitative research

methodology to test the following hypotheses:

1. There will be a positive relationship between the level of perceived stress

and the use of substances as a coping technique.

2. The likelihood of the use of substances as a coping technique will increase

if the substance is considered to have a positive effect.

This section will describe the sample distribution and sample selection. The

psychometric properties of the Stress and Coping Style Questionnaire as well as

the two scales used in its construction, the Perceived Stress Scale (PSS) and the

Brief COPE, will be discussed. In addition, data collection procedures and

analysis will be outlined. Figure 3.1 illustrates the research design and informs

the discussion which follows.

35

Stress and Coping

Figure 3.1 Research Design Diagram

36

(B)Dependent Variable: Substance Use as a Coping Technique

Hypotheses1. There will be a positive relationship between the level of perceived stress and the use of

substances as a coping technique.2. The likelihood of the use of substances as a coping technique will increase if the

substance is perceived to have a positive effect.

Quantitative Data Analysis: SPSS, Frequency Distributions, Pearson’s r, ANOVA

(E)Moderator Variable:

Expectation of Substance Impact

(A)Independent Variable:

Perceived Stress

Data Presentation:Tables, Bar Charts, Histograms, and Frequency Distribution Graphs.

Stress and Coping

Sample

The sample was taken from the population of students at the Mona

Campus of the University of the West Indies. The stated hypotheses were

looked at by gender, faculty, and residential status, using the respective

ratios for each category. The anticipated strength of the association is a

correlational coefficient (r = .35) with 90% power, (alpha = .05). To

demonstrate statistical significance amongst the identified subgroups a

minimum sample size of 240 respondents was required. 40 extra

respondents were included to allow for discards. The sample size

calculating software SamplePower v.2.0 was used (developed by SPSS

inc., Chicago, IL, USA). Stratified Random sampling was used to

administer the instrument. Table 3.1 shows the distribution of the sample

according to the stated categories.

Table 3.1 Sample Distribution

Humanities &

educationLaw

Medical

sciences

Pure &

applied

Social

sciences

Gender M F M F M F M F M F

On Campus 4 16 0 1 9 10 7 8 8 21

Off Campus 11 40 1 1 3 26 18 22 20 54

Gender

Total 15 56 1 2 12 36

25 30 28 75

Faculty Total 71 3 48 55 103

Total n = 280

37

Stress and Coping

Research Design

Survey methodology was used to collect the data on the association

between perceived stress and coping in the sample. It is a correlational study

which seeks to establish the association between the stated variables on the Mona

campus of the University of the West Indies. Additionally, the effect of a

moderator variable, expectation of substance impact will be analyzed. Baron and

Kenny (1986) describe a moderator variable as a qualitative (e.g. sex, race, class)

or quantitative … variable that affects the direction and/ or strength of a relation

between an independent or predictor variable and a dependent or criterion

variable… a basic moderator effect can be represented as an interaction between a

focal independent variable and a factor (the moderator) that specifies the

appropriate conditions for its operation…Moderator variables are typically

introduced when there is an unexpectedly weak or inconsistent relationship

between a predictor and a criterion (cited in Holmbeck, 1997). The moderator’s

effect was examined by including an item on the questionnaire which determines

the expectations respondents have of various substances.

Instrumentation

The questionnaire is a 30 item instrument consisting of a

demographic section, two pre-constructed scales, and items constructed by the

researcher. The perceived stress scale constructed by, Cohen, Kamarck, and

Mermelstein (1983) consists of 10 items. Internal reliability of r = .86 was

achieved on a sample of University of Oregon students. Test-re-test reliability for

this scale was also found to be r = .85 (Cohen, Kamarck & Mermelstein, 1983).

38

Stress and Coping

The psychometric properties of the 14-item PSS were determined from data

collected from three samples, two groups of college students, and one group of

respondents in a community smoking-cessation program. Coefficient alpha

reliability for the PSS was .84, .85, and .86 in each of the three samples.

Therefore it may be said that the PSS has a reasonably high level of internal

reliability. According to George and Mallory (2003) Cronbach’s alpha may be

interpreted as follows “alpha > .90 – excellent; alpha > .80 – good; alpha > .70 –

acceptable; alpha > .60 – questionable; alpha > .50 – poor; alpha < .50

unacceptable”.

The shortened COPE was adapted from Charles Carver’s Brief COPE

(1997) for use in this study. The Brief COPE includes 28 items, which measure

“14 conceptually differentiable coping reactions” (Carver, 1997). However, after

receiving feedback from respondents in the piloting of the Stress and Coping Style

Questionnaire the researcher shortened the Brief COPE and included only one of

the two items on each of the fourteen scales. Exception was made for the scale

related to substance use to allow for scale analysis with the perceived stress scale

score. As a result, reliability can only be calculated for the Substance Use scale

of the Brief COPE. Reliability for this scale is alpha = 0.882, which is good

reliability.

The instrument, which is a compilation of the two previously mentioned

scales, demographic items and the 6 items constructed by the researcher was

piloted at the University of the West Indies engaging 28 students (10 % of the

sample size). This led to the adaptation of the instrument. As mentioned the Brief

39

Stress and Coping

COPE was shortened to allow for faster completion of the instrument. A copy of

the instrument is provided in Appendix A.

Procedures for Collecting Data

Lecturers of core courses in each faculty were asked to allow the

researcher to address students after class was dismissed to solicit their

participation. Students who were willing to participate completed the

instrument in approximately 10 minutes. The places, courses and dates on

which data were collected are presented in Table 2.2 Sample Selection.

The questionnaire was distributed by the researcher to all students in the

class who were willing to participate and collected as persons indicated

that they were finished.

Table 3.2 Sample Selection

Faculty Course/ LocationNumber of

students

Humanities & Education

PH10A Introduction to Logic

36

PH10B Ethics and Applied Ethics

35

Law Outside the Faculty of Law main entrance

3

Pure & Applied Sciences

M08B Pre-Calculus 55

Social Sciences

EC 16A Introductory Statistics

46

GT23F Issues in Contemporary Politics

37

SW 24D Drug and Society

20

Medical Sciences Medical Library

48

Total 280

40

Stress and Coping

Data Analysis

Descriptive statistics were computed for all variables of interest and

reported. Tests that were run are Chi-Square test of independence; Spearman’s

correlation was conducted to analyze the association between perceived stress and

coping style. Cronbach’s alpha was used to analyze the reliability of the

Perceived Stress Scale on the Stress and Coping Style Questionnaire. Analysis of

Variance (ANOVA) was used to determine whether a significant difference exists

between students enrolled in the various faculties. ANOVA was also used to

determine the difference between groups of persons expecting no effect from the

use of CCAs, beneficial effect, harmful effect, and mixed effects in actual

reporting of CCA use as a coping mechanism.

41

Stress and Coping

Chapter 4 - Results

The findings of this study are indicative of patterns and trends among

students of the Mona campus of the University of the West Indies. 268 was the

final number of respondents included in the study after removing incomplete

questionnaires. The sample distribution by gender was not identical to the

stratification in the population. On the Mona campus, 71% of students are female

and 29% are male. In the sample, 69.8% of respondents were female and 30.2%

were male. There was a .8% difference from what was suggested by the

population. Overall, the sample was representative of the UWI Mona population

as it relates to gender. The breakdown is depicted in Figure 4.1.

42

Stress and Coping

Figure 4.1 Gender Distribution

Stratified random sampling methodology was used to ensure that the

sample distribution represented the population of the University of the West

Indies Mona campus according to Faculty. As a result, the actual sample

distribution is representative of the enrollment levels across Faculties on the

campus. The distribution in the sample according to Faculty is represented in

Figure 4.2.

Male - 30.2%

Female - 69.8%

43

Stress and Coping

Figure 4.2 Sample Distribution by Faculty

Respondents were asked to provide the researcher with their age range.

Most of the respondents, 53.7%, fell between 18 and 21 years. One subject

reported being under 18 and 11.2% of respondents were above age 30. The age

distribution in the sample is not representative of the University’s population as

only 50% of undergraduate students on the Mona Campus are under 25 years of

Humanities & Education

Law Medical Sciences

Pure & Applied Sciences

Social Sciences

Faculty

0 %

10 %

20%

30%

40%

Percent

44

Stress and Coping

age. Over 80% of the respondents in the sample were below 25 years. Age

distribution of the respondents is illustrated in Table 4.1.

Table 4.1 Age Range

Age range Frequency Percent

Under 18 1 .4

18-21 144 53.7

22-25 75 28.0

26-29 18 6.7

30 & up 30 11.2

Total 268 100.0 ________________________________________________

Of the 268 respondents, 85.4% had full-time enrollment status, with the remaining

14.6% being part-time students. As it relates to residency status, 77.2% of

participants resided on-campus and the remaining 22.8% resided off-campus.

Approximately 30% of respondents were affiliated with Taylor Hall, 17.9% with

Preston Hall, 17.2% with Rex Nettleford Hall, 15.7% with Irvine Hall, 8.6% with

Mary Seacole Hall, and 6.3% with Chancellor Hall. Ten respondents did not

provide information on their Hall of attachment.

Persons describing themselves as Black constituted the greater portion of the

sample totaling 84.7% of respondents. Three percent of respondents were of

Indian descent. Respondents of mixed descent accounted for 11.9% of the

sample. One participant was of Caucasian descent. Jamaicans made up 92.5% of

the sample. The second largest group consisted of Trinidadians with 1.9%. Other

45

Stress and Coping

countries represented were Antigua, Bahamas, Barbados, Belize, British Virgin

Islands, Guyana, Monsterrat, St.Lucia, St. Vincent, and the United Kingdom.

Perceived Stress Levels Among Respondents

The Perceived Stress Scale of the Stress and Coping Style Questionnaire

measures the level of stress individuals perceive themselves as experiencing over

the past 30 days. The lowest possible score on the scale is 0 and the highest

possible score is 40. The closer an individual’s score is to 40, the higher their

level of perceived stress. The opposite also holds true, that is, the closer the score

is to 0, the lower is the individual’s level of perceived stress. The median point,

20, can be interpreted as showing that the individual is experiencing moderate

levels of stress. The five point Likert-type scale was used to calculate

respondents’ scores. PSS scores were derived by summing the responses to the

ten items on the scale.

The distribution of scores on the PSS among the entire sample fell along

the normal curve, with a mean PSS score of 20.9 and standard deviation of 6.42.

This sample mean is comparable to that of the normative sample of 332 students

from the University of Oregon whose average PSS Score was 23.18. There were

a few outliers in the present sample. Nevertheless, most scores clustered around

the mean. The normal distribution of the PSS score indicates that the

respondents in the sample were reporting moderate levels of stress. According to

George and Mallory (2003), good reliability is alpha > .80. By these standards,

internal reliability for the Perceived Stress Scale was good as evidenced by

46

0 10 20 30 40

Perceived Stress Score

0

10

20

30

40

50

Frequency

Mean = 20.9

Std. Dev. = 6.418

N = 268

Stress and Coping

Cronbach’s alpha = 0.849. The distribution of the PSS in the sample is

highlighted in Figure 4.3.

Perceived Stress Score

% of Subjects

Figure 4.3 Perceived Stress Frequency Distribution

Perceived Stress and Gender.

Respondents reported that School Related stress was the most difficult

type of stress for them to cope with. This pattern was noted among both males

and females. However, females also reported more than one as being most

difficult. This is reflected in Table 4.2. In addition, females were twice as likely

as males to report relationship related stress as the most difficult for them to cope

with. The distribution of types of stress and how difficult each type is perceived,

according to gender, is outlined in Table 4.2.

Table 4.2 Stress Category Distribution by Gender

Gender School related stress Relationship related Home related

47

0 2 4 6Substance Use Coping Scale Score

Figure 4.4 Substance Use Coping Frequency

0

50

100

150

200

250

Frequency

Mean = 0.31

Std. Dev. = 0.989

N = 268

Stress and Coping

stress stress

Males 67.5% 15.0% 17.5%

Females 72.7% 30.5% 25.1%

Objective1. Frequency of Substance Use as a Coping Mechanism

One of the objectives of this study was to provide data on the frequency of

the use of substances as a coping mechanism for stress among students of the

University of the West Indies, Mona campus. The two item subscale related to

substance use coping was used to calculate substance use coping scores. On this

scale, 11.2% of respondents reported that they used alcohol, cigarettes or cannabis

to make themselves feel better when experiencing stress. This is reflected in

Figure 4.4.

No. of subjects

Substance Use Coping and Gender, Residential Status and Faculty.

Substance Use Coping Scale Scores indicate that there was no significant

difference in substance use coping behaviours between males and females. This

was demonstrated by the Chi-square test of significance, .273. Table 4.3

demonstrates the scores obtained by males and females in the study. There was

48

Stress and Coping

also no statistically significant difference between substance use coping scores by

residential status or faculty.

Table 4.3 Distribution of Substance Use Coping Scores by Gender

Gender Substance use coping scale scores

0 1 2 3 4 5 6

Males 84.0% 4.9% 8.6% 1.2% 0% 0% 1.2%

Females 89.8%

.5% 5.3% 2.1% 0% .5% 1.6%

Hypothesis One

The first hypothesis of this study is that there will be a positive

relationship between the level of perceived stress and the use of substances as a

coping mechanism. In other words, as the level of perceived stress increases, so

should the use of substances as a coping mechanism. Calculation of Pearson’s r

coefficient indicated a positive correlation between levels of perceived stress and

substance use coping, r = 0.191; alpha=.01. However, the correlation is not

statistically significant. Furthermore, the relationship between the two variables

may be better described as curvilinear. This is depicted in Figure 4.5.

49

Stress and Coping

0 1 2 3 5 6

Substance Use Coping Scale

20

25

30

35

Mea

n P

erce

ived

Str

ess

Sco

re

Figure 4.5 Relationship between Perceived Stress and Substance Use Coping

Given this curvilinear nature of the association between the two variables, the null

hypothesis that there will be no positive relationship between levels of perceived

stress and substance use coping must be accepted.

Objective 2. The Substance Most Frequently Used as Coping Mechanism

Among respondents reporting the use of substances as a coping

mechanism, the majority reported alcohol as their drug of choice. The second

most frequently used substance was cannabis, followed by alcohol. Some

respondents reported that they did not use substances as a coping mechanism, but

50

Stress and Coping

went on to endorse alcohol as the substance they would use when feeling stressed.

This pattern led to higher frequencies being reported for the use of alcohol as a

coping mechanism for stress than those reported on the substance use coping

scale. This latter scale had combined the three substances (CCA) on the two

items. Table 4.4 depicts the frequency of the use of alcohol, cannabis, and

cigarettes in the sample.

Table 4.4 Frequency of CCA Use

Substance Alcohol Cigarettes Cannabis

Percentage of

sample reporting

substance use

21.6% 4.5% 4.1%

Objective3. Coping Styles Most Frequently Used by Students

The third objective of this research was to discover the coping style most

frequently used by students at the Mona Campus. The results indicate that

“planning” as titled by Cohen (1995) on the Brief COPE was the most frequently

used coping style with 38.1% of respondents reporting that they were “coming up

with a strategy about what to do” a lot of the time. The related concept of “active

coping”, also outlined by Cohen (1995) was the second most frequently used

coping mechanism, with 31.3% of students endorsing it as their most frequently

used approach to coping with stress. It must also be noted that there were no

statistically significant gender differences in the use of planning and active

51

Stress and Coping

coping. The least frequently used coping mechanism used by students was denial

with 3.9% of students reporting that they “have been saying this isn’t real” a lot of

the time.

Objective 4. Analysis of the Impact of Expectation of Substance Effect on the

Relationship between Level of Perceived Stress and Substance Use Coping

The fourth and final objective of this study was to analyze the

impact of expectations of the substances’ effect as a mediating factor between the

level of perceived stress and the use of substances as a coping mechanism.

Students’ expectations of the effect of the use of CCAs was linked to a

statistically significant amount of the variation in the level of substance use as a

coping mechanism, F (5, 262) = 6.688, p<0.001). Respondents expecting

substances to have harmful effects on them reported significantly lower use of

substances as a coping mechanism than those expecting the use of CCAs to have

either a beneficial or a mixed effect. Those expecting beneficial effects reported

significantly higher levels of substance use as a coping mechanism than those

with mixed expectations. The difference in the expectations of the use of

substances as a coping mechanism was greatest between those who expected

CCAs to have a harmful effect and those who expected CCAs to have beneficial

effects, with the former group having a statistically significantly higher score on

the substance use as a coping scale than the latter group. Figure 4.7 depicts the

distribution of mean substance use scores among the four groups.

HarmfulHarmful

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Stress and Coping

Figure 4.6 Means Plot of Expectation of Substance Use and Substance

Use Coping Mean Scores

Hypothesis 2.

The statistically significant differences between the means of substance

use coping scale scores of respondents with different expectations of substances’

effect indicates a statistically significant relationship between those two variables.

Accordingly, the second hypothesis of this study that the likelihood of the use of

substances as a coping technique will increase if the substances are considered to

have positive effects was supported by this finding. The statistically significant

None Beneficial Harmful Mixed (Beneficial & Harmful)

What effect would you expect the use of CCA to have on you?

0

0.2

0.4

0.6

0.8

1

Mean of substanceuse

Mean Sub.Use ScaleScore

53

Stress and Coping

relationship between the variables indicates that the null hypothesis must be

rejected.

Students’ Perceptions of Substances

Responses to the item enquiring about which substances are considered

addictive indicate that 33.7% of respondents are of the opinion that heroine is not

an addictive substance. Findings further indicate that 19.8% of respondents

reported that they did not consider crack/cocaine to be an addictive substance.

Approximately 70% of the respondents indicated that they think cigarettes are

addictive. As it relates to cannabis and alcohol, 67.5% of respondents and 71.6%

of respondents respectively indicated that these substances were addictive.

54

Stress and Coping

Chapter 5 - Discussion

The findings of the study indicate that there is an association between

perceived stress and coping, though it is a weak one. The findings also

demonstrate that there is a statistically significant relationship between the

expectation of the substance’s effect and the actual use of the substance as a

coping mechanism for stress which finds support in O’Hare and Sherrer’s study

(1997). These findings and other patterns identified in the data along with the

implications of these findings will be discussed in this section. Additionally,

limitations, recommendations, and suggestions for future research arising from

the findings will also be presented.

Objective1. Frequency of Substance Use as a Coping Mechanism

The first objective of this study was to provide data on the frequency of

the use of substances as a coping mechanism among UWI Mona students. As

reported, 11.2% of respondents reported that they engaged in the use of alcohol,

cigarettes or cannabis in efforts to cope with their experiences of stress. It is

significant to note that almost 90% of the respondents indicated that they did not

engage in the use of substances as a coping mechanism for stress. Findings

indicate that the levels of perceived stress among respondents were moderate,

with a mean stress score of 20.9. This indicates that students were reporting

levels of stress comparative to the students in the normative sample of University

of Oregon students. This may be construed as a positive indicator of the students’

emotional well-being as they were not reporting extreme levels of perceived

stress. It is arguable that the moderate levels of stress being experienced by

55

Stress and Coping

respondents accounted for the low use of substances as a coping mechanism.

However, that conclusion would be hasty since the relationship between

perceived stress and substance use coping was weak, r=0.191.

The hypothesis that higher levels of perceived stress would be associated

with higher levels of substance use as a coping mechanism was supported by the

data, though moderately so. There was an association between the two variables

which was weak, r = 0.191; alpha=.01. The curvilinear relationship was depicted

in Figure 4.5. Given that the relationship between the two variables was not

significant as stated in the hypothesis, the null hypothesis was accepted.

Objective 2. The Substance Most Frequently Used as a Coping Mechanism

The second objective of the study was to establish the drug of choice for

students at the Mona campus of the University of the West Indies when they are

feeling stressed. As the results indicate, alcohol was the drug of choice among

respondents, with 21.6% of participants reporting use when feeling stressed.

Cigarettes were the second most prevalent, followed by cannabis, with 4.5% and

4.1% respectively reporting use of these substances. This finding is supported by

the extant literature which indicates that alcohol is a prevalent drug of choice on

university and college campuses in the United States (Baer et.al, 2001). The lack

of literature available for Jamaican universities and colleges makes comparison

impossible. However, prevalence data for the nation indicates that alcohol is the

most frequently used substance among youths between the ages of 15 to 17

(WHO).

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Stress and Coping

The prevalence of the use of alcohol as a coping mechanism among

respondents bears significance for students at the University of the West Indies

since the use of alcohol as a tension reducer has been found to lead to problematic

drinking (O’Hare & Sherrer, 1997). Problematic drinking was outlined as any

consumption of alcohol associated with legal problems or disruptive behaviours.

Further research on the Mona campus can elucidate whether problem drinking is a

cause for concern in this setting and if so, it can set the stage for the necessary

education programmes warranted to address the situation. This has been the

approach in other universities where problem drinking has been identified as

disrupting student and campus life (Lang & Marlatt, 1982, as cited in Taylor,

2003).

Regarding the prevalence of cannabis use among the respondents, the

stated projection of 15% of the sample was not met. Rather, 4.1% of respondents

reported using cannabis as a coping mechanism. This rate appears to be lower

than prevalence data for the Jamaican population. It is possible that this low

rating was due to the effect respondents expected substances inclusive of cannabis

to have on them. Most respondents expected the use of CCAs to have a harmful

effect upon them. The ANOVA indicates that respondents’ expectations were

significantly related to the use of CCAs as a coping mechanism and accounted for

much of the variance in use. Low rates of cigarette use in coping were also

reported among the respondents (4.5%). This is also lower than prevalence rates

for Jamaica.

57

Stress and Coping

Objective3. Coping Styles Most Frequently Used by Students

The coping style reported as the most frequently used by students in

dealing with their levels of perceived stress was planning, with 38.1% of

participants endorsing this option. Active coping was the second most frequently

used coping style with 31.3% of respondents indicating that choice. It is apparent

that solution-focused coping is the dominant approach among students in the

sample. According to Gan, Shang, and Zhang (2007) this is an adaptive approach

to coping for university students who are faced with the many challenges of

balancing academic work with other aspects of life. This finding is potentially a

positive indicator for the psychological well-being of students at the Mona

campus of the University of the West Indies.

Consideration must be given to the fact that the study employed self-report

measures. Moreover, the data collection was done in the school environment. It

is not far-fetched to propose that social psychological factors may have impacted

students’ responses to items on the questionnaire. It would be an interesting

endeavor to administer perceived stress and coping instruments in different

settings and compare the results. This would be one way of assessing whether

Sasaki and Yamasaki’s (2007) concept of situational coping was being

represented in the present study. It is possible that the high reporting of planning

and active coping as approaches to dealing with stress was influenced by the

situation in which the research was conducted. This could have been the case as

students may have been reflecting primarily on the coping mechanisms they

engage in as it relates to school related stress. The finding that most participants

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Stress and Coping

reported that school related stress was the most difficult type of stress to deal with

may be an indication that respondents’ attentions were grounded in their setting

while completing the instruments. However, this is an assumption which can

serve to inform future research into the area of situational and dispositional

coping as outlined by Sasaki and Yamasaki (2007).

Gender and Coping.

It is also of interest to note that there were no statistically significant

gender differences in coping styles identified in this study. However, there were

statistically significant differences in the perceptions of stressful experiences

among male and female respondents. Males were two times less likely than

females to report that relationship related stress was the most difficult for them.

On the other hand, males and females both reported that school related stress was

the most difficult type of stress for them to cope with.

Objective 4. Analysis of the Impact of Expectation of Substance Effect on the

Relationship between Level of Perceived Stress and Substance Use Coping

As previously mentioned, the ANOVA indicates statistically significant

differences between students’ substance use behaviour as a function of their

expectations of the substances’ impact. Whether this mediates the relationship

between level of perceived stress and substance use as a coping mechanism has

not been clearly established. Limitations related to the type of measurement

employed in the examination of substance effects restricted the possibilities for

statistical analysis. Although a relationship exists between expectations and

59

Stress and Coping

substance use coping scores, it cannot be stated conclusively that this relationship

impacted upon the association between substance use coping and perceived stress.

Limitations

One of the major weaknesses of this study was how the Brief COPE was

administered. Prior to the pilot study, the scale was abbreviated and one item

from each of the two-item scales of the Brief COPE was omitted. This made the

data limited in the statistical analysis which could be applied to it such as the

exclusion of regression analyses from the study. The original two-item scales

would have allowed for greater statistical analysis of each coping style.

Comparisons between coping styles and correlations between each coping style

and the Perceived Stress Scale were rendered impossible by the alteration. This

challenge could have been circumvented by removing sub-scales which were not

of immediate importance to the current research.

The other major weakness of this study is also related to measurement.

The researcher developed an item to assess respondents’ expectations of the

effects of cannabis, alcohol and cigarette use. However, the item was structured

in a manner which clustered all three substances together and did not allow for

two important things. First, the item failed to allow respondents to rate the effects

of each substance independently. Secondly, the item did not allow respondents to

indicate the extent to which each substance could have a positive, negative, or

mixed effect. For example, it would have been useful to know whether

respondents rated cannabis as having more or less calming effects than alcohol or

60

Stress and Coping

cigarettes. This type of rating scale can be developed using a five point likert-

type scale for each substance.

Recommendations

Findings of this study indicate that students of the Mona campus of the

UWI are experiencing moderate levels of stress comparable to the normative

sample of 332 students at the University of Oregon. However, universities around

the world are investing in their student body by developing programmes targeted

at educating them about stress reduction (Taylor, 2003). As such, it is the

recommendation of this researcher that the University of the West Indies

administrators and leaders give thought to the establishment of health awareness

courses. This would be to the benefit of students, particularly freshmen making

the transition into university life. Studies have shown that freshmen benefit from

programmes geared towards preparing them to handle the challenges of academia

(Gan, Shang, & Zhang, 2007).

Another recommendation arising from the study is the need for more

substance abuse awareness among students of the University of the West Indies.

Respondents indicated some misinformation concerning the chemically addictive

nature of some substances including heroine and crack/cocaine. Approximately

33% and 20% of respondents identified heroine and crack/cocaine respectively as

not being addictive substances. This demonstrates a lack of knowledge among

students or it could demonstrate a defiance of established facts. Nevertheless, the

recommendation of this researcher is to develop additional substance awareness

61

Stress and Coping

programmes to educate students about the properties of hard drugs such as

heroine and crack/cocaine.

Suggestions for Future Research

As it relates to future research in this field, it would be of interest to

discover whether Jamaicans and Caribbean people have different approaches to

coping. One particular aspect of interest would be to determine in what domains

the people of this region are more likely to engage in situational versus

dispositional coping. Also, it would be useful to examine which conditions are

more likely to elicit maladaptive and adaptive coping approaches. Furthermore, it

would be helpful to determine whether approaches labeled as maladaptive and

adaptive are perceived in the same way and produce the same results as their use

in other societies.

Conclusion

The measure of perceived stress reflected a normal distribution among

respondents in this study. The most dominant coping mechanism reported was

planning. Some might argue that these are positive indicators of the

psychological well-being of the respondents. Furthermore, actual substance use

coping behaviours were far less than what was projected based on international

trends. Compared to the prevalence data for Jamaica, this study shows

significantly lower use of cannabis and cigarettes. The hypothesis that perceived

stress and substance use coping would be positively related was moderately

supported. The secondary hypothesis which postulated that the relationship

between perceived stress and substance use coping would be mediated by

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Stress and Coping

expectations was not adequately explored. However, there is reliable evidence

that expectations of substance impact accounted for much of the variance in

substance use coping scores. This finding is significant as it could indicate that

expectations mediate the relationship between the independent and dependent

variables. However, this cannot be stated conclusively from the data gathered in

this study.

One of the most important findings of this study is the low prevalence of

substance use as a coping mechanism among students of the Mona Campus of the

University of the West Indies. The high use of planning and active coping

strategies potentially make a case for assessing the student body as having at least

one indicator of positive psychological functioning. Further research is necessary

to examine the nature of the use of alcohol among UWI Mona students to

determine whether the substance is being misused. The findings of this research

indicate that students are making decisions based on their assumptions about

substances.

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Stress and Coping

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Appendix AThis is a survey of your style of coping with stress. Your most accurate response is greatly appreciated. Thank you for your participation. Please place a tick in the appropriate box.

A. Age Range: Under 18 18 – 21 22 – 25 26- 29

30 & up

B. Sex:Male Female

C. Faculty: Law Medical Sciences Social Sciences

Pure & Applied Sciences Humanities & Education

D. Major: ___________________________________

E. Degree: Bachelor’s Master’s Doctoral

Diploma/ Other (Specify)______________

F. Status: Full-Time Part-Time

G. Reside:On-Campus Off-Campus

H. Hall of Attachment: Aston Preston Chancellor Irvine

Mary Seacole Rex Nettleford Taylor

I. Relationship Status: Single Committed Recently Separated

Widowed

J. Number of Children: None 1 – 2 3 - 4 5 or more

K. Race/ Ethnicity: Black Caucasian/ Caucasian Descent Chinese/ Chinese Descent Indian/

Indian Descent Mixed (Specify)______________

Other (Specify) _______________________________________

L. Nationality: Jamaican Other (Specify) ____________________

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The next section asks you about your feelings and thoughts during the last month.  In

each case, please indicate with a check how often you felt or thought a certain way.

Never AlmostNever

SometimesFairly Often

VeryOften

1. In the last month, how often have you been upset because of something that happened unexpectedly?

2. In the last month, how often have you felt that you were unable to control the important things in your life?

3. In the last month, how often have you felt nervous and "stressed"?

4. In the last month, how often have you felt confident about your ability to handle your personal problems?

5. In the last month, how often have you felt that things were going your way?

6. In the last month, how often have you found that you could not cope with all the things that you had to do?

7. In the last month, how often have you been able to control irritations in your life?

8. In the last month, how often have you felt that you were on top of things?

9. . In the last month, how often have you been angered because of things that were outside of your control?

10. In the last month, how often have you felt difficulties were piling up so high that you could not overcome them?

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Stress and Coping

These items deal with ways you've been coping with the stress in your life in the past 30

days. Each item describes a particular way of coping.  I want to know to what extent

you've been doing what the item says - how much or how frequently.  Don't answer on

the basis of whether it seems to be working or not—just whether or not you're doing it. 

Try to rate each item separately in your mind from the others.  Make your answers as true

FOR YOU as you can.

Please place a tick in the box with the response that best describes you.

Your way of copingI haven't been doing this at all

I've been doing this a little bit

I've been doing this a medium amount

I've been doing this a lot

11. I've been saying to myself “this isn't real”.

12. I've been using alcohol, ganja, cigarettes or other drugs to make myself feel better.

13. I've been getting emotional support like comfort and understanding from others.

14. I've been giving up trying to deal with it.

15. I've been taking action to try to make the situation better.

16. I've been saying things to let my unpleasant feelings escape.

17. I’ve been getting help and advice from other people.

18. I've been using alcohol, ganja, cigarettes or other drugs to help me get through it.

19. I've been trying to see it in a different light, to make it seem more positive.

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Stress and Coping

Your way of copingI haven't been doing this at all

I've been doing this a little bit

I've been doing this a medium amount

I've been doing this a lot

20. I've been trying to come up with a strategy about what to do.

21. I've been doing something to think about it less, such as going to movies,  watching TV, reading, daydreaming, sleeping, or shopping.

22. I've been trying to find comfort in my religion or spiritual beliefs. (Prayer/

23. I've been learning to live with the stressors.

24. I’ve been blaming myself for things that happened.

25. I've been making fun/ jokes about the situation.

26. Which type of stress is the most ___ School Related (e.g. papers,

difficult for you to deal with: exams, registration, etc.)

___ Relationship Related (e.g. break

up, argument, etc.)

___ Home Related (e.g. parents argue,

family dispute, etc.)

___ Other (Specify)_______________

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27. For which type of stress are you ___ School Related (e.g. papers,

most likely to drink alcohol, smoke exams, registration, etc.)

a cigarette, or use ganja (seasoned ___ Relationship Related (e.g. break

spliff, chillum pipe, etc.) to cope? up, argument, etc.)

___ Home Related (e.g. parents argue,

family dispute, etc.)

___ Other (Specify)_______________

___ None

28. Which of the following substances ___ Alcohol ___ Cigarette

are you most likely to use when ___ Ganja ___ None

feeling stressed: ___ Other (Specify) ______________

29. Which of the following ___ Crack/ Cocaine ___ Alcohol

substances are drugs that ___ Ganja ___ Cigarettes

people can be addicted to? ___ Heroine ___ Ecstasy

30. If you were to use alcohol, ___Reduce Tension ___Enhance Sexual Performance

cigarettes, or ganja, which ___Improve Health ___Increase Concentration

of these effects would you ___Reduce Nervousness ___Damage Brain Cells

expect it to have on you? ___None ___Damage Other Organs

Thank You!

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Stress and Coping

Appendix B

Informed Consent Stress and Coping Among Students of the

University of the West Indies, Mona Campus

You are being asked to participate in a research study. Before you give your consent to volunteer, it is important that you read the following information and ask as many questions as necessary to be sure you understand what you will be asked to do.

Investigators

Principal Investigator: Karen Carpenter, PhD, Department of Language, Linguistics, and

Philosophy University of the West Indies, Mona Campus. karen.carpenter@uwimona.edu.jm

Co-Investigator: Shelly-Ann James, M.Sc. Clinical Psychology (Candidate), Department of Sociology, Psychology and Social Work, UWI,

Mona. Email: blestshelly@hotmail.com Telephone: (876) 881-4853.

Purpose of the ResearchThis research study is designed to measure the level of stress being experienced by students on the Mona Campus of the University of the West Indies and to ascertain the coping styles being employed by students.The results of this study will contribute to the research project as part of the requirements of the degree Master in Clinical Psychology. ProceduresIf you volunteer to participate in this study, you will be asked to complete a questionnaire during class time and submit it to the Co-Investigator. Your participation will take approximately 10 minutes. Potential Risks or DiscomfortsRisks associated with this study are minimal. Inconveniences have also been minimized. Risks and inconveniences to you may include:

1. Time taken from lecture2. Potential for unpleasant thoughts or feelings aroused by items on the

questionnaire

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Stress and Coping

If at any time you feel that participation in the study is too burdensome you are free to withdraw by discontinuing the questionnaire. Potential Benefits of the ResearchBy participating in this project you may be exposed to material which may assist you in thinking of different ways of coping with stress. This research may also benefit the student body as results will be submitted to the university’s Health Centre for consideration when planning Health Education Promotions.

Confidentiality and Data StorageYour identity will be protected as your name will not be taken by the researcher. A number will be assigned to all questionnaires and there will be no way of identifying you in the study. All questionnaires will be processed by number only and will be kept in private offices at all times. Only the Principal Investigator, Co-Investigator, and Statistician will have access to the questionnaires. They will be shredded after the University has collected the research paper.

Participation and WithdrawalYour participation in this research study is voluntary. As a participant you may refuse to participate at anytime. If you decide to participate, you are free to withdraw at anytime. To withdraw from the study you simply have to discontinue the questionnaire. Please destroy the questionnaire and throw it in the nearest bin. However, as the data is anonymous, please note that you will be unable to withdraw after you have submitted your questionnaire as there will be no way of determining which questionnaire was completed by you.

If You Need to Talk With SomeoneAs you complete this questionnaire, you may discover that you are uncomfortable with your approach to handling stress. If this applies to you, you may make contact with the Counselling Centre at the University’s Health Centre to make an appointment at Tel. 927-2520 or 970-1992, Monday – Friday, 8:30 am – 4:30 pm.

Questions about the ResearchIf you have any questions about the research, please speak with Shelly-Ann James, Co-Investigator: researchshelly@hotmail.com, (876) 886-5405; or Dr. Karen Carpenter, Principal Investigator, Dept. of Language, Linguistics, and Philosophy UWI Mona. If you have questions later, you may contact either of the above mentioned persons.

This project has been reviewed and approved by the Ethics Committee of the University Hospital of the West Indies/ University of the West Indies Faculty of Medical Sciences. If you believe there is any infringement upon your rights as a research participant, you may contact the Chair, Professor Archibald McDonald at (876) 927-2556.

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Stress and Coping

If you agree to participate a copy of this form will be given to you.

My signature below indicates that I have read and understood this document and that I agree to participate in this research study.

___________________________ ____________ __________________________________

Participant’s Name (Please Print) Date Participant’s Signature

___________________________ ____________ __________________________________

Co-Investigator’s Name Date Co-Investigator’s Signature

___________________________ _____________Signature of Witness Date

Please sign and tear off the section below this line and return to the co-investigator.---------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------My signature below indicates that I have read and understood this document and that I agree to participate in the research study Perceived Stress and Coping.

___________________________ ___________ _______________________Participant’s Name (Please Print) Date Participant’s Signature

___________________________ ___________ _______________________Co-Investigator’s Name Date Co-Investigator’s Signature

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