final gcr of unadkat

8/2/2019 Final GCR of Unadkat

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AUSTRALIAN COUNTRY OVERVIEW

OVERVIEWAustralia's status as an advanced market economy is reflected in its membership, since 1971, of

the Organization for Economic Cooperation and Development (OECD). It is the 13th largest

economy in the world by nominal GDP (the 18th largest when GDP is adjusted to take account

of purchasing power). In 2009, it was the world's 21st biggest exporter and 23rd biggest

importer. Per capita GDP is comparable with European economies such as the UK and

Germany.

The Australian economy is diversified, with the service sector (including tourism, education,

financial services and information and communications technology (ICT)) accounting for 68% of

GDP. Exports are dominated (57%) by minerals and agricultural products. Though these sectors

directly account for only 10% of GDP, strong growth in minerals exports, primarily to Asian

markets, has played a key role in Australias near two decades of continuous economic

expansion and in its weathering of the global financial crisis of 2008-09. Key agricultural

exports include coal, iron ore, gold, aluminum, liquefied natural gas (LNG) meat, wheat and

wool.

Australia navigated the global financial crisis in better shape than most other advanced

economies. Its economy proved resilient, thanks in part to fiscal and monetary stimulus

measures, the strength of the banking sector, and continued Chinese demand for Australian

minerals. Despite the worst global financial and economic crisis in 75 years, when most


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advanced economies contracted, the Australian economy not only continued to grow, but grew

steadily, with GDP growing by 2.7 per cent in 2009.

The OECD has reported that Australia is projected to experience strong growth in 2010 and

2011, driven by booming exports and domestic demands. It expects unemployment to fall below

5 per cent by the end of 2010, in a context of moderate inflation. The Australian government, in

its May 2010 budget, anticipated a return to surplus in 2012-13.

AUSTRALIAN COUNTRY OVERVIEW

Area: 7,682m sq km

Population: 21.75 million

Capital city: Canberra

People: 98% of the populations are of European or Asian descent

Languages: Mainly English with some other European, indigenous and Asian languages

Religion(s): Majority Christian with Buddhist, Jewish, Muslim and other minorities; in the 2006

Census, 18.7% of the population defined themselves as having no religion. Freedom of

religion is guaranteed by the constitution.

Currency: Australian Dollar (A$)

Major political parties: The main national political parties are the Australian Labor Party

(ALP), Liberal Party, National Party, and the Australian Greens. The Liberal and National

Parties are in coalition at the national level, and in most states; in Queensland, they merged in


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1998 to form the Liberal National Party, while in the Northern Territory they merged in 1975 to

form the Country Liberal Party.

Government: The Australian Constitution of 1901 established a federal system of government.

Under this system, powers are distributed between a federal government (the Commonwealth)

and the six States. Two Territories - the Australian Capital Territory and the Northern Territory -

have more limited powers; there are also a number of offshore territories, of which the most

significant are Norfolk Island and the Australian Antarctic Territory. The Parliament is at the

heart of the Australian government. The Parliament consists of The Queen (represented by the

Governor-General) and two Houses: the Senate and the House of Representatives. Australia is

thus a constitutional monarchy, a federation and a parliamentary democracy.

Head of State: Her Majesty, Queen Elizabeth II

Governor-General: HE Ms Quentin Bryce AC became the 25th Governor General on 5 th

September 2008.

Prime Minister: The Hon Julia Gillard MP (Leader Australian Labor Party)

Foreign Minister: The Hon Kevin Rudd MP

Membership of international groups/organizations: The United Nations (UN), the

Commonwealth, the World Trade Organisation (WTO), the Asia Pacific Economic Co-operation

(APEC), Organisation for Economic Cooperation and Development (OECD), theASEAN

Regional Forum (ARF), East Asia Summit(EAS), United Nations Educational, Scientific and

Cultural Organisation (UNESCO), Pacific Islands Forum (PIF), the Group of 20 (G20), the

Major Economies Forum (MEF).


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HISTORY OF AUSTRALIA AS A NATION, A nation is bornThe Commonwealth of Australia was formed in 1901 through the federation of six states under a

single constitution. The non-Indigenous population at the time of Federation was 3.8 million,

while the estimated Indigenous population was around 93,000. Half of the people lived in cities,

three-quarters were born in Australia, and the majorities were of English, Scottish or Irish

descent.

The founders of the new nation believed they were creating something new and were concerned

to avoid the pitfalls of the old world. They wanted Australia to be harmonious, united and

egalitarian, and had progressive ideas about human rights, the observance of democratic

procedures and the value of a secret ballot.

One of the first acts of the new Commonwealth Parliament was to pass the Immigration

Restriction Act 1901, which limited migration to people of primarily European origin. This was

dismantled progressively after the Second World War. Today Australia has a global, non-

discriminatory policy and is home to people from more than 200 countries.

From 1900 to 1914 great progress was made in developing Australias agricultural and

manufacturing capacities, and in setting up institutions for government and social services.

In 1768 the British Admiralty instructed Captain James Cook to begin a search for the

'Great South Island' first reached by Dutch sailors in the early 17th century. The crew of The

Endeavour subsequently landed at Botany Bay in April 1770 and claimed the island for the

British. The government decided that, following the loss of Britains American colonies, Botany

Bay should become the new destination for British convicts under sentence of transportation. On


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26 January 1788 the First Fleet, sailing under the command of Captain Arthur Phillip, reached

Australia (26 January is celebrated annually as Australia Day). A penal colony was also

established in Van Diemens Land (later renamed Tasmania). In total more than 168,000

convicts were transported. But free settlers were also attracted to Australia by its agricultural

potential and, from the 1850s, the discovery of gold. Exploration and expansion followed and by

the 1890s, calls for the colonies of New South Wales, Western Australia, Tasmania and Victoria

to federate became increasingly strong. Australia became a nation on 1 January 1901.

COUNTRY DEVELOPMENT Indigenous programs: education, health and housing:

Over the past decade, the Australian Government has focused on achieving practical outcomes

for Indigenous Australians in the key areas of education, health and housing. The government

firmly believes that a practical focus on these areas is the best way of addressing the inequalities

faced by Aboriginal and Torres Strait Islander people.

Environmental challengesAustralia is the driest inhabited continent on earth, and this makes it particularly vulnerable to

the challenges of climate change. Since 2001, much of Australia has been in the grip of a severe

drought.

Climate change is likely to exacerbate Australias already variable environment, and presents a

major challenge to Australias fragile environment with likely impacts on its biodiversity. It


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poses a particular threat to specific areas such as Australias alpine regions, the Great Barrier

Reef, tropical rainforests, and coastal mangrove and wetland systems like Kakadu.

While rich in biodiversity, Australias soils and seas are among the most nutrient-poor and

unproductive in the world. Only around 6 per cent of the Australian landmass is considered

arableone of the lowest proportions of any country in the world. Large volumes of water are

required from both surface and groundwater supplies. Extraction from groundwater supplies for

dry-land agriculture has resulted in a rising water table and increased salinity.

Australian soils are highly dependent on vegetation cover to generate nutrients and provide

stability. Land clearing, water extraction and poor soil conservation are all causes of a decline in

the quality of Australias soils.

At least 18 introduced mammals have established feral populations in Australia, with cats and

foxes responsible for the decline and extinction of several native animals.

Introduced plants also cause substantial damage to native vegetation and habitats.

The pressure caused by human activity continues to take its toll on marine environments.

Pollution is the most serious problem, with most marine pollution caused by land-based activities

and processes, including soil erosion, fertiliser use, intensive animal production, sewage and

urban industrial discharges.


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Water for the FutureWater shortages are a serious threat to Australias economy and way of life. The Australian

Government is investing $12.9 billion in a 10-year national water plan, Water for the Future.

The plan provides a single, coherent, national framework that integrates rural and urban water

issues. It will help secure water supplies for Australian households, businesses and farmers, as

well as provide water to restore the health of Australias river system.

Water for the Future focuses on four priorities. The first is taking action on climate change

through emissions trading, supporting research, integrating adaptation responses into agricultural

policies and helping communities and householders install solar hot water systems and

photovoltaic systems.

The second priority is using water wisely. That includes investing in rural water projects that

help secure a long-term sustainable future for irrigation regions and returns water to the rivers,

encouraging the installation of rainwater tanks and grey-water piping in households and surf

lifesaving clubs across Australia and a program to encourage large commercial water users to

save money.

The third priority is to secure water supplies for households and businesses through measures

including investment in desalination, water recycling and major stormwater harvesting projects

and funding practical projects like pipelines, water saving infrastructure and water treatment

plants.


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Finally, Water for the Future aims to restore the health of Australias rivers by buying back

water entitlements from willing sellers, investing in projects to improve the efficiency and

productivity of water use and management and setting up new arrangements to plan for

sustainable water management in the Murray-Darling BasinAustralias food bowl.

Ancient heritage, modern society

Before the arrival of European settlers, Aboriginal and Torres Strait Islander peoples inhabited

most areas of the Australian continent. They spoke one or more of hundreds of separate

languages and dialects, and their lifestyles and cultural traditions differed from region to region.

Their complex social systems and highly developed traditions reflect a deep connection with the

land.

Asian and Oceanic mariners and traders were in contact with Indigenous Australians for many

centuries before the era of European expansion. Some formed substantial relationships with

communities in northern Australia.

A changing societyThe 1960s was a period of change for Australia. The ethnic diversity produced by post-war

immigration, the United Kingdoms increasing focus on Europe, and the Vietnam War (to which

Australia sent troops) all contributed to an atmosphere of political, economic and social change.

In 1967 the Australian people voted overwhelmingly in a national referendum to give the federal

government the power to pass legislation on behalf of Indigenous Australians and to include

Indigenous Australians in future censuses. The referendum result was the culmination of a strong


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campaign by both Indigenous and non-Indigenous Australians. It was widely seen as a strong

affirmation of the Australian peoples wish to see their government take direct action to improve

the living conditions of Aboriginal and Torres Strait Islander peoples.

The long post-war domination of national politics by the coalition of the Liberal and Country

(now National) parties ended in 1972, when the Australian Labor Party was elected. The next

three years saw major changes in Australias social and economic policy agenda and extensive

reforms in health, education, foreign affairs, social security and industrial relations. In 1975,

however, the Governor-General dismissed the Labor Government, sparking a constitutional

crisis. In the subsequent general election, the Labor Party suffered a major defeat and the

Liberal-National Coalition ruled until 1983.

The Hawke-Keating Labor governments were in office from 1983 till 1996. They introduced a

number of economic reforms, such as deregulating the banking system and floating the

Australian dollar. In 1996 a Coalition Government led by John Howard won the general election

and was re-elected in 1998, 2001 and 2004. The Liberal-National Coalition Government enacted

several reforms, including changes in the taxation and industrial relations systems. In 2007 Mr

Kevin Rudd led the Australian Labor Party to government with policies designed to build a

modern Australia equipped to meet the challenges of the future including tackling climate

change, reforming Australias health and hospital system, investing in education and skills

training and reforming Australia's workplace laws.


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TradeRich in natural resources, Australia has a largely affluent society and an open and innovative

economy, resulting in growing foreign investment over the past decade. Australia continues to be

a strong advocate of increased trade liberalisation in the World Trade Organisation and plays an

active role in global trade talks. Australias largest export market is China, followed by Japan,

India, the Republic of Korea, the United States, and the UK.

Science and InnovationAustralia has a strong S&I community. With only 0.3% of the worlds population it accounts for

2.9% of the worlds scientific publications and 2.5% of the global medical research. With one

third of all Australian scientific publications having at least one overseas co-author, Australia can

be classed as very outward looking. The USA is Australias largest scientific partner but it also

has strong scientific relationships with China and India (Source: DIISR).

Traditionally Australias research strengths have been in the areas of science best complementing

its natural resources and geographical endowments, for example: engineering/technology

sciences, agricultural and environmental sciences and the biological and earth sciences.

However Australia also has a solid presence in emerging fields such as photonics and

biotechnology.


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Exporting to AustraliaAs a global trader, Australia seeks to break down trade barriers by liberalising international trade

and investment rules. Australia supports foreign investment and promotes two-way trade

between countries.

Since the 1970s, Australia has progressively dismantled or cut many of its former protectionist

tariffs, introduced domestic competition laws, deregulated its financial markets and floated the

exchange rate. There are now substantially lower barriers to trade and investment with Australia.

Internationally, Australia is a strong supporter of the World Trade Organization, is an active

member of the AsiaPacific Economic Cooperation forum and chairs the Cairns Group of

agricultural exporting nations. Australia also pursues comprehensive bilateral free trade

agreements that are consistent with World Trade Organization rules.

INDUSTRIAL GROWTH OF COUNTRY The Australian wine industry

Australian wine has won an international reputation for quality and value. Australian wines have

taken key international awards, competing favourably against longer-established national wine

industries. Innovative Australian winemakers are sought internationally for their expertise.

Australia produces a full range of favoured wine styles, from full-bodied reds and deep, fruity

whites through to sparkling, dessert and fortified styles. Prized Australian bottlings grace the

menus of many of the worlds leading restaurants, while popular varietal and blended wines

compete on the shelves of wine shops and supermarkets in over 80 countries around the world.


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In global terms, Australia was ranked sixth in the list of world wine producers in 2005,

producing 1.4 billion litres of wine. Australia is consistently one of the top 10 wine-producing

countries in the world. Being such a large country with almost every climate and soil type,

Australia is one of the few wine producers to make every one of the major wine styles.

Regulation, structure and researchAustralia maintains national standards for wine that are administered by state and

territory governments. Federal regulations focus on quality control. The Australian federal

government assists the industry by improving the trade environment (redressing barriers to trade)

and by improving the domestic economic operating environment. Policy issues are the province

of the Australian Government Department of Agriculture, Fisheries and Forestry.

The Australian Wine and Brandy Corporation promotes and controls the export of wine and

brandy. The Grape and Wine Research and Development Corporation is the body responsible for

investing in grape and wine research and development, on behalf of the Australian wine industry

and the Australian community.

The peak industry body representing winemakers interests is the Winemakers Federation of

Australia. It develops policies and programs to increase net returns to Australian winemakers.The Wine Grape Growers of Australia is the peak industry body representing the interests of

grape growers.

The food industry today

Today the food industry is a vital component of the Australian economy. Food accounts for 46

per cent of all retailing turnover in Australia, with total food and liquor retail spending in 2006

07 rising to $106.6 billion, an 8 per cent increase from the previous year.


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The industry makes a significant contribution to the economies of regional areas through

employment, business and service opportunities. There were around 191 400 people employed in

food and beverage manufacturing in Australia in 200607.

Many new industries were established in the late 1980s and 1990s to take advantage of emerging

market opportunities. Crops in the fruit and vegetables industry such as Asian vegetables, nashi

pears, lychees, olives and herbs were introduced. New aquaculture activities, such as the farming

of Atlantic salmon and growing out of wild caught southern bluefin tuna, were established.

Recently domestic and international markets have recognised the food value of Australias

indigenous flora and fauna. Kangaroo and crocodile, for example, are now accepted meat

products. The bush foods industry has worked to integrate a wide range of native products into

the Australian food industry.

Processed food industryThe food processing industry in Australia covers a number of sectors:

Sector Turnover(200506, $millions)

Bakery products 4 005

Beverage and malt manufacturing 13 289

Dairy products 9 991


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Flour mill and cereal food manufacturing 3 692

Fruit and vegetable processing 4 672

Meat and meat products 17 836

Oil and fat manufacturing 1 547

Seafood processing 1 330

Sugar and confectionery manufacturing 6 456

Other food manufacturing 8 554

Total 71 372

The processed food and beverage industry is Australias largest manufacturing industry with a

turnover of more than $71.4 billion in 200506. Growth in the value of output has averaged

around 2 per cent a year over the past ten years.

The industry makes a significant contribution to rural and regional Australia, with over 40 per

cent of food processing employment occurring in non-metropolitan areas.

Australias 50 largest food and beverage corporations produce almost three-quarters of the

domestic industrys revenue. Supermarkets and grocery outlets continue to capture the majority

of food sales in Australia, with around 60 per cent of the value of total food and liquor retailing

in 200607.


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Food tradeAustralia has a worldwide reputation for producing superior quality, premium food. Australian

food producers are committed to providing the highest international standards of quality

management and food safety.

The value of Australian food exports declined by around 3 per cent in 200607 to $23.3 billion

compared with the previous year. Food exports reached a peak of $30.8 billion (200607 dollars)

in 200102 and have been declining since, largely due to drought and changes in import demand

from overseas markets.

Meat and grains have consistently been the two largest export categories, with meat accounting

for 30 per cent of the value of food exports in 200607 and grains nearly 15 per cent. Wine and

dairy exports have also grown significantly in recent years, with wine accounting for nearly 13

per cent of exports in 200607, and dairy nearly 10 per cent.

Australias major markets for exports are Japan and the United States, making up 20 per cent and

13 per cent respectively. Since 199091, there has also been an increased share of exports going

to Indonesia (from 2 per cent in 199091 to 7 per cent in 200607), the Republic of Korea (4 per

cent to 8 per cent), New Zealand and the United Kingdom (both 2 per cent to 5 per cent).

Australia has benefited from its capacity to supply high-quality food products to Pacific Rim

countries and to more distant markets such as Saudi Arabia and the United Arab Emirates.


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GEOGRAPHICAL STUDY Geography

Australia occupies the whole of the island continent of the same name and lies between the

Indian and Pacific Oceans. Although the country's land mass is half as big again as that of

Europe, most of Australia is empty. The population is predominantly concentrated in the south

eastern coastal cities of Sydney, Brisbane, Melbourne and Adelaide. The interior of the country -

the Outback - is comprised of sparsely populated semi-desert and tropical wetlands.

Climate changeThe Australian Government views climate change as the challenge of our generation. That is

why the first act of the new Government was to ratify the Kyoto Protocol. As with many other

countries, Australias economy and environment are highly susceptible to the impact of climate

change. Australia recognises its responsibility as a developed nation to play a leadership role

internationally in responding to this challenge.

Australias approach to climate change is based on three pillars reducing Australias

greenhouse gas emissions; adapting to the climate change that we cannot avoid; and helping to

shape a global solution.

Australia is moving to a new cleaner economy one that is sustainable, competitive, able to

withstand the challenges of climate change, and well-positioned to thrive within an increasingly

carbon-constrained world. The new Australian Government has ratified the Kyoto protocol and


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is committed to meeting Australias Kyoto target of limiting its greenhouse gas emissions to 108

per cent of 1990 emissions for the years 2008-2012.

Australia has also committed to reducing its emissions by 60 per cent of 2000 levels by the year

2050. To help achieve this target Australia is introducing a national emissions trading scheme in

2010 and will set a mid-term emission reduction goal. Additionally, the Australian Government

has set a Renewable Energy Target legislating a requirement for 20 per cent of Australias

electricity to come from renewable sources by 2020 and is partnering with Australian industry

to develop renewable energy and clean coal technologies through its clean energy plan.

Australia is working closely with the international community to help develop a future global

response to climate change through the United Nations Framework Convention on Climate

Change. In support of this work, Australia is engaging with the worlds major economies through

forums such as the Major Economies Meeting on Energy Security and Climate Change, the Asia

Pacific Partnership on Clean Development and Climate, and through a range of bilateral

partnerships.

Australia is providing practical support to developing countries to assist them in responding to

climate change. This includes work under the International Forest Carbon Initiative which aims

to demonstrate that reducing emissions from deforestation and forest degradation can be part of

an equitable and effective international agreement on climate change. Australia is committed to

working with its neighbours to adapt to climate change and is also helping develop low-emission

energy technologies, and sharing our technical expertise in the area of measuring and reporting

greenhouse emissions.


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Climate change is a global challenge that affects all nations. Australia is committed to playing an

active and constructive role in helping to shape a truly global solution.

The land and its people A diverse people

Australia is a society of people from a rich variety of cultural, ethnic, linguistic and religious

backgrounds. Aboriginal and Torres Strait Islander people have inhabited Australia for tens of

thousands of years. Most Australians are immigrants or the descendants of immigrants who

arrived during the past two centuries from more than 200 countries.

Cultural and linguistic diversity was a feature of Australian life before European settlement and

remains a defining feature of our modern society. Immigration began with European settlement

in 1788. It continued at a steady pace reaching 50 000 a year during the gold rush period of the

1850s until the population reached seven million in the 1940s. Most settlers were from a

British background. Since the Second World War the Australian Governments immigration

program has brought more than 6.6 million migrants to Australia, including more than 690 000

through refugee or humanitarian programs.

Australias immigration policy is global and does not discriminate on racial, cultural or religious

grounds. Each year, Australia welcomes more than 120 000 migrants and resettles around 13 000

people under its humanitarian program. In 2006-07, nearly 192 000 migrants permanently settled

in Australia and just over 14 000 were resettled under the humanitarian program.

Today, almost one in four of Australias estimated resident population of 21 million was born

overseas. The last 40 years have seen a significant shift in the source countries of people who


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choose to come here. In the 1960s, 45 per cent of all new settler arrivals were born in the United

Kingdom and Ireland. By 2006-07, this had fallen to 17 per cent with settlers and long-term

visitors increasing from countries in the Asia Pacific region, Africa and the Middle East. More

than 10 per cent of permanent migrants in 2006-07 came from China, and since 1995, more than

200 000 people have come from Africa and the Middle East.

Mainland Australia, with an area of 7.69 million square kilometres, is the Earths largest island

but smallest continent. It stretches about 3700 kilometres from north to south and 4000

kilometres from east to west.

In area, Australia is the 6th largest nation after Russia, Canada, China, the United States and

Brazil. It is about twice the size of the European Union or the ten nations that make up the

Association of Southeast Asian Nations (ASEAN). Its ocean territory the third largest in the

worldspans three oceans and covers around 12 million square kilometres.

Australias average elevation is only 330 metres, the lowest of all the continents. Its highest

point, Mount Kosciuszko, is only 2228 metres. The lack of height is more than compensated for

in landscape variety. The giant monolith Uluru (formerly known as Ayers Rock) in the Northern

Territory and the striking beehive mountains of Purnululu (the Bungle Bungles) in Western

Australia attract visitors from every corner of the world, as do the countrys beaches and

rainforests.


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LITERACY RATE IN AUSTRALIA: EducationThe Australian Government has committed to halving the gap in literacy and numeracy

outcomes between Indigenous and non- Indigenous Australians within a decade. Education and

training are essential to reduce Indigenous disadvantage.

The Australian Government is encouraging greater Indigenous participation and retention in all

levels of education, particularly preschool education. To close the gaps in education and training

access, attendance and educational outcomes, the government is working with Indigenous

families and communities. Practical targets measure the effectiveness of strategies and initiatives

to address Indigenous educational disadvantage.

Federal Indigenous education programs are designed to complement existing state and territory

programs and aim to improve Indigenous students access to and participation in the education

system. Their main elements are:

supplementary recurrent assistance payments to education and training providers for Indigenous

students on a per capita basis

a scheme that gives supplementary tuition to Indigenous students at crucial stages of their

schooling through in-class and after hours assistance

innovative projects that engage with Indigenous parents and communities to improve attendance,

literacy, numeracy and year 12 completion rates.

Although the Australian Government recognizes there is still a long way to go to increase the

education levels of Indigenous Australians, progress has been encouraging. Between 2001 and


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2006, Aboriginal and Torres Strait Islander school enrolments increased by 21.6 per cent. As a

proportion of the total school population, this represented an increase from 3.5 per cent in 2001

to 4.2 per cent in 2006.

Indigenous participation was highest for the primary student population during this period:

Indigenous students comprised 4.7 per cent of the primary student population, compared with 3.4

per cent of the secondary student population in 2006.

In 2006, the proportion of Indigenous Australians aged 15 years and over who had completed

their schooling at the end of year 12 was 23 per cent, compared with 20 per cent in 2001. The

proportion completing schooling at years 10/11 also increased43 per cent in 2006 compared

with 41 per cent in 2001. There was a commensurate reduction in the proportion completing

schooling at year 9 or below (from 39 per cent in 2001 to 34 per cent in 2006).

The number of Indigenous students participating in vocational education and training has grown

steadily in recent years, as indicated by the proportion of Indigenous people with a non-school

qualification. This increased from 20 per cent in 2001 to 26 per cent in 2006.

Indigenous students numbers in higher education remained steady in 2006, at about 7100. The

proportion of the Indigenous population with a bachelor degree or higher increased slightly from

4 per cent in 2001 to 5 per cent in 2006.


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MAJOR MULTI-ARTS AND CULTURE FESTIVAL:The major capital city festivals, listed in the order in which they are held during the year, are:

Sydney Festival

National Multicultural Festival

Perth International Arts Festival

Adelaide Festival of Arts

Ten Days on the Island

Brisbane Festival

Darwin Festival

Melbourne International Arts Festival

EMPLOYEE ABILITY RATE

Womentowards equalityWomen have made significant contributions to every aspect of Australias development,

including its society, culture and economy.

However, women in Australia, as in other countries, have had to battle institutional and social

barriers as they struggled for equality of opportunity.


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Australian women faced setbacks as well as tremendous victories along the road to equality. For

example, Australia was one of the first countries in the world to give women the right to vote and

to sit in parliament (in 1895 in the state of South Australia and in 1902 federally).

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