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Brief Contents

Part 1

Teaching and Learning in Today’s Classrooms 1 Chapter 1 The Scientific Basis for the Art of Teaching 2 Chapter 2 Student Learning in Diverse Classrooms 40

Part 2

The Leadership Aspects of Teaching 93 Chapter 3 Teacher Planning 94 Chapter 4 Learning Communities and Student Motivation 136 Chapter 5 Classroom Management 176 Chapter 6 Assessment and Evaluation 216

Part 3

Overview of More Teacher-Centered Transmission Approaches to Teaching 267 Chapter 7 Presenting and Explaining 270 Chapter 8 Direct Instruction 302

Part 4

Overview of Student-Centered Constructivist Approaches to Teaching 331 Chapter 9 Concept and Inquiry-Based Teaching 334 Chapter 10 Cooperative Learning 368 Chapter 11 Problem-Based Learning 404 Chapter 12 Classroom Discussion 436 Chapter 13 Using Multiple Approaches to Teaching

and Differentiation 470

Part 5

The Organizational Aspects of Teaching 497 Chapter 14 School Leadership and Collaboration 498

Resource Handbook 531 Glossary 544 References 554 Credits 575 Name Index 577 Subject Index 582

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vi

Contents

Preface xiii

Part 1

Teaching and Learning in Today’s Classrooms 1Chapter 1

The Scientific Basis for the Art of Teaching 2

Historical Perspective on Teaching 5

Role Expectations in Earlier Times 5Twentieth-Century Role Expectations 6Teaching Challenges for the Twenty-First

Century 7

A Perspective on Effective Teaching for the Twenty-First Century 19

The Ultimate Goal of Teaching 19A View of the Effective Teacher 20Personal Qualities for Developing Authentic

Relationships 20Democratic and Socially Just Classrooms 21Knowledge Base to Guide the Art of Practice 21Repertoire of Effective Practice 25Reflection and Problem Solving 29

Learning to Teach 30

Models of Teacher Development 30Early Influences on Teaching 32

Reflections from the Classroom 35

Summary 36

Key Terms 37

Interactive and Applied Learning 38

Portfolio and Field Experience Activities 38

Books for the Professional 39

Chapter 2

Student Learning in Diverse Classrooms 40

Perspective and Overview 42

Theoretical and Empirical Support 45

Lack of Equity 45Differential Treatment of Students 47Learning Abilities, Styles, and Preferences 50

Exceptionalities 55

Students with Disabilities 55Gifted and Talented Students 60

Culture, Ethnicity, and Race 65

Perspectives on Culture, Ethnicity, and Race 66Working with Students in Racially and Culturally

Diverse Classrooms 68

Religious Diversity 75

Language Diversity 76

Second-Language Acquisition 76Working with Language Diversity

in the Classroom 76Dialect Differences 78

Gender Differences 78

Nature of Gender Differences 78Origins of Gender Differences 79Stereotyping and Differential Treatment 79Working with Gender Differences

in the Classroom 82Sexual Identities, Expressions, and Orientations 82

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Contents vii

Social Class Differences and Poverty 83

Characteristics, Performance, and Differential Treatment of Low-SES Students 84

Working with Low-SES Students in the Classroom 85

Some Final Thoughts and Schoolwide Issues 86


Summary 88

Key Terms 91




Part 2

The Leadership Aspects of Teaching 93

Chapter 3

Teacher Planning 94Perspective on Planning 96

Planning—The Traditional View 97Planning—An Alternative Perspective 97Mental Planning 98


Planning Influences What Students Learn 99Planning and the Beginning Teacher 100

Planning Domains 103

Planning and the Instructional Cycle 103The Time Spans of Planning 104

The Specifics of Planning 105

Planning What to Teach 105Tools and Strategies for Curriculum Enactment 109Instructional Objectives 112Taxonomies for Selecting Instructional

Objectives 115Lesson Plans and Unit Plans 120

Diversity and Differentiation: Differentiation through Planning 125

Planning for Time and Space 126

Time Is of the Essence 127Space, a Critical Element 129Planning with Colleagues 129

A Final Thought about Planning 131


Summary 133

Key Terms 134




Chapter 4

Learning Communities and Student Motivation 136

Perspective on Classrooms as Learning Communities 140

Fusion of the Individual and the Group 140


Perspectives about Human Motivation 142Perspectives and Features of Learning

Communities 149Research on Motivation and Learning

Communities 155

Strategies for Motivating Students and Building Productive Learning Communities 160

Believe in Students’ Capabilities and Attend to Alterable Factors 160

Avoid Overemphasizing Extrinsic Motivation 160Create Learning Situations with Positive Feeling

Tones 161Build on Students’ Interests and Intrinsic Values 162Structure Learning to Accomplish Flow 162Use Knowledge of Results and Don’t Excuse

Failure 163Attend to Student Needs, Including the

Need for Self-Determination 164Attend to the Nature of Learning Goals

and Difficulty of Instructional Tasks 165 Diversity and Differentiation: Using Multidimensional Tasks 166Facilitate Group Development and Cohesion 167

Some Final Thoughts 169

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viii Contents


Summary 171

Key Terms 173




Chapter 5

Classroom Management 176

Perspective on Classroom Management 178


Behavioral Theory 180Classroom Ecology and Group Processes 181Effective Teaching Research 184Child-Centered Traditions 184

Strategies for Effective Classroom Management 185

Preventative Classroom Management 185Managing Everyday Misbehavior 194

Dealing with More Challenging Discipline Problems 199

Negative Antisocial Behaviors 199Special Challenges Presented by Secondary

Students 199Working with Students who have Special

Needs 201The Challenges of Bullying 202

Classroom Management Programs 204

Traditional Programs Based on Behavioral Theory 204

The FAIR Approach 207Programs That Aim toward Self-Management

and Community 207The Caring Classroom 209

A Final Thought and Look to the Future 211


Summary 213

Key Terms 214




Chapter 6

Assessment and Evaluation 216

Perspective on Assessment and Evaluation 219

Importance of Assessment and Evaluation 219Key Assessment and Evaluation Concepts 221


Effects of Assessments and Grades on Student Motivation and Learning 224

Teacher Bias in Assessment and Grading 229Standardized Tests 229

Nature of Standardized Tests 231Norm-Referenced and Criterion-Referenced Tests 231Advantages and Disadvantages of Different

Approaches 233The Teacher’s Role in Standardized Testing 233

A Teacher’s Classroom Assessment Program 235

Primary Purposes of Assessment 235Formative Assessment for Student Learning 235

Diagnosing Prior Knowledge 235Monitoring Learning 237Providing Corrective Feedback 237Assessing Frequently 238

Self and Peer Assessment as Learning 239

Self-Assessment 239Peer Assessment 240

Summative Assessment of Student Learning Using Traditional Measures 241

General Principles 241Test Construction 242Giving the Traditional Test 248

Summative Assessment of Student Learning Using Performance Measures 250

Performance Assessment 250What about Authentic Assessments? 250Designing and Scoring Performance and

Authentic Assessments 252Student Portfolios 256Assessing Group Effort and Individually

Contracted Work 256When to Use Different Kinds of Assessments 257

Evaluation and Grading 258

A Final Thought and Look to the Future 261


Summary 263

Key Terms 265




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Contents ix

Chapter 7

Presenting and Explaining 270

Overview of Presentation Teaching and Explanations 273


Cognitive Views of Learning 274Empirical Support 279

Planning and Conducting Presentation Lessons 283

Planning for Presentations 283 Diversity and Differentiation: Adapting Presentations for Differing Student Abilities 288Conducting Presentation Lessons 288

Managing the Learning Environment 296



Summary 299

Key Terms 300




Chapter 8

Direct Instruction 302Overview of Direct Instruction 305


Behavioral Theory 306Social Cognitive Theory 306Teacher Effectiveness Research 307

Planning and Conducting Direct Instruction Lessons 309

Planning for Direct Instruction 309Conducting Direct Instruction Lessons 312

Diversity and Differentiation: Varying Direct Instruction Lessons to Meet Diverse Needs 323



A Final Thought: Considering the Use of Direct Instruction 324


Summary 328

Key Terms 329




Part 3

Overview of More Teacher-Centered Transmission Approaches to Teaching 267

Part 4

Overview of Student-Centered Constructivist Approaches to Teaching 331

Chapter 9

Concept and Inquiry-Based Teaching 334

Overview of Teaching Students How to Think 336

Theoretical Perspectives about Teaching Thinking 336

Universality of Thinking 336Types of Thinking 337

Concept Teaching 339

Nature of Concepts 339Human Development and Concept Learning 342Planning for Concept Teaching 343

Diversity and Differentiation: Adapting Plans to Meet Diverse Needs 348Conducting Concept Lessons 349

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x Contents

Inquiry-Based Teaching 353

Planning for Inquiry-Based Lessons 354Conducting Inquiry-Based Lessons 355

Making Thinking Visible 358

Elements of Thinking 358Developing Classrooms with Cultures of Thinking 359Making Thinking More Visible 359Using Thinking Routines 360

Developing Learning Environments That Promote Thinking 361

Assessing Thinking Processes and Skills 361


Summary 364

Key Terms 365




Chapter 10

Cooperative Learning 368

Overview of Cooperative Learning 370


John Dewey and the Democratic Classroom 373Intergroup Relations 373Piaget, Vygotsky, and Constructivism 374Research and Development 375

Planning and Conducting Cooperative Learning Lessons 379

Planning for Cooperative Learning 379Conducting Cooperative Learning Lessons 386

Diversity and Differentiation: Adapting Cooperative Learning Lessons for Diverse Learners 390


Helping with Transitions 392Teaching Cooperation 393


Testing Academic Learning 397Assessing Cooperation 397Grading Cooperative Learning 398Recognizing Cooperative Effort 398

Cooperative Learning: A Final Thought 399


Summary 401

Key Terms 402




Chapter 11

Problem-Based Learning 404

Overview of Problem-Based Learning 406

Special Features of Problem-Based Learning 407Theoretical and Empirical Support 409

Dewey and the Problem-Oriented Classroom 410Constructivist Views of Learning 410Bruner and Discovery Learning 411Is PBL Effective? 412

Planning and Conducting Problem-Based Lessons 412

Planning for PBL Lessons 413Conducting PBL Lessons 417Using Learning Centers for Problem-Based

Learning 424 Diversity and Differentiation: Adapting Problem-Based Lessons for Diverse Students 426


Dealing with Multitask Situations 427Adjusting to Differing Finishing Rates 427Monitoring and Managing Student Work 427Managing Materials and Equipment 428Regulating Movement and Behavior outside

the Classroom 428


Assessing Understanding and Problem-Solving Skills 429

Using Checklists and Rating Scales 429Assessing Adult Roles and Situations 430Assessing Learning Potential 431Assessing Group Effort 431

Problem-Based Learning: A Final Thought 431


Summary 433

Key Terms 434




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Contents xi

Chapter 12

Classroom Discussion 436

Overview of Classroom Discussion 438


Discourse and Cognition 440Traditional Classroom Discourse Patterns 441Teacher and Student Questioning 442Wait-Time 443

Planning and Conducting Discussion Lessons 446

Planning for Discussion 446Conducting Discussions 451

Diversity and Differentiation: Adapting Discussions for Diverse Learners 458


Slow the Pace and Broaden Participation 460Increase Interpersonal Regard and

Understanding 460Use Tools That Highlight Discourse and Thinking

Skills 462


Follow-Up Discussions 463Grading Classroom Discussions 463

Classroom Discourse Patterns: A Final Thought 464


Summary 466

Key Terms 467




Chapter 13

Using Multiple Approaches to Teaching and Differentiation 470

Introduction and Rationale 472

Connecting and Using Multiple Approaches 472

Repertoire and Choice 473Connecting and Using Multiple Approaches:

Two Classroom Scenarios 475

Differentiated Instruction 482

Why Differentiate Instruction? 482The Differentiated Classroom 483Essential Elements of Differentiation 483Instructional Strategies for Differentiating

Instruction 485Use of Flexible Grouping in the Differentiated

Classroom 489

Management and Assessment in the Differentiated Classroom 490

Classroom Management 490Assessing and Evaluating Student Work 492


Summary 494

Key Terms 495




Part 5

The Organizational Aspects of Teaching 497Chapter 14

School Leadership and Collaboration 498

Perspective on Schools as Workplaces 501Schools Are Human Systems 501Schools Have Histories and Cultures 502Schools Exist in Context 502

Schools Have Features in Common with Other Organizations 503

Schools Have Unique Features 503Norms, Roles, and the Culture of

Teaching 506Theoretical and Empirical Support 508

Nature of Teachers’ Work 508Research on School Effectiveness 509Features of Effective Schools 511

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xii Contents

Organizational Skills for Teachers 513Working with Colleagues 513Working with Administrators and Leadership

Personnel 515Working with Families 516Providing Leadership for School

Improvement 521


Summary 526

Key Terms 527




Handbook 1

Reading and Using Research 531

Key Research Ideas 531Research Questions and Problems 531Model for Research on Teaching 532Independent and Dependent

Variables 534

Approaches to Educational Research 534Assumptions about Scientific Knowledge 534Types of Research Studies 535Descriptive Research 535Experimental Research 536Correlational Research 536Causal-Comparative Research 537

Statistical Concepts and Research Conventions 537

Sampling 538Randomness 538Numbers and Conventions 539

Reading and Keeping Abreast of Research 540Reading Research with a Critical Eye 540Reading a Research Report: An Example 541Keeping Abreast of Research 542

Handbook 2

Using Learning to Teach to Prepare for the PRAXIS II™: Principles of Learning and Teaching Exam (see Online Learning Center)

Resource Handbook

Glossary 544 References 554 Credits 575 Name Index 577 Subject Index 582

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