A CASE STUDY OF STRATEGIES EMPLOYED BY MERCER UNIVERSITY

LEADERSHIP DURING ITS TRANSFORMATION FROM A LIBERAL ARTS

INSTITUTION INTO A COMPREHENSIVE UNIVERSITY

by

Connie L. Nelson

DONALD MACINTYRE, PhD, Faculty Mentor and Chair

CHRISTOPHER RASMUSSEN, PhD, Committee Member

JOHN DUNBAR, PhD, Committee Member

Barbara Butts Williams, PhD, Dean, School of Education

A Dissertation Presented in Partial Fulfillment

Of the Requirements for the Degree

Doctor of Philosophy

Capella University

September 2011

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ABSTRACT

The study examined the transformation of Mercer University from a small liberal arts

school into a comprehensive institution. The purpose of the study was to explore the

historical transformation of Mercer University and the role of leadership throughout the

process. The qualitative study was a historical case study of Mercer University based on

archival data retrieved from Mercer’s Jack Tarver library, institutional data available on

Mercer’s website, and interviews of 21 administrators, faculty, and staff including former

president, Dr. Kirby Godsey, and current president, Dr. William Underwood.

Participants were asked open-ended questions regarding the overall transformation of

Mercer University, the role of leadership, and challenges faced by leadership.

Additionally, secondary sources including books and articles were used. Resources

depicted the strong Baptist foundation of Mercer in 1828 as a manual labor school to

prepare young men for ministry. The study revealed that during President Godsey’s

tenure from 1979 to 2006, dramatic transformation occurred as Mercer grew from 3,800

to 7,300 students, from an endowment of $16.5 to $225 million, and expanded from four

to 11 schools and colleges spread across three major campuses and three regional

academic centers (Mercer University Board of Trustees, 2010). The study identified

several challenges faced by Mercer leaders during transformation. Respondents

described the dissent faced by leadership as it implemented transformative efforts

beginning with President Godsey’s decision to open a medical school to serve the

previously unmet medical needs of rural southern Georgians. Increased diversity and

complexity also challenged leaders to maintain a cohesive university. Additionally,

finances challenged Mercer’s leaders, often creating a sense of competition for resources

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amongst colleges and schools. Lastly, the preservation of Mercer’s founding values

challenged leaders as they have made transformative changes to ensure the institution

remains attractive to students. Former president Godsey’s expansion of Mercer in order

to fulfill the institution’s Baptist-oriented mission and current president Underwoods’

continuation of this vision was attributed to: creating and maintaining a clear vision,

facilitating shared governance, imposing high expectations, taking entrepreneurial

actions, appreciating and managing dissent, role modeling, obtaining the support of the

Board of Trustees, and building positive external relationships.

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Acknowledgments

Without Dr. Donald MacIntyre, my dissertation mentor, this dream would not be

a reality. His commitment, enthusiasm, and, most importantly, patience have guided me

through this process. I would also like to thank Dr. Christopher Rasmussen and Dr. John

Dunbar for the feedback, advice, and support they have provided as members of my

dissertation committee.

The Mercer family has welcomed me as I have probed through their history in

order to highlight transformative leadership efforts. Dr. Wallace Daniel, Provost, has

anchored my efforts by providing me with access to Mercer archives and participants for

my study. Most importantly, both Provost Daniel and President Underwood have

enthusiastically encouraged me to complete this historical study of Mercer University.

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Table of Contents

CHAPTER

1: INTRODUCTION

Background of the Study 1

Statement of the Problem 2

Purpose of the Study 5

Rationale of the Study 6

Research Questions 7

Nature of the Study 7

Significance of the Study 8

Definition of Terms 10

Assumptions and Limitations 10

Conclusion 12

2: REVIEW OF THE LITERATURE

Introduction to Higher Education, Leadership, and Change 13

From Liberal Education to Professional Education 18

Leading Change in Higher Education 48

Conclusion 96

3: THE METHODOLOGY

Theoretical Framework: Initial Research Questions and Objectives 97

Focus of the Study 97

Research Design Strategy 98

Measures 102

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Data Collection Procedures 103

Data Analysis Procedures 106

Validity and Reliability of Measures 107

Ethical Considerations 111

Other Factors that May Impact the Research 112

Conclusion 113

4: DATA ANALYSIS AND RESULTS

Introduction 114

Sample 115

Presentation of Data and Results 115

Mercer University History: 1803 to 1979 116

Mercer University History: 1979 to Present 129

Reasons for Growth During Godsey’s Presidency 139

From President Godsey to President Underwood 140

Leadership’s Challenges Resulting from Mercer’s Transformation 142

Measures to Maintain Values with Changing Demands 163

Leadership and Success 191

Conclusion 210

5: CONCLUSIONS AND RECOMMENDATIONS

Introduction 212

Discussion of the Results 213

Recommendations for Leaders of Liberal Arts Institutions 221

Limitations 229

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Recommendations for Further Research 229

Summary of the Results 230

Conclusion 231

REFERENCES 233

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CHAPTER 1. INTRODUCTION

Background of the Study

Higher education is expected to evolve with society’s ever-changing demands.

Kezar and Eckel (2002) and Keenan and Marchel (2007) identified external influences

driving change, including increasing accountability for providing high quality, relevant

educational experiences, increasing global competition, technological advancements,

financial pressures, evolving demographics, increasing methods of acquiring knowledge,

and an increasing overall rate of change throughout the world. The aging population,

global vulnerability in math and science, and increased challenges to social mobility also

promote change (Yankelovish, 2005). These demands fluctuate as national and global

situations change. Leaders of higher education are faced with the challenge of meeting

the needs of society while supporting existing organizational frameworks and traditions

by maintaining established institutional values. However, as noted by scholars including

Schneider (2003), Weisbuch (2005), and Brint, Riddle, Turk-Bicakci, and Levy (2005),

the rigidity of higher education institutions often appears contradictory to our ever-

changing society. Taylor, De Lourdes, and Peterson (2008) argued that leaders of higher

education institutions are responsible for managing this dilemma and that “Effective

leadership is a vehicle for transitioning the higher education institution from a static focus

on its present circumstances to a more dynamic emphasis on its future state” (p. 372).

In response to these societal dynamics, an increasing number of campuses are

attempting transformational change (Kezar & Eckel, 2002) and it is the leaders of these

institutions who are called upon to lead and create opportunities for their institutions to

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enact transformational change. Roads and Tierney (1992) suggested that every higher

educational institution exists as a distinct culture and, as argued by Burns (1978) and

Schein (1992), leaders play a significant role in the development of culture. Any

transformative process, operating within the context of the distinctive culture of a higher

education institution, has to have an appreciation of the values and missions embedded in

the institutional culture. Transformational change poses a particular challenge to leaders

of liberal arts institutions as they have to develop a balance between their institution’s

foundational values and the values embedded in any new programs that would be added

to the institution’s curriculum in response to pressing societal demands. In addition, as

with the leaders of any academic institution, these leaders have to be aware of such

institutional variables as shared governance (Fullan, 2001; Kemper, 2003; Kinzie & Kuh,

2004; Salguero, 2010) and a culture of entrepreneurialism (Godwyn, 2009; Karp, 2006;

Kezar, Carducci, & Contreras-McGavin, 2006; Vaira, 2004) and how to leverage them

effectively to transform their institutions in a manner that prepares students optimally for

an information-based society. They also have to be aware of how the bureaucratic and

traditionalist tendencies of higher education institutions often conflict with these

institutional variables (Bolden, Petrov, and Gosling, 2008).

Statement of the Problem

Liberal arts institutions today are faced with the problem of how to respond to the

changing demands of society while, at the same time, preserving and staying true to the

liberal arts values that have long informed their vision and mission. In response to an

information-oriented society and increased focus on personal financial health and social

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status, students increasingly desire college experiences designed explicitly for

professional preparation (Godwyn, 2008; Sullivan & Rosin, 2008; White, 2004).

According to these scholars, professional program experiences are increasingly preferred

because they are believed to be more relevant to students’ lives beyond college.

Schneider (2003) argued, however, that liberal education institutions have failed to

modify programs to meet this student demand. Therein lies the problem for many liberal

arts institutions: how to transform themselves without sacrificing their core values.

The American Association of Colleges and Universities (2010) defined liberal

education as one that:

prepares us to live responsible, productive, and creative lives in a dramatically changing world. It is an education that fosters a well-grounded intellectual resilience, a disposition toward lifelong learning, and an acceptance of responsibility for the ethical consequences of our ideas and actions. (p. 1)

This organization further defined learning as comprehensive, and not confined to specific

fields of study. In its view, liberal education aims holistically to build universal skills

including critical thinking and self-awareness through the appreciation of a variety of

disciplines.

When analyzing degree completion statistics, it is clear that demand for a liberal

arts education trails demand for professional preparation (National Center for Education

Statistics, 2008). According to a National Center for Education Statistics (NCES) study

statistical analysis report published in 2008, in 2004, career education bachelor’s degrees

composed 60 percent of degrees sought while 30.1 percent of degrees sought were

academic degrees. As a result, the number of pure liberal arts institutions has decreased

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in recent years. Some have modified curricula to include professional programs,

modifying their Carnegie classification, while others have actually closed their doors

(Breneman, 1990). Cohen (1998) found that twice as many liberal arts institutions closed

between 1971 and 1975 as had opened the prior 25 years. In his earlier study, Breneman

(1990) found that of an estimated 500 liberal arts institutions that were once in existence,

only 212 remained at the time of his report. Baker and Baldwin (2009) continued

Breneman’s study of the decreasing number of liberal arts institutions, concluding that of

the 212 institutions identified as liberal arts by Breneman, only 137 remain. According to

Sullivan and Rosin (2008), liberal arts institutions feel pressure to prove they are more

“practical” and “relevant” in order to survive. There are those, however, who opposed

this shift to more professionally-oriented programs and they claim that society will suffer

a loss of individuals with the ability and desire to contribute to society (American

Association of Colleges and Universities, 2007; Colby & Sullivan, 2009; Nussbaum,

2010; Wu, 2005). This argument harkens back to a report issued by Yale College in 1828

that students should be urged, not only to undergo personal pursuits, but also to actively

participate in societal endeavors (Yale College, 1828). In addition, some feared that a

standardization of higher education will result as institutions place greater emphasis on

professional education and that the diversity of educational opportunities available to

students will diminish (Gardner, 1990; Morphew, 2009).

Similarly, students who are not prepared to handle workplace conditions may be

negatively impacted by a narrowing of curricula. Their lack of skills in collaboration and

problem solving and their limited ability to assess situations critically may hinder

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employment success (American Association of Colleges and Universities, 2007;

Pascarella & Terenzini, 2005). Employers have indicated a decrease in readiness to

function effectively in the competitive and dynamic business environment due to the lack

of a comprehensive education to prepare students for employment (Chen, Donahue, &

Klimoski, 2004; Conference Board et al.; Dudka, 2006; Le & Kazis, 2009). In addition,

as noted by Blumenstyk (2009), the highly specialized degrees earned may become

obsolete in this quickly evolving labor market.

Purpose of the Study

The purpose of this study is to explore how a traditional liberal arts institution

transformed itself into a comprehensive university, while still preserving its founding

core liberal arts values. While liberal education values remain desirable for many in

American society, pressure has been building for leaders of liberal arts institutions to

consider integrating more practice-oriented curricula into their existing curricular

offerings. Because liberal arts institutions are largely dependent on enrollments for their

revenues, one way for them to increase their enrollments is to implement professional

programs of study. However, this process presents a challenge to leaders as they attempt

to preserve liberal educational values while maintaining and building their competitive

edge.

As a case study, Mercer University serves as an example of how a liberal arts

institution can transform itself by successfully integrating professional programs into

course offerings without losing sight of liberal education values. By examining the

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history of the transformation of Mercer University from its foundation to the present, a

better understanding of effective leadership efforts may be developed. By exploring the

transformative processes used by Mercer University’s successful leaders, effective

attributes and strategies may be identified, thereby providing leaders of other liberal arts

institutions facing similar competitive challenges with insights into the transformative

leadership process. As liberal education leaders are challenged to prove their institutions’

worth to students, they may use this understanding to develop transformative efforts to

balance the traditional values of these institutions with the changing demands of students.

Rationale for the Study

Much research has been conducted in the area of transformative leadership in

higher education and there have been case studies done of liberal arts institutions that

have gone through a transformative process. George Keller’s (2004) study of Elon

College stands out as an example of one such study. At the same time, our understanding

of the challenges posed by a liberal arts institution that attempts to maintain its traditional

core, liberal arts values while undergoing a major transformation will only be enriched by

a historical case study of Mercer University. Many theories about effective leadership

practices in general exist. The proposed study of the leadership attributes and strategies

that led to the successful transformation of Mercer University into a comprehensive

university centered on liberal arts values is intended to assist leaders of other liberal

education institutions who are going through or who are contemplating a major

transformative effort.

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Research Questions

What leadership attributes and activities guided Mercer University’s leadership over its

long history as it transformed itself from a liberal arts college into a comprehensive

university?

Sub-Question 1: How did Mercer University’s leaders balance the institution’s

liberal education values and goals while, at the same time, introducing

professionally-oriented programs?

Sub-Question 2: What obstacles did Mercer University’s leaders encounter during

the process of transformation and how did they overcome these obstacles?

Nature of the Study

A historical case study of Mercer University will be conducted to explore its

transformation from a liberal arts institution at its foundation to a comprehensive

institution that it is today.

History is a discipline that has developed a set of methods and concepts by which

evidence of past events are collected, evaluated, and presented in a meaningful narrative

(Shafer, 1974). Using the historical method, records and survivals of the past are

critically examined and analyzed. Through this process, the authenticity, credibility, and

significance of evidence is determined in order to allow the researcher to synthesize as

close an approximation to the truth about the past as mental images will allow, realizing it

is a subjective process in regards to a perished, objective reality (Gottschalk, 1950). The

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result of the proposed study will produce a meaningful reconstruction of events based on

available records, personal testimonies, and inferences related to Mercer University’s

transformation through time.

Case study methodology will be used because its qualitative nature enables the

researcher to explore problems in order to develop a deeper understanding. The

researcher may develop a holistic and meaningful understanding of complex

organizational processes such as the transformation of Mercer University from a liberal

arts institution to a comprehensive university (Yin, 2009). The combination of historical

methodology and case study methodology enables the researcher to build the

understanding of Mercer University leadership processes through transformation due to

the melding of historical and contemporary evidence.

Significance of the Study

One finds in the literature a strong case being made that liberal arts institutions

must implement practical learning to survive. While not going so far as to advocate that

liberal arts colleges create professionally-oriented programs, Devitis, Johns, and Simpson

(1998) believed that these institutions can create a linkage between liberal and service-

learning, thereby promoting critical reflection in whatever settings or callings students

choose to enter. By doing so, they argue, a liberal education will be seen as more

relevant to society. In order to do this, they further argued, liberal education proponents

need to steer away from still dominant nineteenth century conceptions of learning by

incorporating themes relevant to critical pedagogy, feminist theory, as well as viewing

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the goal of education as preparing one for the callings or vocations of life. As a result,

students will learn to critically examine service, helping, and intervention. These authors

contended that this cannot be taught through didactic methods, but that the experience of

confronting individuals and group challenges will prepare students for real-life situations.

In the same vein, Sullivan and Rosin (2008) claimed that the connecting of

analytic insight with practical judgment and action will enable students selectively and

effectively to enter situations, sustain goals despite changing circumstances, and frame

and reframe purposes while seeking a common good. Mulcahy (2009) agreed that liberal

education needs redefining, but, at the same time, boasted that liberal education, as it has

evolved over time, is rich and powerful. He argued:

It needs to be recast in a way that retains its emphasis on what Newman called cultivation of intellect, recognizes the importance of practical knowledge and education for action, accommodates the view that education of the whole person brings into play emotional, moral, and spiritual formation, and adopts a pedagogical stance that gives full recognition to the experience, capacities, and interests of the individual. (p. 6)

Liberal arts institutions are being called upon to respond to the changing demands of

society. Leaders of these institutions are faced with many challenges as they respond to

these demands and they play a critical role during this change process.

One such institution, Mercer University, has responded to this challenge. By

studying its evolution from a small liberal arts college to a comprehensive university, one

will hopefully gain insight into the leadership attributes and strategies necessary for

college leaders to ensure successful implementation of the type of institutional

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transformation that often accompanies the adoption of professionally-oriented programs

by a traditional liberal arts college.

Definition of Terms

Schneider (2003) provided the following definitions that are applicable to this study.

General education: The part of a liberal education curriculum shared by all students. It

provides broad exposure to multiple disciplines and forms the basis for developing

important intellectual and civic capacities.

Liberal arts: Specific disciplines in the arts, humanities, social sciences, and sciences that

are distinct from professional fields such as business, engineering, and social work.

Liberal arts colleges: A particular institutional type—often small, often residential—that

facilitates close interaction between faculty and students, while grounding its curriculum

in the liberal arts disciplines.

Liberal education: A philosophy of education that empowers individuals, liberates the

mind from ignorance, and cultivates social responsibility. Characterized by challenging

encounters with important issues and more a way of studying than specific content,

liberal education can occur at all types of colleges and universities.

Assumptions and Limitations

Since historical research methodology is limited by evidence available, one of the

key assumptions of this study is that the researcher will gain access to sufficient historical

data needed to complete the study. Presence of or access to documents containing

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relevant data may be limited. Further, the narratives of pertinent individuals in the

transformative change of Mercer University since its foundation in 1833 may limit the

evidence available. According to Gottschalk (1950), only a small part of what happened

was ever observed, only a part of what was observed was remembered, only a small part

of what was remembered was recorded, only a small part of what was recorded was

preserved, only a small part of what was preserved comes to the researcher’s attention,

only a small part of what is determined as credible is found valuable and grasped by the

researcher, and only a small part of what is grasped is narrated by the researcher. Thus,

history can only be told as a history-as-record, not a history-as-actuality.

Testimonials may present misleading or inaccurate data either intentionally or

unintentionally. For example, documents and witnesses may provide misleading data due

to semantic or hermeneutics. Semantics may create a problem of meaning when

determining the meaning of contents of a document or a statement made in a personal

testimony of a witness due to varying definitions of terms. Hermeneutics may prevent

the accurate decoding of text and narratives due to the use of ambiguous terms

(Gottschalk, 1950). The ability of the witness to depict transformative processes from

Mercer University’s history accurately and completely may be limited.

Researcher misinterpretation and bias may also limit this study. The deciphering

of testimonials by the researcher may limit the validity of results. Gottschalk (1950)

emphasized this notion by stating that testimonies are mere facts of meaning. They are

symbolic and representative of something that once was real but, that has no objective

reality of its own, leaving room for researcher error (p. 46). The researcher may over or

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underemphasize certain evidence, providing misleading perspective by assigning a

heightened or lessened value inaccurately. Determination of the degree of influence of an

event, individual, or object may also limit research. According to Gottschalk, the degree

of influence is not uniform, often incomparable, and often immeasurable, leading the

researcher to determine relative strength subjectively. This may result in researcher bias

because personal judgment has played a role in the evaluation of evidence.

Conclusion

Liberal arts institutions are transforming curricula in order to meet the demands of

our ever-changing society. The success of such transformations is significantly impacted

by institutional leadership. By studying the leadership of Mercer University, an

institution that has successfully incorporated professional programs into its existing

liberal arts curriculum, an understanding of the leadership strategies implemented may be

developed and offered to leaders of other institutions experiencing similar challenges.

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CHAPTER 2. REVIEW OF THE LITERATURE

Introduction to Higher Education, Leadership, and Change

President Barack Obama’s rallying cry has been consistent: “leadership for

change” (Eisler & Carter, 2010). This is a response to our rapidly changing world,

highlighted by a variety of crises. Higher education has not been unaffected by the

rapidly changing world in which it finds itself, but, at the same time, its role has remained

steady. At the same time, there has long been debate about higher education’s role in

contributing to the “national good” of economic competitiveness and development and its

role in advancing the “universal good” of knowledge for its own sake (Drucker, 1993).

As noted by Lemann (2004), “American universities have benefited from conceptual

unclarity: they are many things to many people” (p. 1). This review of the literature

intends to explore existing authors’ findings and opinions relevant to higher education,

leadership, and change.

In order to reach goals based on societal demands, institutions initiate change.

Taylor et al. (2008) argued that “Effective leadership is a vehicle for transitioning the

higher education institution from a static focus on its present circumstances to a more

dynamic emphasis on its future state” (p. 372). Drucker (1954) used an orchestra

analogy to clearly illustrate the difficulty of attempting to fulfill this expectation stating

that orchestras are composed of individuals striving to reach a common goal, a beautiful

musical performance. The constituents of higher education institutions, too, aim to reach

objectives collectively. However, unlike an orchestra that has the walls of theatres

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blocking external disturbances such as noisy, distracting sirens, higher education

institutions are constantly bombarded by internal and external forces that, if not

addressed effectively, may inhibit the ability to reach goals.

Societal dynamics cause many of these disturbances. Kezar and Eckel (2002) and

Keenan and Marchel (2007) identified a number of external influences driving change:

increasing accountability for providing high quality and relevant educational experiences,

increasing global competition, technological advancements, financial pressures, evolving

demographics, increasing methods of acquiring knowledge, and an increasing overall rate

of change throughout the world. To this list, Yankelovish (2005) added the aging

population, global vulnerability in math and science, and increased challenges to social

mobility. According to Sebalji et al. (2007), institutional obstacles also create

complications: weak internal dynamics including loss of networks, poor communication,

failure to reach goals, positioning and power struggles, lack of common policies and

procedures, and internal competition for resources.

These continuous changes presented by society, coupled with institutional

weaknesses, require an accompanying cycle of responses in the form of institutional

change. Kezar and Eckel (2002) found that an increasing number of campuses are

attempting transformational change. Perkins, Bess, Cooper, Jones, Armstead, and Speer

(2007) categorized change as first-order, incremental or authoritative changes, or second-

order, transformative change, with the latter tending to characterize higher education

change in response to societal demands. As Jones, Harris, and Santana (2008) noted,

transformative change occurs when a system (or people composing the system) does not

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return to previous ways of doing things. Keenan and Marchel (2007) argued that despite

the evolving multitude of change drivers and increasing number of campuses attempting

to create transformational change, the pace of change in higher education institutions is

relatively slow.

Any transformative change, however slow, requires leaders with effective change

strategies and, as Astin and Astin (2000) argued, leaders are change agents. Cornwall

(2003) and Fisher and Koch (2004) concurred and stated that higher education leaders

have the responsibility to create opportunities for their institutions. According to Taylor

et al. (2008), it is these opportunities that move institutions forward in an effective

manner, guiding them from current mission-states to new and better vision-states. To

lead change, Fullan (2001) argued that higher education leaders must develop the

capacity to seek, critically assess, and selectively incorporate practices constantly, both

internally and externally. Navahandi (2004) went further and argued that, because a

multitude of stakeholders play a role in higher educational institutional functions, they

have to be incorporated into leadership processes; a leader influences individuals and

groups in an organization and this facilitates the production of objectives and directs the

actions toward the attainment of objectives.

While Taylor et al. (2008) noted that those holding more traditional, hierarchical

views have identified leadership as a position, Gronn and Spillane (2006) argued that

leadership should be viewed as a process. Astin and Astin (2000) concurred, stressing

that leadership is a process ultimately concerned with fostering change, that it is a

movement, not a managerial task designed to preserve or maintain established

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organizational norms or functions. Changes, they further contended, are intentional, not

random, and therefore, leadership is a purposeful process which is inherently value-

based.

According to Pettigrew (1997), situations are not objective realities to which

leaders simply respond. Rather, situations are interpreted by leaders in a sequential

manner. In their study, Antonakis, Avolio, and Sivasubramaniam (2003) observed

leadership patterns of leaders through time. Their results concurred with the views of

leadership as a process by concluding that leadership involves a sequence of activities,

not random occurrences. In their view, the result is cyclical leadership patterns,

indicating that leadership is a process, not a position.

Kezar et al. (2006) noted that minimized resources, increased accountability and

assessment, globalization, and competition are pressures challenging higher education

leaders. In addition, they argued that the massification of universities and the complexity

of university decision-making are forcing leaders to develop and implement new strategic

management practices. As a result, they noted that scholars are studying how higher

education leaders are responding to these pressures and new perspectives about

leadership are emerging. They further claimed that leadership is:

moving away from static, highly structured, and value-neutral leadership frameworks. Contemporary scholars have embraced dynamic, globalized, and process-oriented perspectives of leadership that emphasize cross-cultural understanding, collaboration, and social responsibility for others. (p. 2)

These authors, and they argued others as well, no longer view higher education

leadership from a scientific perspective, but, rather, as an art, craft, or spiritual practice.

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As a result, they contended that a positivist approach to studying leadership has given

way to studies from the perspective of social constructivist, postmodern, and critical

paradigms.

Astin and Leland (1991) argued that the vision of leaders in higher education has

shifted from social control to social change. Garner’s (2004) study of minority leaders

concurred with this notion. He noted that a leader’s desire to compel others to fulfill a

common goal that is beneficial to all. Kezar et al. (2006) argued that a constructivist

view of leadership has replaced a functionalist view and this is evident in cultural and

cognitive leadership theories which encourage stakeholders to embrace change rather

than view it as a task.

At the same time, some scholars suggested that the quality of leadership in

general has been eroding in recent years. Astin and Astin (2000) cited shaky race

relations, growing economic disparities and inequities, excessive materialism, decaying

inner cities, a deteriorating infrastructure, a weakening public school system, an

irresponsible mass media, declining civic engagement, and the increasing ineffectiveness

of government as problems putting more and more pressure on leaders. Lastly, they

argued, citizen disengagement cripples our capacity to deal with internal and external

problems, hindering leadership progress.

Leaders of higher education institutions are expected to reach an endless series of

goals. They have to evaluate whether individual change initiatives are necessary. By

considering the implications of choices made in response to internal and external

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pressures requiring institutional transformation, they have to determine whether or not

specific transformative efforts will truly benefit the institution. To determine the value of

a change initiative, Cohen (2003) encouraged leaders of higher education institutions to

consider the following formula: change occurs when dissatisfaction with the status quo

and vision of the future and the understood procedures and pathways to accomplish the

change and support from key players is greater than the cost of the change. Like algebra,

if any of these variables are zero, change will not occur.

In Leading Change, Kotter (1996) presented an eight step transformational

process: the building of a sense of urgency, the creation of a supportive coalition, the

development and communication of a vision and strategy, the empowerment of

employees, the generation of short-term wins, the fusion of successes leading to the

production of additional changes, and the acceptance of new approaches into the

institution’s culture.

Higher education scholars have expressed the importance of leadership during

transformative change, exposing various views. The gradient of institutional change, role

of leaders, and views of leadership within higher education institutions has been debated.

However, most scholars view effective leadership as a necessary component of successful

transformation.

From Liberal Education to Professional Education

In reviewing the current higher education literature, it is clear that more and more

colleges are adding professional programs to their circular offerings in response to

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societal demands. Professional programs are generally defined as those that provide

skills and training to prepare students for a specific vocation or career. Historically,

liberal arts institutions have focused more on providing a holistic educational experience

and less on preparing students for specific careers. Many are now faced with the

challenge of altering their traditional missions and adding more career-focused programs.

The American Association of Colleges and Universities (AACU) (2009b) revealed in a

study of member institutions that 98 percent have specified field-specific learning

outcomes, aimed at developing skills relevant to a particular career in at least some of

their departments, 65 percent have identified these outcomes in all departments.

According to Sullivan and Rosin (2008), liberal arts institutions feel pressure to prove

that they are more “practical” and “relevant,” while professional schools are increasingly

encouraged to confine training to the technical aspects of their fields. Some liberal arts

institutions have responded by integrating professional curricula into existing programs.

Some have converted completely into professional schools, others have implemented

professional programs while maintaining existing liberal education programs. As will be

discussed subsequently, various views of the transition toward professional education

have emerged. Before looking at these divergent views, it is important to trace briefly the

evolution of liberal education.

The founding theories and evolution of liberal education provide a deeper

understanding of its intended role in society as well as the implications of its potential

decreasing availability in lieu of professional programs. Definitions of liberal education

vary. However, as noted by Lemann (2004), it is often idealized as:

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education that liberates, that frees the mind from the constraints of a particular moment and set of circumstances, that permits one to see possibilities that are not immediately apparent, to understand things in a larger context, to think about situations conceptually and analytically, to draw upon a base of master knowledge when faced with specific situations. (p. 13)

The AACU (2009a) indicated that liberal education requires the understanding of the

foundations of knowledge and inquiry about nature, culture and society as well as the

mastery of perception, analysis, and expression. Additionally, respect for the truth,

recognition of historical and cultural contexts, and exploration of interdisciplinary

connections and well as relationships between education and citizenship and real-world

activities are valued. Many liberal arts institutions, noted AACU, have built a tradition of

student-student and student-faculty interaction allowing participants to advance skills

beyond those offered by professional and vocational programs. AACU (2010) further

argued that “The ability to think, to learn, and to express oneself both rigorously and

creatively, the capacity to understand ideas and issues in context, the commitment to live

in society, and yearning for truth are fundamental features of humanity” (p. 1). Thus, the

AACU (2010) posited that liberal education is society’s best investment in our shared

future. Sullivan and Rosin (2008) argued that:

Liberal education provides students with orientation, the intellectual capacity to make sense of their environment and to locate themselves reflectively within the complex influences of their time and place. The aim of such teaching is often described as developing students’ ability to assume responsibility for their purposes and identity. (p. 3)

Hadley (2009) defined liberal arts as focusing on individuals’ actions. In her

description, the ear is emphasized because listening is one of the most public and most

personal human means of interacting with the world, allowing discernment of the

importance of various ideas and thoughts. She continued by stating that reading and

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comprehending a diverse range of texts demands an interpretive eye. In addition, the

decoding of vital nonverbal communication occurs. Hands refer to actions that

communicate ideas and thoughts the mouth cannot. Students are urged to open

themselves up to examine and challenge their own natural beliefs through heart, rather

than solely through the mind. The expansive vocabulary made possible by

communication through the mouth provides the ability to participate in the exploration of

the diverse mysteries of our world. However, listening is emphasized over speaking.

Lastly, she contended that the mind is to be used to take a stance, leaving oneself

vulnerable through a constructive, rather than competitive, drive.

Historical Evolution of Liberal Education in America

A review of the influences on liberal education through American history clearly

indicates the challenges faced by these institutions. According to Bok (2006), “Only

through acquaintance with this history can one tell whether critics are correct in asserting

that the quality of liberal education is in serious decline” (p. 11). He argued that the

overall pattern of change as well as specific influences and outcomes are essential to an

understanding of the evolution of liberal education.

Brint et al. (2005) conducted a longitudinal study of the historical progression of

liberal education. They concluded that the evolution of liberal education can be seen in

short-term cyclical movements as well as an underlying trend toward professional and

occupational education. Often, cyclical movements toward vocational programs

coincided with economic depressions that triggered employment reductions and cyclical

movements toward liberal education, though few, occurred during times of prosperity. In

22

general, Brint et al. indicated that the overall number of professional programs has also

increased due to the increasing number of newly professionalized careers requiring

college credentials. For example, between 1915 and 1929, when teacher’s colleges

replaced normal schools, the number of bachelor’s degrees in education rose seven

percent.

According to the Association for the Study of Higher Education (ASHE) (2005),

the oldest form of higher education in the United States is the liberal arts college. Most

liberal arts institutions originally combined religious and liberal education. Moral and

civic education along Christian lines was a common aim of these early institutions. Until

the Civil War, the ASHE study notes, colleges resembled finishing schools more than

institutions of advanced education. The aim of a liberal education in these early years

was to provide a well-rounded, academic education to gentlemen prior to entering the

clergy, medical, or legal professions. These institutions were founded on an ideology that

favored morals over self-advancement, and advancing one’s ethos (ASHE, 2009). Scott

(2005) noted that they emphasized moral and intellectual growth dependent on mental

discipline. Bok (2006) stated that American colonial colleges, such as Harvard, offered a

liberal arts curriculum that stressed grammar, arithmetic, and ancient Greek and Latin,

with two objectives—training the intellect and building character.

According to Cohen (1998), 1790 marked the beginning of rapid expansion in the

number and type of higher education institutions. He stated that “The first state colleges

and the first technical institutes were formed shortly thereafter, and the curriculum was

opened well beyond the liberal arts to include broader emphases” (p. 5). However, this

23

author noted, the introduction of these institutions had a relatively minute impact on

liberal arts institutions at this time, but, henceforth, the dominance of liberal arts

institutions would be challenged.

Liberal Education in 19th Century America

As America grew, liberal education began to feel the demand to demonstrate the

value of its curriculum. In response, the Yale Report of 1828 served as the

groundbreaking document that defended the liberal arts philosophy. This report justified

the foundational values and resulting curricula provided by liberal arts institutions. It

presented an argument for the traditional way of teaching a fixed set of topics including

classical language and literature. According to the Report, education should not just be

instruction, but must be seen as a mental discipline and classical courses were ideal for

achieving this objective. For example, Yale College defended the teaching of ancient

languages by discussing their contribution to the prevalently used modern languages.

These connections would enable students to contribute to society successfully. Later in

the century, John Henry Newman also posed strong arguments for liberal education in his

classic text, The Idea of a University (1852). Cardinal Newman stated that the

combination of knowledge of theology, science, and literature with the ability to analyze

and reflect on the information would allow individuals to understand the world.

The end of the Civil War marked unprecedented reform higher education. A shift

to more secular studies occurred as America grew. The Morrill Act of 1862 was a very

important part of this transition. This act was passed by President Abraham Lincoln in

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order to create land grant colleges for the purpose of providing education related to

military, agricultural, and mechanical arts to support the needs on a rapidly growing

economy. The intent, according to Lucas (2006), was to revitalize already established

state universities struggling to survive, while providing training in fields deemed vital to

society. Further, Scott (2005) noted, philanthropy born of industrial fortunes such as

steel and oil tycoons contributed to the establishment of new institutions and

transformation of some existing ones. These new institutions were inspired by German

universities which emphasized exploration over knowledge, challenging liberal arts

institutional values. Thus, noted Bok (2006), leaders, including Charles W. Eliot,

Andrew White, William Rainey Harper, and Benjamin Gilman, encouraged research

focused on science, and introduced doctoral programs.

According to Bok (2006), undergraduate education began to experience a

significant shift in curriculum. Old classical curriculum was replaced with more practical

offerings. Modern languages and literature and natural sciences, including physics,

biology, and chemistry, were increasingly offered. Private institutions introduced

vocational subjects such as commerce and engineering. Public universities advanced this

trend further by offering domestic science, business administrative, sanitary science, and

physical education programs. Bok further noted that elective systems began to be

offered, increasing student choice. Even the most traditional liberal arts institutions, such

as Yale College, began introducing elective systems and a more diverse array of modern

scientific, social scientific, and humanistic courses to meet this increasing demand for

knowledge. Cornell and Stanford also implemented elective systems. According to Bok

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(2006), classroom posters could be found that read “Don’t let your studies interfere with

your education.” Based on this statement, he stated that social ambition became very

powerful and a more casual attitude toward higher education emerged.

Despite these attempts by liberal arts institutions to integrate a broader set of

disciplines during this period of great growth following the civil war, liberal arts

institutions and programs, notes Cohen (1998), came under attack because many believed

that they were too aristocratic and provided rigid and irrelevant experiences to individuals

or society. As Brint et al. (2005) noted an elitist connotation that marked liberal

education due to its correlation with the arts and sciences, thus these subjects were

viewed as pertinent only to the affluent.

Liberal Education in 20th Century America

After a decline created by the establishment of more public institutions, noted

Brint et al. (2005), liberal education towards the end of the 19th century and into the 20th

century once again grew in demand. Liberal arts degrees rose to about 55 percent during

this time. During the 1910s and 1920s, liberal arts institutions dominated. Higher

education, according to these authors, was still a preserve of the middle and upper class

that resembled English models of higher education institutions.

Traditional liberal arts programs began to show significant signs of strain

beginning in the 1930s and, as noted by Bok (2006), experimental scientists and scholars

of modern languages and literature overshadowed their colleagues in the classical

curricula. Additionally, found Brint et al. (2005), professional and occupational

26

programs increased in popularity and enrollments in liberal arts programs decreased.

According to the United States Department of the Interior Office of Education (1929,

1931, 1933, 1935, 1937, 1939, 1943), the proportion of professional degrees granted

spiked from about 32 percent to about 61 percent between 1928 and 1940 before

beginning a slight decline.

Post WWII through the 1950s presented a period of continued occupational and

professional program dominance over liberal education. The United States came out of

World War II as the most powerful nation on earth with a flourishing economy and an

expanding population—the so-called Baby Boom. The end of the war marked the

beginning of what some scholars have called the “massification” of the higher education

era. As Brint et al. (2005) found, an era of surging enrollments had begun as the

Serviceman’s Readjustment Act of 1944, or the GI Bill, significantly increased access to

higher education for returning G.I.s. The authors contend these enrollment increases

were not realized proportionately by liberal arts institutions. However, according to

Cohen (1998), these older, nontraditional students desired programs that would prepare

them for employment and professional education heightened in popularity.

Brint et al. (2005) found that the influx of non-traditional students desiring

professionally-oriented degrees led to the creation of a variety of curricular models.

Public universities tended to offer a wide assortment of vocational majors along with

standard liberal arts concentrations. Conversely, with the exception of engineering and

business, private universities resisted occupational majors. A “status divide,” they state,

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resulted from this “functional divide” as liberal arts institutions continued to focus on

concentrated baccalaureate programs with strong academic profiles.

In 1947, in response to the increasing preference for professional education, the

Truman Commission on Higher Education assigned liberal education to general

education courses to be taken during the first two years of college. The report that

presented these sanctions, Higher Education for American Democracy: A Report of the

President’s Commission on Higher Education, noted Bok (2006), expressed the necessity

of “nonvocational” aspects of learning (President’s Commission on Higher Education,

1947). Despite this effort, it seemed the new population of students was more interested

in job preparation than acquiring a broad liberal arts education. Further, Bok stated that

community colleges (of Junior Colleges as many of them were known by in this era)

began to emerge and flourish. In addition, existing institutions increasingly incorporated

vocational programs. The number of students choosing vocational majors quickly

exceeded traditional arts and sciences degrees, demonstrating the continuous growth of

professional programs.

The success of the Soviet spacecraft Sputnik in 1957 shocked the American

public and prompted Congress to pass the National Defense Education Act. Millions of

dollars were now allocated to teaching math, science, and foreign languages—long the

staples of liberal education. As a result, noted Brint et al. (2005), the 1960s witnessed a

resurgence in liberal education with 55 percent of degrees being awarded by liberal arts

institutions. This resurgence in liberal education did not survive into the 1970s as a trend

toward occupational and professional training re-emerged. As Brint et al. (2005) noted:

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During a period in which graduates nearly doubled, almost every field which constituted the old liberal arts core of the undergraduate college was in absolute decline as measured by numbers of graduates. This includes not only all of the humanities and social sciences (except psychology), but also the physical sciences and mathematics. (p. 159)

Eventually, noted an ASHE (2009) report, liberal arts colleges became vulnerable due to

declining enrollments, austerity, and inflation. In response, many liberal arts institutions

responded by modifying programs to increase competition with other types of

institutions. This trend has continued through to the present and is projected to persist.

While many liberal arts institutions successfully managed the transition from a

singular focus on liberal learning, a significant number did not. Cohen (1998) found that

twice as many liberal arts institutions closed between 1971 and 1975 as had opened the

prior 25 years. They could not compete with lower-cost, publicly supported state

colleges and community colleges created by the Morrill Act as well as the increased

demand for trade-specific programs.

Liberal versus Professional Education

Brint et al. (2005) noted that the trend toward professional and occupational

education persists today. They stated that “One could say that all of the traditional arts

and sciences fields, except those closely linked to health careers, have a receding profile

in today’s colleges and universities” (p. 159). In the time frame of their study, they

discovered that 58 percent of degrees were awarded in professional programs. They

argued that the weakening desire for liberal education has continued to be fueled by the

29

view of liberal education as elitist due to its prevalence at the most selective colleges and

universities.

During the past three decades, noted an ASHE (2005) report, the tension between

liberal and professional education has changed form from an either/or approach to more

of a synthesis of the types of education offered. It found this approach promising for

both types of education as the tension moved “into a direction of mutual reinforcement, a

potential boon for both liberal arts and vocationally oriented education” (p. 8).

As societal demands and the student population grew and diversified, scrutiny of

the ability to prepare students effectively to make societal contributions has prompted a

debate based on traditional views of liberal education. Even in his own day, John Henry

Newman modified his stance on the essence of liberal education, claiming that the

abstract learning prevalent in these programs do not enable graduates to handle concrete

situations. He argued that experiential knowledge and practical reasoning was necessary

in concrete affairs.

A 20th century advocate of liberal education, Paul Hirst (1974), also expressed the

need for practical educational experiences. He argued that practical knowledge is more

fundamental than theoretical knowledge. Jay Newman (1986), not to be confused with

John Henry Newman, concurred, claiming that the common man’s judgment is ignored at

the expense of judgment of philosophers, intellectuals, and rationalists through liberal

education.

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Today the debate rages on with a wide variety of shades and nuances. In 2006,

Debra Humphreys (2006) introduced a broadened view of liberal education that includes

creative thinking, teamwork and problem solving, civic knowledge and engagement,

ethical reasoning and action, and synthesis and advanced accomplishment across general

and specialized studies. In a contrary mode, Schneider (2003) believed that liberal

education’s rigidity prevents effective adaptation to modern demands. Weisbuch (2005)

put it rather bluntly. “The world has not abandoned the liberal arts; the academic liberal

arts have abandoned the world” (p. 93). Raelin (2007) argued that the objective means

of inquiry provided by professional programs are advancements over the volatile

knowledge obtained from feelings and values, often integrated into liberal arts programs.

Jane Roland Martin (1994) proposed a conflicting view, suggesting that liberal arts

educations exclude values including feelings and emotions, care, concern, and making

connections. These values, while extremely important in the development of students,

are ignored by liberal education due to the focus on the nature, structure, and uses of

knowledge, rather than educational goals to prepare students for life beyond college.

John White (2004) developed the concept of the “primacy of the practical” to depict this

view of curriculum. He argued that the human being is an agent, not a knower; therefore,

curriculum should be practically-oriented. Sullivan and Rosin (2008) argued that current

professional higher education institutions are charged with providing the knowledge

essential to a particular field or endeavor. This experience cannot be based on

observation and theory. Thus, these institutions should aim to provide students with

access to actual practices, promoting engagement and responsibility for clients. Godwyn

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(2009) maintained that first generation, low income, and adult learners need job training

rather than intellectual development. Students find educational experiences that provide

training for specific vocations more relevant. Thus, professional education is more likely

to sell. Student objectives revolve around competence and commitment to a profession.

Overall, liberal arts institutions have faced three challenges according to ASHE

(2005). First, as previously discussed, the increased focus of postsecondary education on

vocational education has limited the ability of liberal arts institutions to compete for

students. Second, the public lacks an understanding of and appreciation for liberal

education and how it can develop career skills. Often, a complete misperception of

liberal arts colleges exists. Last, there is a public notion that liberal education is a luxury

educational experience only suitable for the wealthy. Barker (2000) stated that “learning

for the sake of learning” is not a viable option for most students is a common view of the

public. Many feel liberal education will not provide an education that will support them

financially.

Student Indicators of Professional Program Preference

Research studies and enrollment numbers indicate that students have increasingly

believed that a liberal arts education will not fully prepare them for the workplace.

Program choice clearly shows that professional programs are favored. Of 1.6 million

bachelor’s degrees awarded in the 2007-2008 academic year, at least 65 percent were in

professional fields of study (NCES, 2010). The greatest increase from the 1997-1998

academic year to the 2007-2008 academic year, 94 percent, was in the field of parks,

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recreation, leisure, and fitness studies, a professional degree. Visual and performing arts

and communication and communication technology, also professional fields, presented

the next largest increases. The National Center for Education Statistics (2008) reported

that, in 2004, career education bachelor’s degrees composed 60 percent of degrees sought

compared to 30.1 percent for academic degrees. More specifically, during the 2006-2007

academic year, degrees in the field of business, a vocationally-based field of study, made

up 21 percent of all bachelor’s degrees earned. This significant proportion represents an

increase of 44 percent from the 1996-1997 academic year.

Peter D. Hart Research Associates (2004) conducted a focus group comprised of

college and college-bound high school students. Participants in the focus group were

asked to select the most and least important reasons people may give for attending

college from a list of ten. While some results indicated a preference for outcomes

resembling goals of liberal education, the overwhelming majority of responses

emphasized professional education outcomes. Ranking at the bottom of reasons to attend

college were the opportunity to learn about and from people and cultures different from

one’s own and to prepare for a life of civic responsibility and leadership, both defining

features of liberal education. Thus, these researchers concluded that society, based on

student responses, views liberal education as the “nonvocational” or “less marketable”

part of curriculum. Godwyn (2009), a proponent of professional education based on

student success in the workforce, found that students are concerned about post-college

debt and increasing competition for employment. They are more concerned about their

financial well-being by developing occupational skills than about obtaining the holistic

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skills valued by liberal arts educations. ASHE (2005) reported similar findings regarding

student economic concerns. However, their report stressed the role of parental economic

concerns. They claim that because parents of today’s traditional-age students were of

traditional college age during the 1970s, a time of increased emphasis on professional

education, their views of education affect the decisions of their children.

The Hart study also found concern about competition for jobs among the students

in its focus group. The most frequent responses that the researchers heard were “a

college education will bring more career choices and a greater number of job

opportunities” and “a college education will provide specific skills and knowledge

required in the field in which I hope to work” (Peter D. Hart Research Associates, 2004).

Further, this study concluded that, while students indicate specific college outcomes such

as gaining a sense of maturity, time-management skills, strong work habits, self-

discipline, and teamwork skills, these skills are not viewed as a part of curriculum, but

rather, as part of the college experience as a whole. Thus, despite liberal education’s

emphasis on these outcomes, the Hart study found that students do not connect their

achievement with liberal learning’s outcomes.

An ASHE study conducted in 2009 found that a decline in student awareness of

the arts and sciences that occurred between the 1960s and 1990s may well have guided

them toward occupational programs. Freeland (2009) agreed, noting that many liberal

arts students are not aware of the values of liberal education and how it differs from

occupationally-oriented programs. The study also asked students to define what liberal

education means to them. Most of the high school and college students were not able to

34

provide an accurate definition. The research group then provided the focus group

participants with a description of the content and goals of liberal education. While high

school students were interested in liberal education, college students demonstrated

skepticism and were displeased with the requirement of taking general education courses

at their college.

Institutional Indicators of Professional Program Transition

Scholars have also studied the number of liberal arts institutions that have

implemented professional programs in addition to or in lieu of traditional liberal arts

coursework. Breneman (1990, 1994) found in his studies of liberal arts colleges that

most had become “small professional schools with a liberal arts tradition, but little of the

reality of a traditional liberal college.” He concluded that of the 540 institutions earning

a Carnegie Classification as liberal arts colleges, only 212 actually deserved the

distinction, a distinction that he based classification on the percentage of degrees awarded

in liberal arts disciplines and the source of institutional revenue. He considered

institutions that granted fewer than 40 percent of their degrees to students in liberal arts

disciplines and finances based on professional and graduate programs as “small

professional colleges.” Further, between 1972 and 1988, Breneman discovered that the

proportion of professional degrees increased from 11 percent to 24 percent in the elite

colleges and from 41 percent to 64 percent in the rest. These results indicated that liberal

arts institutions were not only being lost through closures, but also through transition to a

different type of institution. He noted that, while some actually closed their doors, others

had made a conversion to professional education through program modifications. He

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questioned, however, whether this phenomenon was a redefinition or a complete

transition away from liberal education.

Writing 17 years later, Raelin (2007) stated that programs have been adapted or

added in order to compete with the diverse range of educational providers including

online and for-profit institutions. Similarly, Dimaria (2010) argued that, in order to

survive, all organizations must adapt. Therefore, he too pondered whether or not liberal

arts colleges are truly disappearing as noted and discussed previously by Breneman.

Updating Breneman’s findings, Baker and Balwin (2009) revealed that of the 212

institutions identified by Breneman, only 137 remain traditional liberal arts institutions.

Many evolved into “professional colleges.” They pointed out that these transitions away

from a liberal arts mission may have been conscious or unconscious. Based on Baldwin

and Baker’s study, DiMaria (2010) proposed that the transition to a knowledge and

service-based economy has prompted today’s students to demand more specialized

educations. In their earlier work, Brint et al. (2005) viewed such shifts can be interpreted

as indicators of the state of the relationship between market forces and cultural idealism,

proving the significant impact of societal changes on higher education institutions.

Some would argue that a new definition of liberal education is emerging.

Humphreys (2006), for example, redefined liberal education to include creative thinking,

teamwork and problem solving, civic knowledge and engagement, ethical reasoning and

action, synthesis and advanced accomplishment across general and specialized studies (p.

3). This definition has evolved to include specialized education and experiential

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education. Delucchi (1997) criticized Breneman’s view that liberal arts institutions were

merely evolving. He argued that there is a “liberal arts myth” that attempts to legitimate

efforts to maintain liberal arts practices while incorporating other educational pursuits.

Brint et al. (2005) predicted this trend will continue and that we will eventually arrive at a

point where the bachelor’s degree becomes a preparatory degree for further studies rather

than its currently predominant role as a terminal degree.

Prestige has also been linked to the liberal arts institutional transformation.

Prestige, in relationship to higher education, is defined as an asset that conveys nonprice

information to customers (Brewer, Gates, & Goldman, 2002). Prestige allows customers

to evaluate the extent to which an institution will meet their needs. According to Brewer

et al. (2002), this information is important especially in markets where the quality of a

good or service is difficult to assess prior to a commitment. It is directly related to an

institution’s ability to meet consistently a set of specific customer demands. Due to the

importance of prestige, some institutions desire an “upward drift” leading to a higher

Carnegie classification in order to increase competitive strength. In his study of four

Georgia institutions, Toma (2008) identified the unique features boasted by each

institution, but noted their common strategies to increase prestige. Toma concluded that

diverse institutions have a common aspiration-to improve their image. They believed

that by gaining greater legitimacy, they will ultimately increase their competitive edge,

leading to the availability of more resources. As has been noted, some liberal arts

institutions have incorporated professional programs in order to gain prestige, and to

sharpen their competitive edge.

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In their study of institutions undergoing transformative change, Brint et al. (2005)

concluded that less prestigious liberal arts institutions were more likely to convert to

“practical arts” institutions than those identified as prestigious. They attributed this

pattern to the lack of need for highly successful prestigious institutions to make changes.

Therefore, the increasing transformation of liberal arts institutions into more

professionally-oriented institutions has been driven by less prestigious institutions. In a

2009 report, ASHE found that less prestigious schools have implemented entrepreneurial

agendas and strategies in order to compete and to survive. Baker and Baldwin (2009),

however, argued that institutions aiming to increase prestige by moving to a higher

Carnegie classification concurrently experience a decline in their reputation, thus

rendering their efforts as less than worthwhile.

Other trends have also challenged liberal arts leaders. For example, in recent

years, small shifts in enrollment from private to public institutions have occurred

(Altbach, Berdahl, & Gumport, 2005). Burrell (2008) identified rising costs, decreased

state and federal government funding and changing demographics as environmental

factors putting pressure on liberal arts institutions. Additionally, noted Levine (2000),

new technology and the growth of for-profit and on line institutions continue to challenge

liberal arts institutions.

Opposition to the Professional Program Dominance

Despite the strength of the trend toward the dominance of professional programs

in higher education, several challenges to the transition to professional education have

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been identified by scholars. Many claims made by liberal arts education proponents have

not been empirically substantiated. These supporters often claim that the benefits of

liberal education are self-evident, thus no empirical justification is necessary (ASHE,

2005). As poignantly stated by Nussbaum (2010), “We are in a crisis of massive

proportions and grave global significance. Producing generations of useful machines,

rather than complete citizens who can think for themselves” (p. 1). The AAUP’s (2007)

publication urging the incorporation of liberal education into all program types is based

on the premise that the short-sighted purpose of obtaining an education specific to a

chosen career will result in limited prospects for students and society.

Opponents argue that, in general, education’s moral, civic, and intellectual

purposes are undermined when liberal education values are not incorporated into

programs. Some students and scholars continue to argue for the importance of individual

development of holistic skills. According to Colby and Sullivan (2009), analytical

thinking “involves framing the particularity of actual experiences and terms of categories

at a higher level of abstraction” (p. 1). Thus, they argued, analytical thinking requires

both the mastery of substantive content, which focuses on knowledge, and the

humanities, which incorporates meaning and value. However, they further argued,

analytical thinking is increasingly viewed as the understanding of facts, which is

beginning to be viewed as the only kind of knowledge worth having. They viewed this

development as one of the negative consequences of the emphasis on professional

programs. They contended that the current understanding of analytical reasoning must be

replaced by an emphasis on practical reasoning. Students need to develop a sense of

39

purpose and responsibility as they increase knowledge and practical skills, thereby

producing a bridge between “pure” and “applied” learning. Sullivan and Rosin (2008)

saw critical thinking as a necessary component of learning but not sufficient for

responsible judgment. Thus, experiences must engage students in the world more

mindfully.

According to the AAUP (2007), those who believe that a narrow “marketable”

college degree is the key to future economic success are blind to the realities of the new

global economy. In this report it is further stated that:

Only a few years ago, Americans envisioned a future in which this nation would be the world’s only superpower. Today it is clear that the United States—and individual Americans—will be challenged to engage in unprecedented ways with the global community, collaboratively and competitively. (p. 15)

Globally, today’s American college graduates lack the knowledge and experience to

compete. Taking its argument further, the AAUP contends that to succeed in today’s

environment, graduates need to be intellectually resilient, cross-culturally and

scientifically literate, technologically adept, appreciate ethics, and prepared for lifelong,

multi- and cross-disciplinary learning. According to Schneider (2003), as higher

education becomes more market-oriented, opponents to professional education argue that

the short-term outcomes desired by society are not fulfilled using learning that is intended

to pay off over a lifetime.

In his book, Our Underachieving Colleges: A Candid Look at How Much

Students Learn and Why They Should Be Learning More, Bok (2006) argued that the

original aim of undergraduate professional programs to do concentrated work in a field

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has impeded the development of capacities for thinking, problem solving, and other

habits of thought, including writing, that could be used profitably later in life. Colby and

Sullivan (2009) stressed that colleges should aim to teach students to use knowledge not

only as an end in itself, but as a means toward responsible engagement. They noted that

many institutions claim to prepare graduates to live discerning and responsible lives, but

fail to provide direction in the form of personal meaning and purpose and this, in turn,

leads to too narrow of a pursuit of analytical thinking. While often viewed as

impractical, liberal education, according to Lemann (2004), equips students for a richer

and more complete life than an education whose sole aim is to be useful.

In 2005, ASHE published an analysis of data collected by the National Study of

Student Learning and the Appalachian College Association from more than 40

institutions located throughout the United States. Based on its analysis, ASHE

determined that liberal education more effectively develops intellectual and personal

features of students based on most measures than counterparts at regional institutions and

research universities. The ASHE study found that liberal arts institutions foster

empirically validated good practices in undergraduate education. Using measurements of

psychosocial and attitudinal development, it identified that liberal arts students grew

more in these areas than students of both public regional institutions and research

universities. For example, liberal arts students revealed greater average gains in openness

to diversity and learning for self-understanding. Students also experienced gains in

positive attitudes toward literacy and in writing skills. On the other hand, compared to

competitors, liberal arts students made less progress in the areas of mathematics and

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science reasoning. The ASHE study further found that, i n terms of overall cognitive

skills, liberal arts institutions’ students made distinctly higher improvements than

regional institutions that were comparable to research universities.

When the researchers at ASHE studied the data related to the long-term effects of

liberal education in comparison to competitors, other advantages also emerged.

Compared to public regional institutions, graduates of liberal arts institutions had higher

levels of degree attainment (1.27 times more likely), were more likely to be employed in

a nonprofit organization, took more continuing education courses for personal

development, and were more likely to indicate that their undergraduate education

prepared them for employment. They were also more likely to report that learning and

intellectual development, personal and spiritual growth, and responsible citizenship were

important to them. The ASHE report concludes that, overall, both labor market outcomes

and personal life outcomes favor liberal arts graduates. Students earned higher annual

salaries and household incomes. Students also reported a higher rate of satisfaction with

the college experience. This, the Report noted, may be partially attributed to institutional

size and incoming student attributes.

Seifert et al. (2008) studied the practices and conditions of a liberal education that

leads to the desired outcomes of liberally educated students. Their study aimed to build

on Pascarella, Wolniak, Seifert, Cruce, and Blaich’s (2005) findings that a relationship

exists between liberal education and educational outcomes. In support of the previous

study’s findings, Seifert et al. found a consistent, positive relationship between students’

liberal arts experiences and several measures of student learning. They concluded that

42

practices and conditions embodied in liberal arts experiences are in actuality those that

promoted the development of students’ intercultural effectiveness, inclination to inquire

and learn for a lifetime, psychological well-being, and leadership. In addition, they noted

that the campus environment is not comprised of isolated segments and suggested that

this holistic “overlap and blending” is a key feature of the array of experiences, practices,

and conditions that characterizes and differentiates liberal arts education. Their findings

most importantly suggest that liberal educations’ institutional focus on good teaching and

student engagement in an active, collaborative, and supportive environment positively

affects student learning and development. Further, any institution possessing the

organizational will to place student learning at the center can create a culture that

maximizes liberal arts experiences, and thus, the development of liberal arts outcomes.

According to Peter D. Hart Research Associates (2004), students often indicate

an appreciation of the values advocated by liberal education. They found that “High

school and college students view the college experience as a period of self-development

and maturation, and first and foremost they say they want a college degree to give them a

strong sense of achievement” ( p. 6). The most frequent responses included “college will

help me gain more knowledge that will be helpful throughout life—both on and off the

job” and “a college education will provide me with the knowledge, capabilities, ethics,

and values that are essential to having professional success.” “A college education will

help to ensure a higher paying job” was a least frequent response favoring liberal

education. Pascarella and Terenzini (2005) concurred, noting that students of liberal arts

institution appear to value liberal education and the resulting educational rewards and

43

when high school students were given a description of the content and goals of liberal

education, they found it appealing. However, as previously noted, this study concluded,

due to overall results, that students prefer professional education.

In a study of undergraduate member institutions it conducted, AACU (2009b)

found 73 percent of the responding institutions indicated they believed their institution

should place more emphasis on applied knowledge by increasing opportunities for

internships and hands-on experiences. However, the sample indicated the following

variables, measured individually, are owed equal emphasis: critical thinking and

analytical reasoning skills, communication skills, and global issues. Some questioned

whether their students understood the desired learning outcomes they had set for

undergraduates. Of institutions that have set learning outcomes for undergraduates, only

five percent believed that almost all students understand their institution’s intended

learning outcomes. This raised the question for the AACU of whether students are

informed enough to select institutions that will enable them to reach goals, whether those

are professional or liberal education goals.

In looking at employers, Dudka (2006) noted that many employers are often

opposed to the increasing emphasis on professional education. He stated “As corporate

consultants know, though, critical issues unsolvable by technology—team interaction,

workflow management, tough persuasion—go begging for the very skills that are

developed through a liberal education” (p. 34). Through interviews conducted within

their study of the importance of liberal education in a global world, the AAUP (2007)

found consistent responses from business leaders suggesting an urgent need for graduates

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who are broadly prepared and who possess analytical and practical skills essential for

innovation and organizational effectiveness. As Blumenstyk (2009) noted, liberal arts

institutions pride themselves on supporting today’s society and economy by incorporating

broader skills into educational experiences rather than the now popular narrow training

offered by professional programs.

In a similar vein, Le and Kazis (2009) found that employers are demanding a

broad set of skills including critical thinking, creativity, problem solving, time

management, and cooperative skills. Hence, many employers prefer the comprehensive

experience provided by private liberal arts programs. They feel increased responsiveness

to the competitive and dynamic business environment results from the understanding of a

broad array of disciplines. Arenella, Davi, Vesser, and Wiggins (2009) came to a similar

conclusion that employers desire a broader set of skills and attitudes to improve

innovation, communication, and diversity. Lastly, the Carnegie Foundation (n.d.b)

argued that business curricula need to be broadened in scope to include liberal arts

values. This will provide the depth necessary to become morally engaged citizens and

intellectually agile workers.

Focusing on worker readiness, the Conference Board, Partnership for 21st Century

Skills, Corporate Voices for Working Families, and Society for Human Resource

Management (2006) conducted a joint study of 400 employers’ views of entry-level

employee readiness to work to determine whether entry-level employees meet the initial

expectations of employers. The study revealed gaps between employer expectations and

graduates’ abilities to meet these expectations.

45

• Of the responding CEOs, 57 percent reported that education and

workforce preparedness is a “very important” or the “most important”

policy issue.

• Four-year college graduates presented the only population yielding more

“excellent” than “deficient” classifications in the contexts studied in

comparison to high school and two-year and technical college graduates.

• Four-year college graduates were considered “deficient” in both writing in

English and written communication. 26.2 percent and 27.8 percent,

respectively, indicated “deficiency” in these two areas, areas deemed as

very important by 89.7 percent and 93.1 percent of respondents.

• 81.8 percent of CEOs rated leadership as a “very important” applied skill.

However, 23.8 percent reported entry-level employees are “deficient” in

this area.

• 63.3 percent stated that knowledge of foreign languages will “increase in

importance” in the next five years, more than any basic skill.

• 76.1 percent rated making appropriate choices concerning health and

wellness as their number one emerging concern.

It seems quite clear that the CEOs surveyed place a high value on what has historically

been the focus of a liberal education.

Chen et al. (2004) found that new organizational realities have led companies to

increasingly seek job candidates who possess relevant teamwork knowledge, skills, and

abilities in addition to the ability to complete job-related tasks. Their study of the

46

effectiveness of undergraduate leadership development courses was grounded on the

premise that there is “a pressing need for systematic development of teamwork skills in

educational setting to create higher workforce readiness” (p. 27).

Other scholars have looked at how the increased emphasis on occupational

education can negatively impact society. In keeping with Dewey’s (1916) ideal of a

democratic education as “an industrial intelligence based on science and a knowledge of

social problems and conditions” (p. 411), Wu (2005) argued that students may be less

likely to contribute to society if not exposed to the values of liberal education. In

agreement, Colby and Sullivan (2009) questioned the relative lack of higher education’s

investment in the development of personal and social responsibility obvious through the

widespread assumption that the disconnect between academic content knowledge and

analytic thinking is acceptable.

In its 2007 study, AAUP noted that the nature of work has continually shifted

from occupations founded on industrial production to occupations valuing knowledge and

information. As a result, higher order skills, including communication skills, problem

solving, and reasoning, are of great importance. Further, careers themselves are volatile.

This volatility, coupled with the fast rate of change that make specific work skills quickly

obsolete, promotes the values of a liberal arts education. Thus, the AAUP study noted,

students with highly-specific degrees are less able to adapt to changing career options.

DiMaria (2010) argued that the specialized educations obtained by students will become

obsolete due to the rapidly changing nature of jobs in the marketplace and that liberal arts

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institutions provide a more reliable education that will withstand fluctuations in

employment patterns.

In 1990, John Gardner expressed the concern that over standardization may lead

to a sense of complacency. According to Gardner, over standardization occurs when

organizations implement identical strategies over too wide a territory. Rigidity results,

disabling adaptability to societal changes and hindering the innovative ideals higher

education was founded upon. Gardner believed that society values diverse education

opportunities and that institutions of higher education gain competitive edges through

differentiation. Thus, over standardized educational programs, according to Gardner,

negatively impact both society and the institutions themselves due to both lack of

innovation and access to a diverse range of educational opportunities.

To support Gardner’s fear of over standardization, Morphew (2009) found that

institutional diversity experienced zero to negative growth between 1972 and 2002.

DiMaria (2010) believed that the lack of diverse educational options will lead to fewer

students furthering their education beyond high school. Students opting for a customized

educational experience will not have access to the deep, broad, interdisciplinary, and

extracurricular features of liberal arts institutions. In order to prevent the negative

implications of over standardization, Baker and Baldwin (2009) questioned if higher

education should continue a Darwinian “survival of the fittest” course. They suggested

intervention to preserve and update valued types of educational institutions because of the

important roles they play in serving our pluralistic society.

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Grubb and Lazerson (2005) expressed concern over the excessive power given to

employers and students in the development and implementation of curriculum and that

the conversion to professional programs based on student enrollment decisions has

allowed vocational aspirations to mold higher education. Further, Schneider (2010)

considered professional education a “faux reform.” He stated that these programs use

curricular downsizing to entice students. He criticized occupationally-oriented programs

for operating with no framework resulting in:

no vision of necessary knowledge. No conception of how far students now are from meaningful competence in writing, critical thinking, problem solving, and quantitative reasoning. No sense that a democracy needs knowledgeable and ethical citizens. No recognition that our graduates play a disproportionate role in deciding whether global problems are seriously addressed or left to fester and deepen. No serious understanding of scientific inquiry and literacy. (p. 2)

Schneider claimed that by every possible measure—outcomes studies, employer

assessments, faculty reports, and proficiency levels on standardized tests—students are

falling short of expectations.

Leading Change in Higher Education

The researcher recognizes that there is vast literature on organizational change

and that there are many elements that go into successful organizational change. The

focus of this study is on one key aspect of organizational change: leadership attributes

and strategies. This section, therefore, focuses on the various theories of leadership by

scholars in the field and their application to leading change in institutions of higher

learning. In reviewing the leadership literature, one finds that a number of themes

emerge: behavioral features, marketing movements, the impact of contingency, power

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and influence implications, relational aspects, cultural influences, cognitive processes,

and institutional capacity. Each of these themes will be addressed in the following

sections.

Behavioral Considerations

Bensimon, Neumann, and Birnbaum (1989) found that scholars of leadership have

developed a number of behavioral theories and have used these to examine the roles of

leaders and classify behaviors and tasks associated with leadership such as strategic

planning, accepting accountability, motivating, communicating, and managing resistance

and conflict. Montez (2003) developed an instrument for assessing five dimensions of

leadership behaviors relevant to higher educational settings. The dimensions are:

• integral—measures the ability to build effective organizational

relationships

• relational—addresses the leader’s ability to build effective personal

relationships

• credibility—determines the accountability of the leader

• competence—considers work ethic

• guidance—exemplifies the leader’s ability to direct a group toward a

common vision.

These dimensions are prevalent throughout studies and analyses of higher education

leadership effectiveness during a period of transformation.

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Motivating stakeholders. Two of the leading scholars in studying leadership and

human behavior, Argyris and Schon (1974), developed the theory of action and the

theory-in-use to address the common incongruence between an individual’s

communicated goals and his or her actual acts. They argued that theories-in-use must be

accompanied by a willingness to change behavior in order to complement the goals

expressed by the individual. An individual may be aware of the need for change, but

unmotivated to act accordingly. In addition, they stated that people possess “self-

actualization trends” that override organizational desires. These individuals must be

motivated to advance from theory of action to theory-in-use as well as choose actions to

benefit the institution rather than to suit personal interests. Further, as Karp (2006) noted,

human beings in organizations are not rational. They behave and react in unpredictable

ways.

Individual change processes also reveal patterns affecting transformation. Lewin

(1952), a pioneer in the field, provided a universal description of the progression of

individuals as they participate in transformative processes. According to Lewin,

individuals undergo a transition from a pre-contemplation stage, when the need for

change has not yet been perceived, to attempting new behaviors that replace old

behaviors. Schein (1996), based on Lewin’s description of individual change processes,

described the stages of this transition as unfreezing and refreezing. During unfreezing,

disconfirmation inspires the individual to change. To enter the unfreezing stage, leaders

create and communicate a rationale and context for change (Schein, n.d.). To ensure that

constituents take ownership of the change initiative, a small set of specifications

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including ground rules, principles, and shared assumptions should be identified.

According to Karp (2006), this will leave room for individual interpretation and, further,

leadership traits, such as charisma, may motivate constituents to contribute to change

initiatives.

According to Schein (n.d.), leaders are required to provide evidence of the need

for change in order to create this sense of disconfirmation. Cohen (2003) noted that this

motivator works in a linear fashion. Those who are not at all dissatisfied see no reason to

change while those too deeply dissatisfied are too frustrated to put effort into change.

However, once the value of the transformation is realized by the individual, and

unfreezing has occurred, he or she is open to learning new concepts, meanings, and

standards. These ideas, argued Cohen, will become increasingly incorporated into

individuals’ self-concepts, identities, and relationships. Argyris and Schon argued that

individuals must be presented with personally relevant reasons to change, such as a sense

of discomfort created by lack of organizational productivity, before taking desired

actions.

Upon the full internalization of these new concepts and situations, the individual

enters the refreezing stage (Lewin, 1952; Schein, 1996). Behaviors reflective and

supportive of the revised organizational mission are exhibited. Faculty members, for

example, will not only acknowledge the value of the change, but take action to implement

change processes. As Jones et al. (2008) argued, by deepening purposefulness, a

common goal can be developed. Refreezing, however, only occurs when those new

behaviors become a standard function of an organization. Thus, according to Schein,

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leaders are required to develop strategies to ensure practices are not only learned, but that

they become an integral component of institution functions. According to Karp (2006),

the institution is then responsible for the maintenance of these theories-in-use by

providing convenient training opportunities. In addition, short-term wins should be

celebrated to boost morale and motivate and it is these supportive measures that will

promote the modification and establishment of behaviors necessary for transformation.

Communication. Communication is frequently credited as the means for leading

groups to high achievement levels. For Gardner (1990), “If one had to name a single, all-

purpose instrument of leadership, it would be communication” (p. 166). Kezar (2009)

stated that leaders of higher education institutions have to rely on effective

communication to implement transformative efforts since, in some cases, stakeholders are

often unaware of change initiatives. According to Bolman and Deal (2003),

communication is used to transmit facts, information, needs, and feelings, to influence

others, and to tell stories. Despite the simplicity of these tasks, they note, campus

communities often struggle to complete them effectively and, as a result, transformation

is often unsuccessful.

When examining styles and approaches associated with effective leadership,

Bryman (2007) consistently noted the need for effective communication. Both lateral

and hierarchical communication channels were necessary in the transformative alliance

creation studied by Sebalji, Hudson, Ryan, and Wight-Boycott (2007). In fact, poor

communication amongst stakeholders prompted the alliance formation. Leaders of these

institutions repeated messages at different forums through various mediums consistently.

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A harmonizing stability, Bryman noted, results from this standardized and consistent

multi-directional communication. Cohen (2003) stated that distribution of information

usually reduces the anxiety created by change. Gardner’s (1990) emphasis on two-way

communication also focuses on the establishment of open dialogue. He noted, however,

that the division of labor and specialization presented by higher education institutions

inhibits this form of communication.

Communication is a two-way process. Messages are sent and received. Thus, a

leader’s giving of information and expression of thoughts is not the sole component.

Listening is also a critical factor in this process. Ramsden (1998) found that studies have

shown that listening skills are essential to leaders of higher educational institutions

world-wide and that effective leaders actively listen to their constituents. Multimodal

communication, including behavior, actions, and decisions is also powerful

communication methods (Blagg & Young, 2001). Recent technological advancements

such as web-based media are serving to effectively diversify communication efforts

(Mazzarol & Soutar, 2001).

Bolman and Deal (2003) argued that individuals presenting conflicting ideas must

be given opportunities to share their views. Sullivan and Rosin (2008) found that

challenges to ideas should be used to develop analogies to build a common purpose

through dialogue. On the other hand, Miller and Nadler (2009) found that poor

constituent communication skills may be the actual cause of conflict and that this may be

due to weak skills that need to be improved. Some individuals suffer from a condition

referred to as communication apprehension and results in social interaction hesitation

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which defines this inclination. Roby (2009) found that studies show that as

communication apprehension increases, the quality and quantity of communication

decreases and, therefore, in accordance with cognitive theories, teaching constituents

communication skills may benefit transformative efforts.

Managing resistance and conflict. Gardner (1990) argued that division of labor,

specialization, fixed roles, and defined ranks and status contribute to a sense of rivalry

and conflict and, regardless of its visibility, conflict can inhibit an organization’s ability

to obtain goals. According to Bolman and Deal (2003), “Change invariably creates

conflict” (p. 376). Conflict may quietly exist under the surface of organizational

processes or it may boldly present opposition and, although it often yields innovation and

creativity, it may also hinder the progress, morale, and integrity of the institution. They

continued by identifying four conditions of change that create conflict. First,

transformative efforts affect individuals’ ability to feel effective, valued, and in control.

A supportive and participatory strategy that provides training may minimize this feeling.

Change disrupts existing patterns of roles and relationships, producing confusion and

uncertainty. Thus, argue these authors, structural patterns need to be revised and

realigned to support a new direction. Change creates conflict between those who benefit

from change and those not feeling directly aided by it. Negotiation, facilitated by

providing arenas for dialogue as well as power distribution, will reduce this negative

form of competition. Finally, transformation creates a loss of meaning for recipients of

change who were not given ownership of the change. Transition rituals, recognition of

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the past, and celebrating the future will help people let go of old attachments and embrace

new ways of doing things.

Fullan (2001) argued that entrepreneurship is strengthened by resistance.

Entrepreneurial leaders often do not work with like-minded innovators. Rather, they

deliberately build on differences. He concluded that higher education leaders should

embrace disagreement by recognizing the value of opposing viewpoints as well as the

differences of opinion valued by democracies. This represents a democratic leadership,

as opposed to authoritative, because the leader seeks and listens to others, and focuses on

the building of relationships. This also represents the affiliative leadership style which

realizes the advantages of resistance.

Following the work of Fullan, Brown (2006) found that the statements of

institutional presidents indicated a consistent view that crises present opportunities.

When describing occurrences through which their most effective leadership practices and

styles were most evident, crises were often identified. Presidents valued adversity

because they provided opportunities for change and progress despite the increased risk of

failure it presents.

Marketing Movements

Salguero (2010) stated that higher education is a competitive service industry.

And, as such, it is expected to solve business-related problems and to integrate a market

view into higher education. Mazzarol and Soutar (2001) found that:

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Research into competitive advantage has focused on the need for an enterprise to achieve a superior market position in its industry. However, many enterprises that successfully achieve competitive advantage find their position eroded over time as competitors or market conditions change. (p. 72)

Taylor et al. (2008) found that governments are increasingly using market-style

mechanisms that do not complement functions of many higher education institutions,

heightening the need for strong marketing. According to Noftsinger (2002), today’s

postsecondary education system is expected to “solve business-related problems and

serve as a vehicle for economic development” (p. 22).

Morphew and Taylor (2011) noted the following:

Patterns among students and institutions suggest that the marketplace of American higher education is characterized by informational and material constraints linked to material resources, not by the featureless plain of opportunity assumed in a perfectly competitive marketplace. United States higher education markets exist as a product of the choices institutions and students make within particular situated contexts rather than in a vacuum in which they seek only to maximize utility. Ignoring the segmentation and imperfections of these markets may cause us to ignore the fact that these choices have consequences that undermine the productive, efficient nature of our higher education system. (p. 60)

They also noted that “American higher education is a large and diverse enterprise that

resists generalization—though that is often the treatment it receives” (p. 53). Therefore,

it presents unique market characteristics. Rather than consisting of one market of like-

minded consumers with similar access to identical goods, the United States higher

education system is comprised of many markets, with a diversity of colleges and

universities that produce and sell unique commodities to groups of consumers who may

or may not desire the same goods. Thus, according to Morphew and Taylor (2011), an

understanding of these markets is essential to higher education institutions. This is

especially true because this market is as diverse as the institutions seeking their

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enrollment. Because tuition, fees, and other sources related to student enrollments are the

largest source of revenue for most private institutions, understanding of the market for

students is critical to these institutions’ success.

Four forces have driven higher education to embrace marketing according to

Maringe and Gibbs (2009): massification, expansion and diversification; the growth of

heterogeneity of student bodies and course offerings and delivery mechanisms; and

increased competition of higher education. These forces must, therefore, be considered

when implementing strategies to increase student enrollment and compete with other

institutions.

Grubb and Lazerson (2005) argued that the transition to professional education

based on enrollment choices demonstrates students’ enormous influence on the program

offerings of higher education institutions. This power is consistent with the growing

number of occupations requiring specialized preparation. This has created a dilemma for

higher education. According to Maringe and Gibbs (2009), “The greatest fear academics

have about the use of the ‘customer’ label for students in higher education is the

underpinning business belief that ‘the customer is always right” (p. 35). This business-

like notion conflicts with the overall goals of higher education. They argued that one

cannot pursue a medical degree just because they fancy it like a new fashion. One has to

be actively engaged in the pursuit of a medical degree. They contended that education

extends beyond an ordinary purchase contract in spite of the payment of tuition and fees.

Students are more than customers.

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ASHE (2009) found that this emerging marketplace approach in higher education

is impacting liberal arts institutional leadership. In order to succeed, institutions must

present a product desirable to students in order to survive. This market economy is

characterized by competition for student enrollment. Thus, an emphasis on professional

programs prevails and the trend is to align liberal arts colleges with the marketplace by

offering professional degrees that are more attractive to students (ASHE, 2009).

Effective marketing. As with any organization that is competing for customers

(in this case students), the development of a sound marketing strategy is essential. Burell

(2008) claimed that the inability to implement market-oriented strategies in an

increasingly competitive environment is leading to the closing of small private liberal arts

institutions at alarming rates. Van der Werf (2000) agreed, noting that these institutions

are having difficulty attracting students because their leadership fails to develop creative

organizational cultures that understand the value and impact of marketing and innovation

on their programs and program delivery options.

While scholars have noted the need for strategic planning as part of institutional

transformation processes geared towards maintaining institutional competitiveness, it is

noted that changes related to higher education are not as limited and standardized as for

most businesses. As Salguero (2010) argued, this is due to the fact that they incorporate a

larger multitude of stakeholders, thereby increasing the complexity of processes. Taylor

et al. (2008) argued that this ongoing cycle challenges higher education leaders to stop

protecting their existing position and incorporate proactive and adaptive change strategies

that will encourage success within their competitive environment. In their study of the

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importance of strategic plans, they found that the development of a strategic plan led to

the effective creation of change. They concluded that a better understanding of the

institution and its mission, as well as a better perspective on priorities and goals fostered

by the strategic plan, facilitated transformation.

Barney (1986) identified methods for the development of sustainable competitive

advantages. He argued that strategies exploit opportunities while neutralizing threats and

are groundbreaking and rare in order to differentiate efforts from competitors. Mazzarol

and Soutar (2001) concurred, claiming that, in order to be competitive, unique programs

and offerings are essential. Second, they argued that effective strategies are difficult to

imitate making uniqueness essential when developing a strategic plan.

Lado, Boyd, and Wright (1992) argued that strategic plans must be sustainable

through time, regardless of environmental and internal changes, and to analyze the

sustainability of competitive advantages, they developed two models. Their resource-

based model focuses on external influences, focusing on opportunities and threats, while

their environmental-based model focuses on internal influences, including culture and

values and focuses on institutional strengths and weaknesses. The authors suggested both

external and internal factors should be integrated into strategic plans.

Burell (2008) asserted that the essence of private liberal arts institutional

leadership today is about adaptation, innovation, creativity, and management actions to

compete in a business-oriented world. His innovative organizational culture is grounded

on the premise that historical organizational paradigms and values must be adapted for

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liberal arts institutions to survive. Liberal arts institutions, he argued, need to identify a

clear niche that is accepted by all stakeholders. Kotter and Schlesinger (2008) referred to

this as an adaptive corporate culture. Rowley, Lujan, and Dolence (1997) argued that a

creative organizational leadership strategy for the future is not so much that of

determining where the organization is heading based on what the organization wants, but

is a method of coping with the competition and developing a culture that can adapt to the

changing external environment.

Maringe and Gibbs (2009) advocated a shift from product-based marketing to the

building of long-term relationships based on symbiotic a learning partnership within the

higher education market. They argued that this will counteract the shift from a focus on

social policy that construes education as a public good to the now prevalent notion of

higher education as part of a self-interested economic policy. As a result, marketing will

be directed toward the primary benefit to learners. They concluded that a learner

approach rather than a customer approach encourages institutions to create marketing

systems that engage in collaborative resource allocation instead of divisive market-driven

competition.

Concurrent with these collective action strategies, Burrell (2008) noted that it is

necessary for liberal arts colleges to foster and encourage employees to be innovators and

entrepreneurs on the job when addressing marketing, program offerings, and program

flexibility. Further, he believed that an understanding of how marketing can influence

success throughout campuses will benefit transformational leaders.

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When collectively engaging all stakeholders, Massy (2009) stated that values

must be considered when developing and implementing marketing strategies. Thus, the

consideration of individual interests is critical. Because higher education institutions are

value-driven, leaders are faced with the task of adapting to market shifts while

maintaining academic values. He continued by arguing that market behaviors are

problematic in higher education settings because they collectively promote the

preferences of many individuals, whereas the focus of higher education is on achieving

desired results resulting only through the abilities of individuals to understand and act

upon their expressed self-interest. Lack of information heightens this condition. Second,

noted Massy, market behavior often ignores externalities. When consequences of

individual actions are not considered, externalities occur. This leads to the poor

allocation of resources. Lastly, Massy stated that market-driven forces increase

segmentation despite the competition between institutions. For example, Grubb and

Lazerson (2005) argued that an abundance of high-level trade schools, resulting from the

increased demand for vocationally-oriented programs, has dramatically decreased the

population diversity of higher education institutions.

According to Mazzarol and Soutar (2001), creating value for the customer ensures

a strategy’s ability to sustain a competitive edge. Therefore, institutions are forced to

adapt to changes to maintain or improve competitive status. “Brand equity,” in the form

of a high reputation, is essential. In accordance with cognitive theory, they argue that, to

maintain competitiveness, institutions invest in their stakeholders in the form of training

and ensuring participation. Massy (2009) further argued that institutions must seek

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quality individuals from outside the institution and invest in top technology to ensure

stakeholders have necessary resources and develop a culture of continuous learning. In

addition, he argued that institutions weakly describe the quality of their offerings in

meaningful terms and fail to provide data necessary for individuals to match institutional

offerings with their needs.

Entrepreneurialism. Taking risks by engaging constituents in innovative,

unfamiliar, and often rare initiatives commonly defines entrepreneurship. Several

developments in higher education have promoted entrepreneurship. These include

increased emphasis on innovation through research, the restructuring of community

college programs to align with regional economies, and the growth of the for-profit

institution sector.

According to Karp (2006), the ability to experiment with new ideas and strategies

continues to be valued. As selective institutions challenge the status quo, they pursue the

best change ideas while building on past successes. Godwyn (2009) found that this is

especially evident in analyses of transformative efforts. Using what are commonly

viewed as risky, exciting, innovative, and fast-paced strategies, entrepreneurs engage

institutions with the outside world while attempting to use a vision to change it. Vaira

(2004) stated that the process of entrepreneurialization is enforced by engagement with a

knowledge-based society, one that provides higher education institutions with

legitimizing criteria of their roles, tasks, and institutional identity. Leaders are urged to

reduce complacency and to strive to set unfamiliar goals that can only be achieved by

using groundbreaking methods. Kezar et al. (2006) found that leaders lose their

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undesirable managerial roles by no longer simply maintaining the status quo. However,

this is not a comfortable process for educational leaders.

According to psychologist Dennis Fox (2008), a feeling of discomfort may result

from uncertainties created by entrepreneurial activities. He stated “But making people

uncomfortable is not all bad. For one thing, every revolutionary endeavor causes the kind

of discomfort for change” (p. 233). Kouzes and Posner (2003) maintained that leaders

must become facilitators and enablers of change. They argued that by challenging

established methods, processes, and paradigms, inspiring a shared vision, enabling others

to act, modeling desired practices, and appealing to emotions, entrepreneurial leaders will

find success. However, Keenan and Marchel (2007) warned that an appropriate balance

between innovation and tradition is necessary.

Following this theme, Harrison and Leitch (1994) argued that grassroots methods

of incorporating distributed power encourages innovation and risk-taking because a

diverse range of leaders, confident in their area of expertise, participate in transformative

processes. Similarly, Dess, Ireland, Zahra, Floyd, Janney, and Lane (2003) found that

entrepreneurial leaders specifically use creativity and innovation, spot and exploit

opportunities, find the resources and competencies required to translate opportunity into

action, build teams effectively, network, remain resilient when faced with adversity and

competition, engage in change, take risks, put stakeholders first, have control of their

organization, and create capital.

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Schneider (2003) argued that liberal education is called upon to translate twenty-

first century visions into innovations. When describing the conflicting natures of liberal

education and entrepreneurialism, Godwyn (2009) stated that:

a liberal education is associated with thinking and contemplation rather than praxis. Entrepreneurship, on the other hand, is almost always situated within the domain of business and involves some type of market exchange, giving it immediate economic importance. (p. 36)

On the other hand, Hines (2005) argued that “a liberal arts education might be viewed as

a metaphor for entrepreneurship” (p. 1). He claimed that liberal education and

entrepreneurialism are strongly connected. Godwyn (2009) agreed, suggesting that the

integration of entrepreneurism into liberal education is natural due to similar founding

values. She claimed that they share critical, forward-thinking orientations. Further, she

noted that the lack of emphasis on material benefits and social status presented by

professional education is congruent with entrepreneurs’ motivations, which extend

beyond simply making a profit. The integration of liberal education and

entrepreneurship, she further argued, will legitimate the practical, material dimension

increasingly implemented into liberal education in the form of professional programs by

demonstrating a commitment to self-expression, debate, creativity, problem solving,

social responsibility, and personal identity.

In its study, ASHE (2009) found that, regardless of connectedness, liberal

education has become increasingly entrepreneurial in responding to changing demands

and the needs presented by society, the economy, and students. Agendas have been

developed and implemented in response to “the pressures inherent in the neoliberal

economic agenda, issues tied to shifting patterns in resource allocations, and steep

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competition for student enrollment” (p. 26). By adding professional programs to their

academic offerings, liberal arts institutions are making themselves more relevant to the

marketplace and attractive to students, an entrepreneurial effort.

Some scholars have questioned a sole reliance on entrepreneurial strategies and

that institutional change requires more than ideas and innovation. Beckman and

Cherwitz (2009) challenged the proponents of entrepreneurship and suggest that

garnering faculty support through visionary leadership, considering humanistic needs,

and innovative curricula is necessary when implementing entrepreneurial leadership.

Thus, they call for “intelligent entrepreneurship,” defined by Beckman and Cherwitz as

engagement for the purpose of changing students’ lives. This method focuses on creating

cross-disciplinary and multi-institutional collaborations using innovative, creative

methods rather than ideas and innovation alone. Further, as noted by Beckman and

Cherwitz, an absence of rigor in research efforts and support by the foundational theory

of entrepreneurship leads to doubts about its usefulness in higher education settings.

Rae, Gee, and Moon (2009) conducted a case study of a teaching team that acted

as entrepreneurs for five years to stimulate enterprising learning across their university,

the University of Derby. Their exploration was grounded on the premise that the role of

the enterprising academic in stimulating cultural change is often overlooked. Their

appointed enterprise facilitators or leaders, often supported by funding, in an attempt to

increase entrepreneurial activity throughout the campus. The researchers focused on the

difficulties and frustrations experienced by the enterprise facilitators in their attempts to

bring about curricular, cultural, and institutional change. They found that the effective

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entrepreneurs developed an internal network of co-actors throughout the institution

including faculty members and administrative support, in accordance with relational

leadership theories. An external network that provided funding improved the

effectiveness of the effort.

Rae et al. (2009) also noted the importance of collaboration during entrepreneurial

change processes, again supporting relational theories. As noted by the authors,

“Expecting the individual to bring about institutional change is a more risky model,

because change arises through collective action, and the entrepreneurial team can

therefore be a more effective approach” (p. 194). A group, they argued, brings a wider

range of skills, contacts, and prior experiences than individuals acting alone and so, the

effective enterprise leaders have to possess the ability to attract people to support and

lead.

These same researchers also incorporated contingency theory into their study by

discussing the complexity and dynamic sectoral and institutional change processes of

higher education institutions. They concluded that the ability of an individual or group to

influence change is limited. As they stated “The direction of change is not fixed, and

changes in leadership or circumstances can reverse the movement towards an

entrepreneurial university” (p. 195). They asserted that change has to be negotiated

continually, that progress is not permanent or fixed, and it can be impaired or negated by

internal or external occurrences; they argue that it is a journey and not a destination.

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It was also concluded by Rae et al. (2009) that cultural change creates conflict and

that conflict can yield both change and learning. The form of an entrepreneurial

university, they further argue, will likely reflect its own history and culture as well as that

of stakeholders. An understanding of these potential barriers is necessary to try to

incorporate them into the new culture. They stated “Each institution needs to create and

shape its own narrative of entrepreneurial change, and while there is great potential for

people in one university to learn from another, the replication of a model is unlikely to

work” (p. 195). Lastly, they argued that self-sustaining business models need to be

created to fund the entrepreneurial process if it is to be institutionalized and maintained

and if the institutional capacity for change is to be ensured.

Contingency

A number of scholars have emphasized the significance of internal and external

influences on leadership processes. Cohen and March’s (1974) classic text, Leadership

and Ambiguity, set the tone and direction for the study of situational theory. Higher

education institutions are viewed as individual cultures, yet they are subject to outside

forces, especially during transformation. Burke (2008) affirmed the role of this open

system in his description of the causal model of organizational performance and change.

He asserted that the boundaries of organizations are permeable, thus constant interaction

with the environment exists, forcing constant recognition on the part of higher education

leaders. Therefore, argued Burke, institutions that consider the role of all environmental

factors during transformation, regardless of their assumed significance, will enhance the

chances for a successful transformation. In their study of a transformational merger

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between four institutions, Sebalji et al. (2007) concluded that evidence of a successful

transformation is resiliency—the ability to adapt effectively in response to external and

internal forces.

The ability to read change signals correctly in order to time appropriate leadership

interventions correctly under chaotic conditions is, according to Karp (2006), a

fundamental element in leading transformative change. McCaffery (2004) found that

institutions failing to respond to external challenges, regardless of their assumed strength,

will have difficulty implementing change. Thus, according to Bensimon et al. (1989), the

role of situational factors has to be considered when looking at various contingency

leadership theories. Some researchers prefer complexity and chaos theories because they

take into account the multi-faceted, unpredictable nature of events.

The influential power of leadership during organizational change in light of

forceful situational factors has been frequently debated. Gardner (1990) argued for the

tremendous need for effective leaders during transformation, contesting that leaders

perform tasks the organization, as an entity, cannot complete. Others, however, contend

that the impact of leadership is minimal due to the overwhelming influence of internal

and external factors. Contingency theories, in their minds, are irrelevant. In developing

their situational contingency theory, Vroom and Jago (2007) devalued the role of leaders

during transformation. They argue that contingency is created by a broad range of

factors, other than the leader, that significantly influence change. In agreement with

chaos theories, they argue that these forces are often unpredictable, making leadership

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activity irrelevant. Thus, the demands created by situational factors will overrule

established institutional functions created in accordance with leadership attributes.

Hickson, Hinings, Lee, Schneck, and Pennings (1971) presented a strategic

contingency theory of intra-organizational power. They hypothesized that, because

organizations are interdependent subunits, they distribute power in the form of a division

of labor. Thus, they argued that vertical concepts of power distribution should be

replaced by a focus on power within subunits. This theory relates the power of a subunit

to its methods of coping with uncertainty, substitutability, and centrality created by

situational factors. Based on group responses to the situational factors studied, they

concluded that power is the dependent variable, not the independent variable in relation

to contingency. Subunits of a work organization are mutually related in interdependent

activities of an identifiable social system. Thus, studies should focus on subunit or

department power rather than individual power.

Endsley (1995) developed a contingency theory asserting that effective leadership

attributes will only be present when the leader is in a suitable environment. Leadership

abilities are elevated when combined with an organizational environment that naturally

complements the existing skills of leaders. Therefore, according to Endsley,

transformative institutions need leaders whose qualities resonate with the distinct features

of the organization. In developing his situational theory, Endsley discussed the

importance of situational awareness. He defined situational awareness as an individual’s

familiarity with the dynamic environment. He argued that working memory and attention

are limiting factors when acquiring and interpreting environmental conditions crucial to

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decision-making. In accordance with Pettigrew and Whipp (1993), Endsley concluded

that negative impacts are minimized when leaders rely on conscious experiences and

attention to internal and external influences, based on both personal and stakeholder

observations, to identify influences and implement practices.

Fiedler (1967) conducted a study to determine the relationship between leaders’

attitudes and group performance based on responses to unexpected events. He sought to

determine if a leader will be more or less effective than other leaders in similar situations.

This contingency theory study used data derived from perceptions that were

communicated to the researcher and that ultimately led to the assignment of an attitude

score for constituents. Fiedler viewed “types of leaders” in terms of the relationships

built with constituents and categorized them. He found that there is a correlation between

a leader’s attitude and group performance. When discussing results, Fiedler added that

leaders have the ability to learn to lead more effectively. Thus, a broad spectrum of

leaders may be used in a wide variety of situations. In opposition to Endsley’s

contingency theory, he argued that leaders should be encouraged to learn effective

leadership strategies to enable them to manage contingency successfully, in accordance

with cognitive theory.

Scholars have debated the significance of contingency theories in relation to the

role of chaos in leadership activity. Kezar et al. (2006) found that complexity and chaos

theories challenge contingency theories specifically due to their tendency to simply

match leadership styles to specific tasks, regardless of other influences. These theories

promote grassroots efforts, the establishment of feedback mechanisms, and exertion of

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minimal direct control due to the complex, nonlinear nature of higher educational

institutions.

Cutright (2001) argued that chaos is not random activity. A proponent of

authoritative leadership, he proposes a directive leadership style that creates an

organizational anarchy that integrates loose coupling in order to provide the flexibility

and adaptability necessary to flow with these predictable patterns. Karp (2006) viewed

the acceptance of chaos and emergent principles as a way of leading that will enable

leaders to identify patterns of change.

Power and Influence

Power and influence theories review the distribution of power and the leader’s

exercise of that power. Bensimon et al. (1989) categorized power distribution patterns as

hierarchical, individualistic, and collegial. Hierarchical approaches promote an

authoritative style where authority and power are assumed to be proportional to one’s

position in the administrative pecking order while collegial leadership demonstrates

collectiveness through the integration of committees and task forces. The individualistic

model, a lesser discussed approach in higher education literature, allocates authority

based on professional status and recognition. Bensimon et al. contended that such

leadership opportunities have often proven ineffective and the potential not realized.

Power distribution methods may correlate with leadership and institutional

change. In a study of the leadership practices of deans implementing change, Gmelch

and Wolverton (2002) found that the distribution of leadership determined whether

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transactional or transformative leadership, as defined by Burns (1978), was implemented.

They note that hierarchical leadership structures, featuring reward systems and promotion

processes, favored transactional leadership approaches and that that hierarchical

leadership practices are often favored because they are considered less stressful and less

complex. Therefore, the authors claim that, due to the institution’s leader-centered power

distribution, most leaders are mainly transactional. For example, the study found that

deans at research institutions indicated greater difficulty when attempting to implement

transactional strategies than deans of liberal arts institutions. The authors suggested that

the dual role of serving as a fundraiser and faculty advocate as well as being held to

standards of compliance and conformity while being urged to increase research

productivity and innovation challenge higher education leaders attempting

transformation. The study also concluded that a combination of transactional and

transformative leadership practices, requiring a combination of leader-centered and

shared governance, is most effective.

Leader-centered. Altbach, Berdahl, and Gumport (2005) noted that the

centralization of governance at many higher education institutions has increased due to

budget pressures and external demands for accountability. In turn, leader-centered

leadership is more in evidence in higher education institutions. This type of leadership,

they argued, is characterized by hierarchical, directive patterns. Two of Goleman’s

(1998) leadership styles fit this approach: coercive leadership, which demands

compliance and pacesetting, and authoritative leadership, which mobilizes people for

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action. The effectiveness of these styles of leadership during institutional change

continues to be debated.

As Bolman and Deal (2003) found, the clear division of roles, leading to clearer

understandings of individual responsibilities is a dominant argument in favor of leader-

centered methods. An effectively adapted hierarchical structure is clear, predictable, and

secure. The allocation of authority creates this sense. Formal roles prescribe duties and

describe how functions occur in a synchronized fashion. They argued that the

identification of responsibilities and power is important because individual skills and

confidence will not guarantee successful transformation unless the organizational

structure is realigned to the new initiative. Such alignment ensures that ambiguity,

confusion, and distrust, common side-effects of transformation, are minimized.

Shared leadership. There are scholars who advocate for nonhierarchical and

democratic forms of leadership through which leadership is shared and they favor a shift

from directive to mutual, two-way approaches to leadership. Kemper’s study in 2003 of

the development of higher education leaders over an extended period of time

demonstrated the strength of this trend towards shared leadership. As his sample

developed, he identified a transition from leader-centered methods to inspirational,

participatory methods.

Astin and Astin (2000) supported shared leadership in their definition of a leader.

A leader is anyone—regardless of position—who serves as an effective social change

agent. Thus, every stakeholder is a potential leader, making empowerment essential.

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They view transformative leadership as a method that attempts to combat the belief that

only people with high positions initiate change. Similarly, Fullan (2001) believed strong

institutions have leaders at all levels and Kinzie and Kuh (2004) agreed that leadership is

shared at all levels. They based their view on the premise that higher education

institutions are best run by their most immediate stakeholders—faculty, professional

staff, and students. Based on this view, governance should be administered by those who

have the greatest stake in the institution and are best equipped to understand its academic

mission. For example, Gayle, Tewarie, and White (2003) noted that the American

Association of University Professors in a 1968 statement argued that faculty should have

great influence over higher educational institution decision making despite potentially

conflicting values. However, these authors note that many institutions fail to include

professors in administrative policy making because they feel the individual desires of

these academics will influence decisions.

According to some proponents of shared leadership, situational factors limit the

effectiveness of authoritative leadership. Wheatley (1999) challenged the hierarchical

nature of leadership, claiming a decentralized system will better handle unanticipated

situations. Heifetz (1994) concurred, using complexity and chaos theory to note that the

assumed routine characteristics of leadership will not yield the adaptive and complex

responses needed to address most situations. A systematic, non-linear rather than

bureaucratic form of leadership will better enable leaders of higher education institutions

to cope with changing situational factors. Goleman (1998) warned against the use of

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coercive and authoritative leadership because it sets overly high standards of

performance, leading to the “burn out” of constituents.

Implementing desired power distribution. Bolden, Petrov, and Gosling (2008)

discovered that creating and maintaining an effective power and influence structure has

proven difficult for many higher education institutions. They examined the distribution

of leadership of 12 UK higher education institutions. In their study of multi-level models

of leadership within institutions, they considered five main elements of leadership

practice: personal, social, structural, contextual, and developmental. While their findings

indicated that the institutions widely distributed leadership among the schools, common

challenges were found. Institutions had difficulty maintaining an effective balance

among top-down, bottom-up, and lateral processes of communication and influence.

They found that “Tensions existed between the need for collegiality and managerialism,

individual autonomy and collective engagement, leadership within disciplines and the

institution, academic and administrative authority, informality and formality, and stability

and change” (p. 364). In addition, formal budget holders held a disproportionate amount

of power.

In order to prevent domination by select individuals which may lead to isolation,

as well as prevent confusion regarding individuals’ roles and responsibilities, Eisler and

Carter (2010) suggested a hybrid approach to power and influence strategies. They

propose a partnership approach to transformative leadership. This method uses

leadership to inspire rather than control and to engage and empower others. Domination

is replaced by partnership. Linking rather than ranking occurs. Hierarchy and

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responsibility are still important, but they are considered hierarchies of actualization

rather than domination by these two authors. In hierarchies of actualization, they argue,

everyone serves as mentors and facilitators, thus, everyone assumes a leadership role.

Relational Considerations

Participatory governance. Scholars continue to examine the role of distinct

groups and individuals composing higher education institutions, with an emphasis on the

clear appreciation of the participation of all stakeholders. Perkins, Bess, Cooper, Jones,

Armstead, and Speer (2007) stated “Organizations that empower staff and volunteers

through opportunities for learning and participation at the individual level are better able

to succeed in terms of organizational-level learning and transformation” (p. 16).

Schneider (2003) concurred, urging higher education institution leaders to summon the

vision, the will, and the long-term commitment of its large, diverse array of stakeholders

to support and advance innovations into more intentional, connected, and cumulatively

powerful frameworks for change.

During the post-industrial years, relational leadership theories emerged in the

form of team leadership. Rost (1991) noted that process and mutuality take precedence

over individual leaders or groups. These theories were founded on the premise that

leadership is a process through which people work together to accomplish change. Kezar

et al. (2006) found that relational theorists argue against the notion that change is not of

interest to all stakeholders and that consensus is forged through participation. When

collective action is not taken, fragmentation results. According to Goleman (1998), a

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result of the popularity of this belief is that heroic leaders have been replaced by teams

and collectives, a form of leadership that the author refers to as “democratic leadership.”

Astin and Astin (2009) claimed leadership is a collective process, conforming to

relational theory. They base their argument for participatory, transformative processes on

this definition of leadership. They feel leaders cannot create transformation alone. The

transtheoretical model presented by Wirth (2004) complements this notion. It defines

organizational change as the collective transformation of behaviors of all individuals

based on a common goal. Thus, all stakeholders participate in the change process. For

Rost (1991), leaders guide rather than dictate. The leader acts mutually with others,

appealing to constituent needs and inspiring and motivating them to take actions to reach

a unified goal. Symbolic leadership theory, according to Rost, is incorporated in to

transformational leadership theory because leaders motivate by providing meaning, not

simply through rewards.

Burns (1978) is credited with developing leadership theory, linking relational and

power and influence theory. In his description of transformative theory, Burns discussed

transforming and transactional leaders. Using the transactional approach, leaders

implement a trade approach through which an exchange occurs that benefits the

individuals. He urged, however, that transforming approaches more effectively

implement change because they evoke the good nature of constituents and guide them to

greater, more universal goals. While his theory is still hierarchical and leader-focused,

Burns emphasized a connection between leaders and moral purpose. On the other hand,

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McCaffery (2004) favored a client-focused methodology that supports the transactional

nature of the relationship between the institution and its various clients.

Love and Estanek (2004) used the term “pervasive leadership” to depict their

relational leadership strategy. A collective struggle by individually generated

relationships and actions throughout an organization focused on struggling together to

accomplish shared goals defines pervasive leadership. Pervasive leadership values

dualisms, such as both rather than either, demonstrates paradigm transcendence by

accepting the coexistence of multiple views, recognizes the connectedness of various

institutional entities, and appreciates paradoxes by considering contradictory assertions

and beliefs. According to Fullan (2001), pervasive leadership success is contingent on

the leader’s sense of moral purpose, understanding of the change process, relationship

building, knowledge making, and creating coherence amongst constituents. The

pervasive leadership model differs from Wirth’s (2004) model because it recognizes

individuals’ interests. Wirth assumed that individuals base their actions on the needs of

the organization, not individual interests.

McCaffery (2004) stated that this distributive phenomenon may promote

transformation by creating a sense of “university citizenship.” This enables members of

the institutional community to determine the meaning of initiatives. Cohen (2003)

argued that leaders cannot impose visions; rather, they must be accepted. According to

Adalberto and Martinez (2002), the engagement of persons in a process will help them

identify with transformational goals and, for Bolden et al. (2008), the bridge between

“social capital” and “social identification” creates a connection between individuals and

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the structure of their organization. Thus, according to these authors, higher education

leadership is a hybrid between individual and group actions. As a result, not only will

individuals believe change is necessary, but a shared mind-set of how to implement

change will increase the likelihood of success. Further, noted Kezar (2009), stakeholders

are often unaware of change initiatives and so the involvement of a variety of

stakeholders may enhance transformative processes.

Meyerson (2003) identified three vital considerations for transformative leaders in

higher education that are relevant to relational theory. First, leaders identify and

articulate immediate threats or opportunities relevant to the desired change. They then

strategically use organizational structures and resource while framing the issue as a

matter of shared concern. Fullan (2001) concurred, adding that, using these methods,

leaders may explicitly convey a sense of purpose and mobilize individuals to solve

problems. Meyerson used the term “tempered radicals” in describing the democratic

leadership style necessary for change. He stated “This version of leadership depends not

on charismatic flair, instant success, or inspirational visions, but on qualities such as

patience, self-knowledge, humility, flexibility, idealism, vigilance, and commitment” (p.

171).

Miller and Nadler (2009) conducted a study to determine the status of higher

education student bodies. They stated that student involvement in institutional

governance is now fragmented. The authors argued that it is critical for students to be

involved because they can either support change efforts or resist them. Thus, they need

to be purposefully involved in any transformation effort. Individual benefits include self-

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discipline, acceptance of diversity, development of an understanding of institutional

governance, experience increased college satisfaction, provide service to others, and find

the college experience more meaningful to their lives. In addition, argued Grubb and

Lazerson (2005), the involvement of students will help liberal arts leaders develop

programs connecting traditional values with professional education. Miller et al. stated

that the inclusion of students in transformative efforts may increase their tolerance and

acceptance of change. The multiple goals of institutions are more easily approached

because students, the focus of education, are actively participating in change processes.

Collaboration. In congruence with relational leadership theory, Bensimon

(2005) recognized that teams directed toward a collective vision that challenges

established mental models are likely to undergo personal change, resulting in the desire

for individuals to take leadership roles. Smith and Parker (2005) applied Bensimon’s

idea to their study of increasing the diversity of campuses. They stressed the positive

implications of collaboration made possible by the development of effective

relationships. Further, according to Wheatley (1999), collaborative efforts will permit the

adaptive response necessary for leaders to succeed. This ability to deal effectively with

the complexity and unexpected situations by faced higher education institutions through

collaboration complements the complexity and chaos contingency theories to be

discussed later.

Kezar et al. (2006) noted that functionalist literature focuses on strategies to best

foster leadership in a team setting. They identified diversity, as well as valuable and

plentiful dialogue, as necessities of effective collaboration. The diversity presented by

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individuals will encourage others’ to recognize and accept the viewpoints of others.

These authors believed that differences and various interpretations build a cognitive

complexity that can be used to address a wide array of situations. They continued by

arguing that, similar to cognitive leadership theories, team leadership values dialogue.

Authentic communication facilitates an engaging, collective process of examining data

and developing plans to challenge existing mental models in order to increase diversity.

Positive implications result from the learning that takes place in these collective settings,

modifying participants’ cognitive maps. It is this understanding, appreciation, and

knowledge that will facilitate transformation by encouraging engagement and

collaboration.

Relationships, emotions, and attitudes. Goleman (1998) used “affilitative

leadership” as the term to describe leadership founded on building relationships. Montez

(2003) argued that relational and interactive behaviors are important for effective

leadership at all levels of higher education and Astin and Astin (2000) stated that overall,

presidents’ choices must reflect awareness and understanding of an academic

community’s needs, concerns, and hopes. Thus, they argued, it is important to show

empathy and understanding of others, leading to the building of trust.

The goal of affiliatative leadership is to create harmony and build emotional

bonds. For example, spirituality is a consideration during transformative processes.

Astin (2004) concluded in his study of individuals’ roles in the transformation of liberal

arts institutions that spirituality is critical because it touches directly on our sense of

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community and it can serve as a central place to strengthen connectedness amongst

stakeholders.

In their study of the effective strategies of liberal arts presidents, Hatch and

Cunliffe (2006) found that an attitude-centered approach proved successful. They

concluded that this leadership style equipped staff with a progressive understanding that

embraces the value of innovation, competitive intelligence, and market planning. This

requires changing values and activities with persuasive appeals, training programs, and

team-building activities, all incubators for innovation. They believed that new attitudes

and skills cause behavior to change in a beneficial way. Bass, Avolio, Jung, and Berson

(2003) added that these individuals become change agents themselves and transmit the

vision to other people in the organization.

For Astin and Astin (2000), demonstrating respect is critical. Fullan (2001)

contended that leaders must express clear standards, set high standards, pay attention to

constituents, provide personalized recognition, disclose as much information as possible,

collectively celebrate, and set an example. Bolman and Deal (2003) concurred, stressing

the notion that celebration may improve relationships as it will keep spirits high and

supportive of transformational change.

Despite overwhelming support for collective efforts on the part of students of

leadership, collaboration efforts are often devalued due to the complexity of today’s

higher education institution. They are often viewed as inefficient and unproductive.

Astin and Astin (2000) argued that collaboration is ordinarily difficult to achieve in

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hierarchical and individualistic environments common in higher education. However, if

values and beliefs of members in relational settings resonate and leadership effectively

manages functions, collaborative efforts such as committees and task forces may

successfully transform higher education institutions.

On the other hand, some scholars have questioned the authenticity of individual

desires to act solely to promote the institution. Schein (1996) argued that individuals are

not subordinated into groups. Rather, individual desires define groups. Thus,

transformation can be seen as a collection of individual activities, not a unified function.

Despite connections to corporate cultures, Schein argued, individuals make decisions

based primarily on self-interests. These actions are critical because individuals are the

building blocks of institutions. Further, he argued that institutions are cultures and

individuals ultimately create the culture that is a critical part of any institutional mission

change. Desires of individuals, however, can easily overshadow the goals of

organizational change and, so, when the needs of individuals are met by listening to their

concerns, encouraging their active participation, and rewarding acts that promote change

efforts, common goals are more likely to be fulfilled. Thus, concluded Schein (1996),

true collaborative efforts are based on individual interests, not institutional goals.

Networks. Karp (2006) stated “The nature of an organization undergoing change

is best understood as networks of relationships and communication” ( p. 4). The

influence of individuals on one another creates the behavior and identity of the

institution. Perkins et al. (2007) found that it is critical for organizations to develop an

understanding of influential networks. Because transformation includes a wide array of

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internal and external stakeholders, effective chains of alliances, in the form of networks,

promote transformation. Allen and Cherney (2000) argued that, due to increasing

globalization, networks are especially critical and that leaders are required to think

macroscopically. Networks now cross institutional boundaries. Further, networks,

according to these authors, are only successful when power is distributed throughout

institutions, complementing shared government ideals. Top-down hierarchies will find

networking difficult. Drucker (1994) noted that networks can be built by taking down

structural and cultural barriers to sharing. He further argued that an understanding of

social networks, a product of culture, enables leaders to contend with challenging

employee behavior. Nesteruk (2004) stressed the social capital theory which presents the

core idea that social networks have value. He stated that individuals tend to retreat into

fundamentalism in order to eliminate conflicts and to avoid those that present differences

or opposition. As a result, similar entities tend to group together, preventing the building

of a diverse group. He claimed that this will result in the lack of critical engagement in

the world by individuals and will lead to diminished aspirations, preventing full

achievement of all. The building of diverse social networks, however, will revitalize

engagement of individuals, improving the operations of organizations.

Cultural Considerations

Cultural Theories. Cultural theories have been developed to examine

connections between established cultures and institutional change. Bensimon et al.

(1989) emphasized that interaction and symbolic functions related to leadership are the

focus of cultural theories whereas Kezar et al. (2006) examined the effect of values and

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symbolic dimensions of higher education institutions and they view leadership as a unit

within a broader, complex social system.

Burns (1978) introduced the notion that leadership is an invention constructed by

people, and not a social reality that can be discovered. He argued that leadership is not

centralized; instead, leadership is part of the human condition and, as such, is highly

influenced by established cultures. Burns also argued that leaders play a significant role

in the development of culture. Schein (1992) concurred with Burns’ emphasis on the

significant role of leaders in higher education institutional culture. Kotter and

Schleshinger (2008) found that, because higher education institutions are cultures,

transformative processes require an appreciation of values and missions. These values

are the foundation of all institutional decisions. Effective leaders, they argue, establish

and communicate values and ensure that stakeholders are involved in mission-oriented

activities. This role contrasts with managers, whose focus is on task completion.

Drucker (1954) argued that the frustration and failure of organizations is often

due to a lack of attention to institutional mission during decision-making processes.

Bolman and Deal (2003) encouraged the development of rituals, symbols, and metaphors

to supplement changes by ensuring new missions are adhered to. However, they believed

core values must be adhered to as well. By ensuring that stakeholders appreciate the

motives of refined missions, leaders will effectively promote behaviors symbolic of new

values.

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Several studies reveal similar conclusions regarding the link between culture and

change. According to Kezar and Eckel (2002), one can establish two links between

culture and change. First, institutional culture should encourage change. Second, culture

is modified as a result of the change process. Building on these ideas, they explored the

ways culture shapes an institution’s change processes or strategies. They viewed culture

as a modifying element rather than a subject of modification. Change was identified as

pervasive, deep, intentional, long-term, and influential on values, beliefs, and structures

and they found several core strategies. They identified a hierarchy in the form of senior

administrative support that provided positional leadership in the form of value statements,

resources, or new administrative structures. However, the involvement of both positional

and non-positional individuals throughout the campus in the change process indicated the

implementation of collaborative leadership. Complementary to Kezar and Eckel’s

results, Astin (2004) concluded in his studies of liberal higher education institutional

transformation that efforts to change structures have little chance of success if culture is

ignored.

Eccles and Nohria (1992) developed a “robust design” of leadership that

expressed itself in a deliberate transformative plan. According to their research, “vision”

was defined by leaders’ development of a desirable, flexible, clear, and understandable

picture of the future that includes goals and objectives related to the picture’s

implementation. They found that, among all of these strategies and in all institutions

studied, there is a relationship between institutional culture and change. Further, the

nature of this relationship varies amongst the institutions. These strategies were

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implemented in various ways to suit the nature of each campus. In accordance with

Schein (1985), they concluded that if strategies for change violate cultural norms, change

will most likely not occur. Thus, higher education leaders must be sensitive to the

relationship between culture and change strategies. Thornton (2004), on the other hand,

took a contradictory view when it comes to the impact of change on culture. She reverses

the role of transformational change and culture, arguing that culture shapes strategic

actions of institutions and not the other way around.

Philosophic and scholarly traditions. Several scholars have argued that

successful changes require a balance between academic traditions and change initiatives

(Astin 2004; Beckman and Cherwitz, 2009). The latter authors argued that when

organizations experience competing demands for the services they offer and methods of

delivering them, they seek a balance between accommodating the demands and

maintaining their institutional core and some organizations are more likely to seek this

balance than others.

Fear, Adamek, and Imig (2002) questioned whether higher education is utilizing

the full range of scholarship available when exercising leadership for change in higher

education. They note that transformative change is not a monolithic phenomenon that is

understood philosophically and conceptually in only one way. Multiple and diverse

philosophic and scholarly traditions may impact any change process differently.

Contemporary change platforms, including the undergraduate educational shift from a

focus on teaching to learning and the desire for institutional engagement with society

indicate the value of connecting change with these traditions. These change platforms,

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they argue, carry different meanings for different individuals and, because meaning is a

contingent phenomenon, discourse, in the form of dialogue, is important. Habermas

(1984) argued that this scholarly effort promotes understanding through critical analysis,

putting assumptions, beliefs, and positions uncritically in the spotlight for critical

analysis. Fear et al. (2002) argued that higher education must embrace different ways of

understanding and encourage stakeholders to respect differences as well as listen and

learn from different perspectives, experiences, and approaches. They concluded that

change efforts are enriched when scholarly understanding is achieved by seeking deeper

understanding through dialogue that considers different and opposing philosophies,

perspectives, and approaches, rather than through a simple definition. Leadership

platforms that are more embracing than declarative, more inviting than directive, and

more connecting than restrictive will more effectively implement change. However, a

number of scholars, including Damrosch (1995), Fish (1994), and Readings (1996),

found disinterest, political agendas, and the increased specialization of scholars challenge

this change method.

The methods of integrating professional programs into liberal education programs

and the incongruence between traditional values and change strategy have been studied

by a number of scholars. According to Raelin (2007), the process of implementing

professional programs is overwhelmingly based on traditional liberal arts institutional

theory. He argued that a more practice-oriented approach to this transition is necessary to

increase capacity for change but, instead, traditional liberal arts mechanisms are currently

being used to integrate professional programs that promote practice-oriented curricula

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aimed to prepare students for specific activities. Raelin believed that this approach may

be less effective, emphasizing the importance of incorporating scholarly values into

transformative processes.

Cognitive Processes

There is a significant emphasis in the current scholarly literature on democratic,

participatory leadership. However, according to Jones et al. (2008), “Liberty without

competence is an empty proposition” (p. 66). Building on this urgency for competence,

Karp (2006) stated, “Organizations do not just do something new; they build their ability

to do things in new ways” (p. 6). Without institutional capacity for change, goals will

not be met. Therefore, scholars study cognitive processes and their impact on

institutional capacity for change. Individual and collective learning, as well as emotional

intelligence, are highlighted in the literature.

Cognitive theories. Cognitive theories focus on perceptions, learning, and, of

course, thought processes rather than on the analysis of traits and behaviors (Bensimon et

al., 1989). Cognitive theorists desire to understand how individuals attribute actions and

outcomes to leaders of higher education institutions. Attribution theories are generally

described as psychological concepts of methods through which people attribute traits and

causes to things they observe. Kezar et al. (2006) concurred, adding that practices like

self-reflection as well as attribution theories, which focus on how individuals align causes

to specific events, are considered in cognitive theories. These theories align with

institutional capacity for change by noting the role of competence in the form of

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knowledge and understanding of higher education functions, interpersonal relationships,

and personal attributes.

Bolman and Deal’s (2003) four frames—political, symbolic, structural, and

human resource—may also be integrated into descriptions of cognitive orientations. It is

important to relate cognitive processes to these organizational frames that can lead to

institutional transformation. Similar to chaos theory, different situations may require an

emphasis on different orientations. Thus, highly developed reflection skills enable higher

education leaders to analyze carefully situations in order to choose the most effective

orientation for change.

Reflection. A number of scholars have suggested that effective leaders engage in

reflective practices. Daniel Goleman’s (1998) studies on emotional intelligence

concluded that leaders must first understand their own emotions by learning how to

assess them and manage them effectively. The four components of emotional

intelligence—self-awareness, self-management, social awareness, and relationship

management—are emotional competencies that are not innate talents, but are instead

learned capabilities that must be developed to achieve outstanding performance. Self-

awareness includes the ability to read one’s emotions and recognize their impact while

using gut feelings to guide decisions. Self-management involves controlling one’s

emotions and impulses and adapting to changing circumstances. Social awareness is the

ability to sense, understand, and react to others’ emotions while comprehending social

networks. Relationship management is the ability to inspire, influence, and develop

others while managing conflict.

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Raelin (2007) found that self-reflection is often identified as a means of

increasing the emotional intelligence of higher education leaders since it encourages both

the production and application of knowledge. According to Karp (2006), reflective

practices are associated with contextualized learning theory that posits that learning can

occur in the midst of practice. Through professional and personal reflection on past,

present, and future learning points, individuals construct an interior change map.

Fullan (2001) agreed that emotional intelligence, in combination with intellectual

brilliance, is critical. In terms of intellectual brilliance, leaders must know the meaning

of actions and why they are important to the institution. As a result, they will create an

appropriate environment when interacting with others. As Sebalji et al. (2007) noted, “In

leading people through change, attention must be given to cultivating quality

relationships so as to counteract the negative dynamics that change can bring about” (p.

282). Bryman (2007) concurred that consideration is found to be universally vital to

leadership in higher education, integrating cognitive theories with relational theories of

leadership.

Sullivan and Rosin (2008) found that dialogue may result from high emotional

intelligence, leading to greater meaning for all stakeholders. The engagement in

collaborative dialogue, coupled with writing and reflection, will enable participants in

liberal arts institutions to inquire deeply into what teaching for practical judgment means

to their campus. Further, McCaffery (2004) noted that self-reflection may increase

awareness of less apparent influences. Institutional transformational efforts may fail

because leaders pay too much attention to factors that are obvious. They may lack

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acknowledgement and understanding of less apparent influences. In these instances,

notes the author, self-reflection may minimize these detrimental oversights.

Institutional Capacity for Change

Keenan and Marchel (2007) argued that resources, both tangible and human-

based, are necessary during institutional transformation and that support for change,

coupled with a climate for change is necessary. This includes expertise as well as

emotional and financial support. According to these authors, an institution’s capacity for

change is built through internal and external resources, governance and organizational

structures, and a transformative change strategy.

Leadership. According to Taylor et al. (2008), before resource allocation for

transformative action can occur, an institution must establish that it has effective

leadership capable of orchestrating a comprehensive institutional planning process. Their

study of institutional presidents measured the extent to which they understood and

participated in the planning process. More successful presidents demonstrated greater

knowledge and engagement. According to Staskeviciute and Neverauskas (2008),

because of the large gap between “what is” and “what needs to be,” many leaders

conclude that their organizations lack the collective intelligence for transformation. They

assert that institutions must build intelligence and a capacity for change. Intelligent

universities are characterized as “learning organizations in the context of rapid global

change” (p. 96). Further, they have systems and structures that enable staff at all levels

to work collaboratively, to learn continuously and to put their learning to use.

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Governance. The governance structure of higher education institutions impacts

transformative efforts and so the implementation of appropriate, effective governance

systems is critical. Usman (2010) conducted a study of academic staff undergoing

institutional change. This researcher found that the creation of a formal governance

mechanism was affected by the quality of leadership and effective leaders comprehended

the importance of the performance of governance mechanism. Thus, leadership quality

and governance effectiveness are correlated.

Scholars have pointed out that an institutional governance structure that aligns

with transformational goals will be most effective. As a result, effective leaders seek this

congruence. Trakman (2008) conducted a study of various higher education institutions

and put forth the premise that governing bodies face crisis in the confidence of their

leadership. Thus, he suggested that leaders should understand, and take advantage of,

opportunities to develop good governance practice. Institutions were identified as

demonstrating shared, corporate, or trustee governance based on identified functions.

Trakman found a strong correlation between good governance and effective institutional

transformation.

Lawler and Conger’s (2001) idea of governance agreed with Trakman’s, claiming

that strategically aligning governance structure with institutional objectives will promote

change efforts. Usman’s (2010) conclusions also agreed with those of Trakman. He

notes that:

the relationship between an organization and its stakeholders, especially how an institution satisfies its stakeholders justly and adequately, is clearly an important issue in a concept of good governance. The presence of good governance will

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drive performances that reflect the successes of a process of strategy implementation in the operation. (p. 9)

Thus, before choosing a model, institutional leadership has to determine what they hope

to achieve. Incremental modifications to governance models can then be incorporated to

enable institutions to adapt to environmental fluctuations.

Governance patterns could be developed based on the organizational structure of

the institution. Bolman and Deal’s (2003) four frames, structural, human resources,

political, and symbolic, are frequently referenced in higher education literature. Higher

education leaders are challenged to develop a structure that will lead to effective change

processes to promote objectives. Bolman and Deal proposed that leaders must choose a

frame, or a combination of frames, according to the institution’s unique features and

goals. In their study of multi-level models of leadership within institutions, Bolden et al.

(2008) considered five main elements of leadership practice; personal, social, structural,

contextual, and developmental. These elements should be considered when developing

organizational structures to ensure alignment between objectives and institutional

features.

Change strategy. Scholars have debated whether significant organizational

change occurs through substantial, sporadic events or through steady, minute actions.

Gersick (1991) argued that the punctuated equilibrium model states that organizational

functions predominantly remain constant, or at equilibrium, and are interrupted with

sudden bursts of fundamental change and that. Change, according to Gersick (1991),

does not occur in a linear fashion. Romanelli and Tushman (1994) believed that

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extensive transformations are prevalent within organizations and that, according to

punctuated equilibrium models, balanced, continuous, incremental change does not yield

transformative results. According to Parsons and Fidler (2005), significant, periodic

transformation is supported by equilibrium periods during which efficiency rises as

adaptations are fully implemented to achieve new goals. According to these authors,

punctuated equilibrium accounts for long-term changes in businesses.

Contrasting theories propose that incremental, continuous change most

significantly affects organizations. Argyris and Schon (1978) referred to these changes

as first-order changes because they improve current operations but do not fundamentally

change them. Lewin (1952) referred to this constant state of change leading to a state of

equilibrium as “quasi-stationary equilibrium.” Some changes are successful and fully

adopted while others fail and are forgotten. Despite the failure of some changes,

incremental, continuous change will most effectively transform institutional missions

because these transformations are prescriptive, not responsive. Further, Lewin argued,

the risk level is minimized because stakeholders are not subjected to dramatic measures.

Support may increase because efforts are not viewed as desperate. It gives institutional

leaders time to build a solid support system for sustainable evolution. For Gardner

(1990) the process of altering established human activity, especially those based on

culture and values, is disorderly and slow. It is a process of trial and error, yielding more

failures than successes. However, ultimately, desirable results are realized through

incremental change.

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Conclusion

A review of the role of higher education leaders in the transformative change

process indicates that behavioral, marketing, contingency, power and influence,

relational, cultural, cognitive, and institutional capacity considerations are critical. These

elements, in combination with an understanding of the development of liberal education

from foundation to present, create a sense of the dilemmas experienced by leaders of

liberal arts institutions as they encounter and respond to changing market conditions.

By conducting the proposed historical case study, the researcher explored in depth

how a traditional liberal arts institution, over the expanse of its history as an institution of

higher learning, successfully transformed itself into a comprehensive university while, at

the same time, preserving its liberal arts values. The depth of this case study will add to

the limited number of studies that have focused on this type of transformative process.

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CHAPTER 3. METHODOLOGY

Theoretical Framework: Initial Research Questions and Objectives

This study aimed to explore what leadership attributes and activities successfully

guided Mercer University leaders during its long history as the institution was

transformed from a private liberal arts college into a comprehensive university that

remain committed to its liberal arts values and mission. An historical case study of

Mercer University provided insight into and greater understanding of how institutional

transformation can be successfully carried out in a constantly changing environment.

The use of historical methodology has promoted an understanding of the past

development of a current problem, allowing the researcher to better understand its

present implications. Gottschalk (1950) described this process as a search for the

“lessons of history” that will help contemporary man solve his present problems. By

studying the historical transformation of Mercer University, a deeper understanding of

the transformative processes that leaders can implement in order to successfully adapt to

changing societal demands was developed. The application of research findings to

institutions in similar situations may enable leaders to implement similar strategies in

hopes of also finding success.

Focus of the Study

In recent decades, an increasing number of liberal arts institutions have failed to

successfully respond to changing market conditions. As noted previously, many have

closed their doors. Therefore, it is important to study the leadership practices exhibited at

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an institution that has successfully transformed itself as a way to understand the

transformative process and, hopefully, provide guidance to liberal arts institution leaders

that are struggling with current market forces. Despite challenges to liberal arts

institutions, Mercer University, a private, comprehensive, liberal education-based

institution, has remained a strong competitor in the market for students. Mercer

University is an exemplary case of a liberal arts institution that has been effectively

transformed in response to changing societal demands. Thus, an understanding of the

transformative leadership processes has provided insight for other liberal arts institutions

faced with similar challenges.

Research Design Strategy

This qualitative historical case study describes the evolution of Mercer

University from a liberal arts higher education institution into a comprehensive higher

education institution and will examine the extent to which its evolution exemplifies the

best of transformational leadership theory. As stressed by Creswell (2009), a case study

can be an exploration of a process, in this case, the transformative leadership actions

leading a transition from a liberal arts institution to a comprehensive institution. The

case study is an inquiry that investigates a contemporary phenomenon in depth in a real-

life context: It is a methodology that enables a researcher to cope with the many

variables presented by a distinctive situation (Yin, 2009). The historical transformation

of Mercer University was explored in developing a holistic and meaningful view of the

transformative processes of liberal arts institutions.

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This study was exploratory, descriptive, and explanatory in nature. Similar to a

strictly historical study, a variety of evidence was collected, including historical

documents and books. Additionally, institutional publications, interviews, and direct

observations were used to answer the research questions so that the study will combine

both historical and contemporary events that will render a more complete picture of

Mercer University’s transformative process. As a case study, the focus was on

determining what leadership attributes and activities guided Mercer University’s leaders

toward successful program transformation as educational demands of students shifted

toward professionally-oriented programs of study and how these leaders balanced their

college’s existing values and goals with those introduced by professionally-oriented

programs. Mercer University represents an important case study of how a liberal arts

institution can be transformed into a comprehensive university in response to changing

market conditions and by studying its transformation one can hopefully make a

significant contribution to knowledge and theory building on transformative leadership.

Lastly, the historical nature of this case study describes and analyzes how certain

conditions changed over time and the impact that these changes had on the

transformative process (Yin, 2009). History deals with change. Thus the continuity

provided in a historical study enables the researcher to provide a longer term perspective

on the change process.

Gottschalk (1950) defined historical method as the analyzing of surviving

testimony for reliable evidence about the past of humankind. He stated that the historian

is a guardian of cultural heritage and narrator of the development of mankind. A

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historical study is valuable because, according to Shafer (1974), “In a sense, it can be

asserted that the life of man—especially, but not exclusively, civilized man—is almost

entirely a history of ideas, that these are engines that chiefly determine the direction of

human movement” (p. 36).

The German terms Gesetzwissenschaft and Geschichtswissen are used to describe

the relationship between single cases and general ideas. Gesetzwissenschaft employs a

single case merely in order to help one to understand a basic principle, whereas a

Geschichtswissen employs a general principle in order to help understand a single case.

According to Gottschalk, historians often fail to consider the importance of

understanding general principles and of knowing whether the single cases which they

are studying fit into any generalization or typification. As a result, ideas are often of

little or no interest to others. He noted that, at the time of writing his book, historians

were increasingly favoring the notion that each separate human act has its own history

and is appealing to historians. Generalizations are apt to prove inadequate when applied

to particular individuals. Shafer (1974) agreed by defining history as a discipline in

which evidence of past events is collected, the evidence is evaluated, and meaningful

discussions occur based on this evidence.

Gottschalk (1950) further discussed the use of historical studies. He argued that

only historical pursuits to better understand problems of concern to the present population

should be conducted. Thus, when a problem of interest surfaces, the historian undergoes

an endeavor to find survivors and witnesses of a historical episode to ask questions in

order to obtain relevant evidence to be assessed and used to derive a reliable answer. The

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process of historical analogy is often used to apply historical events to contemporary

issues. The historian draws analogies between episodes and developments of his own

day and those of the past. Thus, Gottschalk emphasized that history becomes a living

past. While Gottschalk (1950) argued this is a valid method of exploring history, he also

stresses that not all contemporary events mirror those of the past. Thus, the proper

adaptation of historical events to contemporary events may serve as a limitation in this

study. Shafer (1974) concurred, emphasizing that “there is much to be said for the view

that the greatest function of historical study is as an addition to experience, tending to an

appreciation of the existence in the past of the race of many confrontations with problems

similar to our own” (p. 14).

When reconstructing history, one must remember that human motivation is

closely related to historical causation (Gottschalk, 1950). When analyzing evidence, the

researcher must consider the motives of human beings. In addition, the determination of

cause is addressed in historical methodology. According to Gottschalk, the “immediate

cause” is not really a cause. Rather, it is merely the point in a chain of events, trends,

influences, and forces at which the effect begins to become visible. It is the

precipitating event. Further, historical studies are subjective processes of re-creation. It

is assumed that all sources are biased because they are human documents. This is

acceptable because historians do not wish to obtain an objective reality. Rather, they

aim to establish verisimilitude by getting as close to the truth as possible. According to

Gottschalk (1950), history becomes only that part of the human past which can be

meaningfully reconstructed from the available records and from inferences regarding

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their setting. However, the researcher must reasonably imagine what must have

happened.

Measures

Due to their subjective nature, the researcher’s role is vital in historical case

studies. According to Anderson (1998), case study research requires the following

researcher capacities: the ability to establish and adhere to boundaries for the case, the

knowledge and ability to collect data skillfully from multiple sources, the ability to

organize, interpret, synthesize, and recast information during data collection, and the

expertise to triangulate multiple sources of information and place finding s into a context

that enhances understanding of the problem.

When studying Mercer University as a case, historical method consisting of four

steps was implemented: collecting evidence, categorizing evidence, communicating

evidence, and using evidence in accordance with Shafer (1974). Historical method

involves the collection of relevant surviving objects of the printed, written, and oral

materials, the exclusion of evidence determined to be unauthentic, the extraction of

credible evidence from authentic material, and the organization of reliable evidence into

a meaning narrative (Gottschalk, 1950). Common features and problems were used to

code and categorize evidence. Chronological and topical categories were created.

Because information about authors of written documents is often limited, one has

to rely on the document itself to teach what it can about the author. For this study, a

variety of documents were collected, including, but not limited to: historical texts,

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institutional publications, and documentation of program changes and additions (e.g.

faculty committee minutes).

Further, the experiences and insights of current and past leaders were collected by

conducting formal face-to-face interviews. As described by Kvale (1996), the researcher

serves as a miner, mining the ore of meaning from a pure experience and as a traveler,

exploring a distant land to learn about a different group of people and a culture with the

goal of returning with rich stories and facts to educate. For example, the current

President, Dr. William Underwood, the Provost, Dr. Wallace Daniel, and the preceding

President of 27 years, Dr. Kirby Godsey, were interviewed. Further, vice-presidents,

deans, departmental chairs, and selective faculty and staff were interviewed.

Testimonies and documents, whether primary or secondary, are human

documents. According to Gottschalk (1950), human documents are accounts of

individual experience which reveal the individual’s actions as a human agent and as a

participant in social life. Further, they are personal reactions to the events in which they

experienced. Thus, subjectivity was considered throughout the data collection and

analysis process.

Data Collection Procedures

Documents and personal testimonies provided evidence to develop a history of

the transformation of Mercer University into a comprehensive institution. Mercer

University holds an extensive collection of archives. The Jack Tarver Library on the

Macon campus and the Swilley Library on the Atlanta campus house a variety of paper

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records that were available by request from the institution’s archivist. Primary sources

were selected whenever possible. These sources included: recorded actions by the

Board of Trustees from the inception of the institution, strategic planning documents,

and various institutional reports that address the state of the institution’s finances, its

endowment, its enrollment pattern, the size of its faculty, volumes in the library, as well

as the quality of its student body in accordance with standardized measures (e.g. SAT

scores) that record over time evidence related to institutional transformation. In

addition, the documentation of program additions and modifications were studied in

order to present an accurate picture of Mercer’s transformation into a comprehensive

university. The use of secondary sources was minimized and they were used only when

access to a primary source is limited or not available. For example, an article about

Jesse Mercer, a book about the Baptist college movement, and a book written by a

former president regarding the foundation of Mercer were used due to lack of primary

resources regarding the foundation of Mercer University. However, the university’s

historical archives were the primary source for documentation pertaining to the

historical development of the institution up until contemporary times. More

contemporary documents were found in various administrative offices of the university,

as well as the libraries previously described, especially those pertaining to finances,

enrollments, and student quality.

In addition to an in-depth exploration of printed documents and reports, the

researcher interviewed administrators—presidents, vice-presidents, deans, department

chairs—as well as faculty and staff. Duration of employment with Mercer varied

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amongst interviewees. The 21 respondents were selected with the advice and support of

the current President of Mercer, Dr. William Underwood, and the current Provost, Dr.

Wallace Daniel—both of whom offered their full cooperation to the researcher. Face-to-

face interviews were conducted by the researcher at the offices of the participants in

order to facilitate what Creswell (2009) referred to as a “sense of comfort yielding free

and open responses.” Further, open-ended questions were asked in order to promote

fluid, detailed responses to questions. Deeper probing of responses were sought using

sub-questions developed in advance as well as on-the-spot to encourage further

explanation of ideas and experiences. It was critical that the interviewees felt free to

share their thoughts freely. A better understanding of the research problem resulted.

The interviews lasted about thirty minutes and were recorded in order to ensure a record

of the responses as well as facilitate a sense of comfort due to the ability to give full

attention to the interviewees. A universal greeting and conclusion was used in each

interview.

Interviews had a conversational tone with minimal verbal and non-verbal

feedback in order to avoid influencing participant responses. Questions and statements

focused on a central theme, but were not strictly structured in order to be open to new,

relevant phenomena. In order to maintain focus, all questions were based on the research

questions.

Interviews were transcribed within 48 hours of their having taken place. As

transcriptions were created based on interviews, codes and themes were identified and

developed. These codes were uniformly used to categorize all evidence. Evidence that

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did not fit an established code or theme was examined for new perspectives and insights.

This constant process enabled the construction of follow-up questions for emergent

themes to gain additional insight and for clarification. A journal was kept to evaluate the

researcher’s insights over time, enabling a view of the development of perceptions and

insights. The duration of interviews was one month.

Data Analysis Procedures

As the focus of this study was the transformation of Mercer University from a

small liberal arts college into a comprehensive university, documentary evidence will be

gathered for the purpose of constructing a history of Mercer’s transformation. This

documentary evidence is presented within a chronological timeframe, forming a

narrative of Mercer’s development from its founding to contemporary times. This

documentary evidence did not require major analysis, but, rather, the credibility of each

piece of historical, documentary evidence was authenticated using the norms of accepted

historical methodology.

According to Gottschalk (1950), credibility is not determined by whether or not

the source provides details of what actually happened. Rather, credibility is determined

by the ability to provide evidence as close to what actually happened as possible. He

referred to this concept as the development of verisimilitude, not objective truth.

Further, Gottschalk stressed that credibility of each particular provided by a source, not

the source as a whole, must be determined. He stressed that even the least credible

source may present useful evidence. Thus, all relevant matter was considered in this

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study, whether or not it at first seems credible. According to Gottschalk, false or

mistaken testimony may enhance the understanding of a historical research problem.

Next, in developing the historical narrative, data contained in the documents was

examined to determine interrelationships and how they interacted in the ongoing

development of the institution. All of the documentary evidence was categorized and

coded so as to identify common themes and patterns in the evolution of Mercer

University. As noted earlier, all of the interviews were recorded, transcribed, and coded.

These interviews did, of necessity, cover the contemporary period of Mercer’s

development.

Validity and Reliability of Measures

It was not anticipated that there will be validity issues with respect to the

documents found in Mercer’s historical archives that were used to construct a historical

narrative of the Mercer’s development up to contemporary times. However, the

researcher did consider the validity of the secondary resources used in describing

Mercer’s foundation. The researcher, nevertheless, did take note of any inconsistencies

or anomalies in these documents in constructing the historical narrative. Gottschalk

(1950) argued that, throughout the historical narrative, events should be stressed as

points in a chain of events, not causes.

The data gathered through the interview process, however, was another matter.

Here again the canons of historical scholarship apply inasmuch as the evidence gathered

during the interview process will be pertain to historical events and developments.

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Gottschalk (1950) used the term, personal equation, or the individual’s frame of

reference, when discussing eyewitnesses to a historical event. He defined personal

equation as the ability and willingness of a witness to give a dependable testimony based

on personality and social situations. Shafer (1974) concurred, noting that sources must

be examined in the context of that figure’s own culture and time and that individual

witnesses have to be seen as inhibited by the organized and established strength of ideas

and interests of individuals grouped in institutions.

According to Gottschalk (1950), all testimonials, whether primary or secondary,

have to pass the following tests. First, the witness or source must have the geographical

and chronological ability to narrate history. Further, he or she must be competent and

possess the degree of attention necessary to provide evidence. The consideration of

egocentrism on the part of the source must be considered. The inability to tell the truth

may lead to errors of omission due to lack of completeness or lack of balance in

observation, recollection, or narrative. Failure to include important evidence or the over

or under emphasis of evidence may result. Next, the willingness of the witness or

secondary source to tell the truth has to be determined. Sources may provide conscious

or unconscious falsehoods. Thus, identification of interests of sources impacting

evidence revealed to suit personal interests has to be identified. Both bias, which favors

the witness, and odium, which is unfavorable to the witness, has to be considered.

Further, the source’s desire to please or displease needs to be detected. Often, these

tendencies lead to the misstatements of fact. Last, corroboration should be used to

determine if the source’s statements align with other evidence, determining validity.

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This process of triangulation integrates all evidence from all sources. As stressed by

Gottschalk (1950), once the reliability of the source is determined, however, each

individual piece of evidence provided by the source still have to be examined critically.

The researcher applied these tests to each person interviewed and to the data gathered

from the interviews.

Gottschalk (1950) stressed the importance of the awareness of personal bias when

conducting historical research. He stated that the historian who has no philosophical or

ethical principles has no criteria for measuring change or continuity, and, therefore,

cannot judge history. Without such judgments, historical writing, he argued, cannot be

good narrative and narrative is the essence of history. In order to prevent researcher

bias, prior to and during data collection and analysis, the researcher will maintain a

written record in her journal of potential bias and limitations. According to Creswell

(2009), “Good qualitative research contains comments by the researchers about how

their interpretations of the findings are shaped by their background” (p. 192).

The researcher considered each source’s frame of reference, described as

historical-mindedness, throughout the research process. According to Gottschalk (1950),

historical-mindedness is an effort to understand the past in its own setting. Because the

researcher did not live throughout the transformation she has to be particularly mindful of

the importance of historical-mindedness. The consideration of each source’s situation in

terms of his or her time period and situation is at the heart of historical-mindedness. It is

the effort to understand the past in its own setting. Gottschalk (1950) argued that the

researcher’s personality and experiences must be shed in order to take on the personality

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of the subject in order to understand his or her language, ideals, interests, attitudes,

habits, motives, drives, and traits. In this effort, impartial judgment, rather than criticism,

results. Historical-mindedness, therefore, served as a check on both historical and

psychological analogy in this study.

The historian’s personal equation is also important in historical methodology to

ensure validity. The researcher had no experience with Mercer University whatsoever

prior to this study, minimizing bias due to personal interactions with the institution.

Mercer University was selected due to the overwhelming amount of evidence suggesting

its successful transformation from a liberal arts college to a comprehensive institution. It

must be noted that, due to its close proximity to the researcher’s home, Mercer University

may be considered a convenience site for this case study. The researcher’s personal

experience as a 2003 master’s of business administration graduate of a struggling liberal

arts institution may potentially influence this study. Self-awareness and recording of this

potential source of bias will minimize its impact on research.

Triangulation validated data and data analysis. Several resources, including

currently published research discussed in the literature review, archives, and a variety of

past and present leaders holding differing roles will be used to validate findings through

triangulation. Frame of reference was consciously considered throughout the research

process, leading to the separation of personality traits and biases from data collection

and analysis procedures. In order to evaluate the development of the researcher’s

findings, a journal was kept.

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When conducting interviews, questions that imply an expectation of a specific

response were avoided. Further, misleading, ambiguous questions were also avoided.

Outlying evidence was analyzed. However, the researcher realized that an occasional

piece of evidence, not in keeping with the majority of evidence and possibly accidental

in nature, may provide relevant, valid information as described by Shafer (1974).

Ethical Considerations

Measures to ensure ethical standards are upheld were implemented through this

research. As emphasized by Creswell (2005), voluntariness was guaranteed by ensuring

that, at any time, the researcher provides participants the choice to modify or terminate

involvement with the study and the identity of participants. An informed consent

document was provided to and signed by each participant. This document granted

formal permission to the researcher to include the contributions of participants in the

study. It did, however, permit the participant to withdraw from the study at any time.

Creswell (2005) also stressed that the researcher must protect the identity of

participants. The identity of participants was protected by assigning arbitrary numbers

to the participants. All documents and recordings related to interviews are locked in a

file cabinet at the home of the researcher. Further, the researcher was the only

individual handling the data gathered from interviews. Thus, confidential information is

safeguarded. Three years after the completion of this research project, data will be

destroyed. The protection of the identities and data provided by participants, coupled

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with the option of withdrawing from the study at any time, promoted ethical

responsibility on the part of the researcher.

Other Factors that May Impact the Research

Historical case studies present several limitations. First, access to interviewees

that possess reliable, relevant data and are fully willing to provide data was limited. For

example, key individuals in the transformative process are no longer living, have moved

out of the area, or were unwilling or unable to contribute information. In addition,

historical documents were non-existent or did not contain key data relevant to the

transformation of Mercer University. Further, the format of archives at times did not

readily lend toward the identification and acquisition of useable evidence.

Determination of the role of multiple campuses, each exhibiting unique types of

students, program offerings, and environments was difficult to incorporate into findings.

The role of competitive institutions was also difficult to explore.

Lastly, transferability to other institutions may be minimal, making evidence and

conclusions irrelevant to some institutions. The steps taken by leaders to earn the status

of Mercer University as a liberal arts institution that successfully transformed itself into a

comprehensive institution are assumed to be useful to other liberal arts institutions.

However, several characteristics of institutions, including location within the United

States, area competitors, area job markets, area business health, average population age

within the area, and even the age of the institution, may limit the effective

implementation of similar strategies. This is due to the purposively chosen sample,

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Mercer University. Because interviewees were purposively chosen, transferability is

further lessened. Data collected only directly applies to this institution during the time

period studied. Often, historical studies are viewed only in their own historical and

organizational context. Therefore, in order to increase transferability, research findings

have been generalized to suit as many institutions as possible and promote further

research on the topic.

Conclusion

Through the use of archival data and data derived through interviews, evidence

from Mercer University’s foundation to present will enabled the researcher to explore this

institution’s transformative leaders’ attributes and strategies. Due to sound research

methodology and validity and reliability measures, the researcher’s work may be viewed

as dependable. Thus, conclusions drawn may be useful to other leaders of higher

education institutions facing situations similar to those faced by Mercer University

leadership.

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CHAPTER 4: DATA ANALYSIS AND RESULTS

Introduction

The purpose of this chapter is to provide a historical overview of Mercer

University and how it has transformed, identify challenges faced by leadership due to

transformation, and describe leadership attributes and actions implemented to promote

successful transformation. This analysis will provide insight into the research problem:

What leadership attributes and activities guided Mercer University leadership over its

long history as it transformed itself from a liberal arts college into a comprehensive

university?

The findings of the research are based on Mercer University’s archival data,

historical texts related to the foundation of Baptist ministerial education and Mercer

University, respondent statements and descriptions, and data collected from Mercer

University’s website. The chapter begins with a historical description of the founding of

Mercer as a ministerial institution and its growth into a small liberal arts institution with a

law school. A chronological depiction of the events that marked Mercer’s significant

transformation into a comprehensive institution follows. Challenges faced by Mercer

leadership resulting from its rapid and momentous transformation are then discussed as

presented by respondents, archival data, and Mercer University’s website information.

Lastly, leadership attributes that guided Mercer University’s transformation are presented

based on respondent descriptions and evidence and examples provided by institutional

publications.

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Sample

Respondents were comprised of 21 Mercer personnel of varying levels of

employment and leadership. Both the Atlanta and the Macon campus were represented

by this sample. Ten executive leaders, three deans, three department chairs, three heads

of administrative support offices, and two administrative assistants were interviewed.

Interviews were conducted in the offices of the respondents and were recorded. Within

48 hours, recordings were transcribed. Similar ideas amongst responses were then

grouped and themes based on transformation and leadership were developed. Based on

these themes, challenges and attributes and actions of leadership, as well as those related

to the development of Mercer’s vision through time were identified.

Historical data was collected from Mercer University archives retrieved from the

Jack Tarver Library and three historical texts, including an article about Mercer’s

namesake, Jesse Mercer, a book about the Baptist movement in Georgia, and a book

about Mercer’s history from its foundation to Spright Dowell’s presidency that ended in

1953. Mercer University publications found on the institution’s website provided

additional historical data and descriptions of existing programs and efforts related to the

transformation of Mercer.

Presentation of the Data and Results

The following findings are written in a historical case study context. A

chronological summary of the transformation of Mercer University serves as the

foundation on which a detailed description of transformation and leadership is developed.

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Because of the gap between the emphasis on foundational values and contemporary

transformation, findings will be presented in two forms—historical and contemporary.

Common emergent themes including challenges and actions and attributes of leadership,

based on the data of all sources, are discussed.

Mercer University History: 1803 to 1979

In order to understand fully the nature of the transformation that Mercer

University underwent, from a small liberal arts college into a comprehensive university, it

is first necessary to briefly describe the history of Mercer from its founding until the

transformative period. Connections between Mercer’s founding missions to the

transformative period will provide insight into the challenges, actions, and attributes of

leadership through the transformative period to present.

Around 1803, Baptist leaders recognized that Georgia was in need of educated

clergymen. Thus, the establishment of a school to train Baptist ministers was discussed

(Burch, 2003; Mondy, 1956). Jesse Mercer, an eminent Georgian, distinguished Baptist

clergyman, and a principal organizer of the Georgia Baptist Convention (GBC), made an

attempt to initiate ministerial education by founding Mount Enon Academy. The

school’s existence, however, was short-lived (Burch, 2003; Mondy, 1956). This early

effort was unsuccessful, in part, because the legislature feared that the Baptists were

attempting to give their religion legal sanction (Mondy, 1956).

Twenty years later, in 1822, Adiel Sherwood, Baptist minister and theologian,

formed the GBC and began an early system of ministerial education (Burch, 2003). Two

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of the six objectives of the GBC were related to Christian education and the Christian

ministry. However, sentiment regarding ministerial education was divided. Educated

leaders of the GBC were aware and concerned about the need for an educated ministry.

Thus, the GBC initiated efforts to establish ministerial schools (Dowell, 1953).

Sherwood was an advocate of manual labor institutes like those found in Germany

and New England. According to Sherwood, manual labor institutes relate learning to

labor while providing a means to finance an education. According to Burch (2003),

Sherwood claimed that manual labor schools “combined physical labor and practical

learning, dissolving the disparity between education theory and everyday practicality” (p.

125). This is a combination of the Fellenberg theory, implemented by Phillip Emanuel

von Fellenberg in German manual labor institutes, which proposed manual labor

institutions for providing opportunities to the poor to receive an education. Additionally,

they provided physical exercise, a need of Sherwood’s not fulfilled while attending

college in New England. He also believed that by adding the manual labor component to

ministerial education, the image of masculinity may attract Baptists of the South during a

time when young men were proudly attending military schools (Burch, 2003).

Sherwood incorporated two categories of ministerial education in his manual

labor schools—required and optional. First, ministerial students had to possess a

necessary knowledge. This meant that the congregation had to recognize the minister’s

possession of a call from God, a capacity to teach, good common sense, and an

acquaintance with Scripture. Secondly, Sherwood required desirable knowledge. He

recognized that Baptists believed ministers were prepared for the pastorate with only the

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knowledge they possessed and whatever God had bestowed upon them. However,

Sherwood believed that ministers should improve their minds and that ministry involved

a category of mental improvement. Further, Sherwood proposed diversification by

combining traditional southern farm labor with mechanical industry by having students

make window blinds to import to northern cities (Burch, 2003).

In 1831, upon GBC approval, Sherwood opened his own manual labor school

near Eatonton, Georgia on a 180 acre tract of land purchased for 600 dollars. Due to the

success of Sherwood’s school, the GBC decided to open another manual labor school in

Penfield, Georgia (Burch, 2003). In 1829, Josiah Penfield, an advocate of a

denominational college, left 2,500 dollars to the GBC to establish a school to train

ministers if the GBC could match the funds (Burch, 2003; Mondy, 1956). The GBC

matched the funds within fifteen minutes in the form of subscriptions from 26 members

(Mondy, 1956).

In 1832, a plan for the construction and operation of this new institution, to be

called Mercer Institute in honor of Jesse Mercer, was developed (Mondy, 1956; Staton,

2003). Mercer Institute began classes in 1833 with an enrollment of 39 ministerial

students, all of whom were of good moral character and belonged to an organized Baptist

church (Dowell, 1953). In his book, A History of Mercer University, Spright Dowell,

president of Mercer University from 1927 to 1928 and 1953 to 1959, described the

opening of Mercer Institute in 1833:

The opening of Mercer Institute at Penfield, Greene County, on the day marked the culmination of hopes, dreams, prayers, sacrifices, and achievements of inestimable worth. These were given form and expression in the founding of an

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institution that was destined to play an increasingly important role in forming and fashioning the lives and affairs of men and women in Georgia, throughout the nation, and to the ends of the earth. (p. 1)

The GBC controlled the promotion and general supervision of the college, specifically

through the executive committee. More direct supervision was given to a board of

trustees that was to be appointed and that would report to the executive committee of the

GBC. The trustees lived on campus and reported quarterly to the executive committee.

The executive committee offered Sherwood the position of Principal, but he

turned them down. They then appointed him as principal teacher and in his role he was

asked to direct the literary and theological department of instruction (Burch, 2003;

Mondy, 1956). Billington McCarthy Sanders, a Georgia native who had served several

pastorates and was an opponent of the manual labor system, was appointed as steward or

principal and was responsible for the farm, tools, provisions, and stock. He kept track of

finances, monitored the construction of buildings, preached in neighboring churches,

answered the correspondence, and cultivated and cleared the land (Dowell, 1953). In

addition, the steward was responsible for the supervision of students (Burch, 2003;

Mondy, 1956). He was aided by his wife in planning, teaching, erecting buildings,

fundraising, disciplining, and preaching. Sanders developed the campus from two log

cabins and a dining room into seven buildings while increasing the number of students

from 39 to 95. Community support that did not interfere with institutional operations and

the health of the community were important to Sanders. Dowell (1953) described

Sanders’ appeal to the community. “His final appeal was to the local citizens to give the

institute their undivided support, to leave the government of it in the hands of faculty and

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trustees, and to do their part in promoting the welfare of the college and of the

community” (p. 62). Sanders proved to be an effective leader of the new school until he

stepped down in 1840 (Jack Tarver Library, n.d.).

The manual labor plan at Mercer Institute followed Sherwood’s model (Burch,

2003). The primary mission of the college was to train ministers although other students

were allowed to enroll later in the institution’s existence. All students performed three

hours of manual labor daily on a 450 acre tract of land north of Greensboro, Georgia.

The steward and teachers supervised students (Mondy, 1956). The students lived in the

homes of professors. Dowell (1953) stated that the plan of caring for students in

professors’ homes, primarily by the wives of the professors, provided an atmosphere that

was wholesome and refining.

The GBC recognized the need for a state Baptist college. Due to the success of

the Mercer Institute, they chose to convert it from a preparatory school to a Baptist

college in 1837, rather than found a new, separate school. Mercer University was born.

Jesse Mercer donated one-third of the endowment used to promote this conversion

(Dowell, 1953). According to Burch (2003), the decision to change the school’s

curriculum and status was based on the GBC’s changing goals. Mercer Institute grew to

emphasize basic writing ability, good morality, and obedience. The result was a shift

from a manual school to a collegiate level institution. The GBC continued to support

students financially (Burch, 2003).

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The original collegiate department presented more of a theological than academic

focus, according to Burch (2003). Sherwood, despite not being president, played a large

role in curriculum development in his role as a theology professor. Surprisingly, Mercer

did not initiate a school of theology. Because Sherwood did not formulate a specialized

program of instruction, a school of theology did not originate until much later. Burch

noted that there are various views on why Sherwood did not create a theology school.

Some believed he had limited time due to a large number of speaking engagements and

others believed that he did not have any intention of creating a theology school.

Although there was no recognized theological school, Burch noted that, due to the

notoriety of Sherwood, theology played a significant role throughout the curriculum.

An academic department and a collegiate department formed Mercer University’s

program. The academic department specified eight courses within each of four years of

study and the collegiate department contained theological coursework (Burch, 2003).

Sherwood’s view of a theological curriculum differed from others because he injected

theological literature into literary education. For him, the Bible was the center of all

studies (Burch, 2003). For example, Sherwood’s sacred literature courses provided

experiences similar to secular classical literature courses. His students studied the

Hebrew and Greek language in combination with the study of antiquity. He believed this

made students more into prophets than into preachers. According to Burch (2003),

Sherwood believed “a literary education combined with a theological one strengthened

the ministerial student. Not only would an educated preacher communicate well, but he

would also exemplify the standard that Baptists were not hostile to education” (p. 148).

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Sherwood demonstrated the practical nature of his educational theory by combining

ministerial education with manual labor while creating the distinction of an educated

ministry at Mercer University. Sherwood moved to Illinois in 1841, the same year Jesse

Mercer died, and continued to spread his ministerial programs.

Jesse Mercer had been an active promoter of Mercer University, both financially

and in his words and actions, ultimately leading to its collegiate level promotion to

Mercer University in 1837. His educational philosophy greatly shaped Mercer

University’s foundational values (Dowell, 1953). According to Mondy (1956), Mercer

stated that education was to a minister what clothes were to a man. Although clothes

have no power to make the man, they were necessary to his comfort and to “render him

acceptable to his fellowmen” (p. 354). Mercer believed that a minister was a workman

of God and needed opportunities to read and study. The man of wisdom and

understanding could “use knowledge aright” (p. 354). Dowell (1953) described Mercer

as the “Spiritual Father of Mercer University” (p. 70).

Mercer continued his efforts to provide educational opportunities to ministers by

leading a movement to open the Southern Baptist College in Washington, Georgia.

Supporters raised one hundred thousand dollars to found the school. However, most of

the subscriptions could not be collected due to a business recession prior to the panic of

1837 (Dowell, 1953). The Baptists decided to increase support to Mercer Institute rather

than form another Baptist ministerial school in Georgia. By inviting Baptist leaders from

other parts of the state to participate in governing Baptist education at Mercer Institute,

an attempt to open a Baptist school in the western part of the state was terminated as well.

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As a result, Mercer increased its recognition by the Georgia Baptists, giving Mercer its

university status (Mondy, 1956). Further, Dowell (1953) described the power of

Mercer’s leadership, stating “The trustees of the Penfield period represented the flower of

the citizenship of Georgia, civil, political, professional, and religious” (p. 55). Dowell

further explained that a feeling of confidence replaced confusion and anxiety over the

future of ministerial education in Georgia.

The contemporary comprehensiveness and dedication of Mercer University rests

on the foundation created in these formative years as well as by the series of leaders and

events that forged the institution’s development. The following is a brief overview of the

foundation and succession of presidents prior to contemporary Mercer history. These

data were provided by the Jack Tarver Library (n.d.).

• Otis Smith: President from 1833 to 1844

o Clergyman and educator

o Presented diplomas to the first graduating class in 1841

o Held daily prayer services and daily manual labor, demonstrating great

concern for building student morals

o Drop in enrollment (132 to 50 students) due to a severe agricultural

depression

o The entire faculty resigned during the agricultural depression

• John Leadley Dagg: President from 1844 to 1854

o Constructed four brick buildings

o Tripled student enrollment to 181

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o Initiated three-year bachelor of divinity degree

o Initiated deliberation of relocation to Mercer Institute based on GBC

directives

• Nathaniel Macon Crawford: President from 1854 to 1856; 1858 to 1866

o Endured period of institutional unrest in regards to religion

o Able to keep the institution open despite the challenges created by the

Civil war and religious unrest (only institution in Georgia to remain open

during this period)

• Shelton Palmer Sanford: Acting President from 1856 to 1858

o Also able to keep classes in session during this period of unrest

o As a captain in the military, led in organizing and equipping a volunteer

Corps of Mercer cadets

• Henry Holcombe Tucker: President from 1866 to 1871

o Moved the institution to Macon despite considerable dissent

• Archibald John Battle: President from 1872 to 1889

o Led the purchase of eight lots of land for the building of classrooms,

housing, and dining facilities on the Macon campus

o Established the Walter F. George School of Law in 1873

• Gustavus Alonzo Nunnally: President from 1889 to 1893

o Erected more buildings, doubling the capacity of the University

o Increased the endowment be creating partnerships with the GBC and John

D. Rockefeller totaling $50,000

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o Began external promotions of Mercer by speaking in churches,

courthouses, and the state legislature.

o Led the initiation of student organizations including athletic teams and a

student newspaper

• Joseph Edgerton Willet: Acting President in 1893

• James Bruton Gambrell: President from 1893 to 1896

o Continued Nunnally’s promotional efforts because he believed that the

recognition of Mercer as part of the community might improve the

financial stresses experienced during this period

o Founded a department of pedagogy to train teachers

o Introduced class electives in 1895

• Pinckney Daniel Pollock: President from 1896 to 1903

o First layman to serve as president

o Raised $115,000 in endowments

o Doubled the number of faculty members and students

o Constructed three buildings

o Made Mercer into a full college by terminating the freshman preparatory

school

• William Heard Kilpatrick: Acting President from 1903 to 1905

o Founded pharmacy school

• Charles Lee Smith: President from 1905 to 1906

o Increased endowment

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o Constructed new buildings

• Samuel Young Jameson: President from 1906 to 1913

o Increased enrollment in all three schools

o Constructed a dormitory and a library

o Increased endowment by $250,000

o Served as an officer of the Baptist Schools of Georgia which was headed

by Mercer

• James Freeman Sellers: Acting President from 1913 to 1914

o Acquired land for expansion, relieving some of the dissent the move to

Macon had created

• William Lowndes Pickard: President from 1914 to 1918

o Broadened the curriculum

o Enlarged enrollment from 357 to 1,000 students

o Increased endowment

o Developed annual reports to provide information to the Board of Trustees

o Served as President of the GBC’s Board of Education

• Rufus Washington Weaver: President from 1918 to 1927

o Doubled the assets of Mercer

o Increased enrollment

o Added theology, commerce, education, and journalism departments

o Student housing and dining services expanded

o Closed independent pharmacy school

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• Andrew Philip Montague: Acting President from 1927 to 1928

o Mercer’s first vice president, took presidency for one year

• Spright Dowell: President from 1928 to 1953; Acting President from 1959 to

1960

o Developed and implemented sound fiscal practices that got Mercer

through period of great financial concern prior to the Great Depression.

o Doubled the physical plant

o Overturned a deficit to a balance of $200,000

o Simplified structure of Mercer from seven schools to a liberal arts college

and a law school

o Led merger with the once independent Southern School of Pharmacy in

Atlanta

o President during the Heresy trial in which five faculty members were

accused of teaching ideas considered non-doctrinal by the Baptist church

• George Boyce Connell: President from 1953 to 1959

o Constructed and renovated buildings

o Added $1.5 million to the endowment

o Attained membership in the American Association of University Women

o Acquired membership into the Southern University Conference, one of

Mercer’s finest distinctions

o Elected first president of the Georgia Foundation for Independent Colleges

• Rufus Carrollton Harris: President from 1960 to 1979

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o Former dean of the law school

o Led Mercer to be the first Georgia private institution to integrate prior to

the Civil Rights Act

o First president to accept federal grants to fund programs

o Constructed the Stetson Library and the Willet Science Center

o Led merger with Atlanta Baptist College in 1972

o Moved the School of Law to Macon in 1978

o Originated consideration of the addition of a medical school (which was

formed during his successor’s presidency)

Summary

Mercer University’s heritage rests on creating an educated Baptist clergy. This

heritage was based on a perceived need of Georgian citizens. From its foundation, the

institution has valued the development of new knowledge to be applied to individuals’

lives in a religious setting with the goal of improving their lives. Even at its foundation,

Mercer demonstrated a commitment to the welfare of the community. By 1979, Mercer

University had grown to an institution of 3,800 students and an endowment of $16.5

million. It had become an exemplar of a liberal education founded on Baptist ideals,

indicated by efforts including leading the civil rights movement in Georgia. It was this

groundwork that paved the way for future presidents to expand upon Mercer’s heritage in

order to become more impactful in Georgia.

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Mercer University: 1979 to Present

The beginning of Dr. Kirby Godsey’s presidency marked the initiation of a

period of immense transformation that spanned a period of 27 years. During Godsey’s

presidency, Mercer University grew from 3,800 to 7,300 students and from an

endowment of $16.5 to $225 million (Jack Tarver Library, n.d.). The institution

expanded to 11 schools and colleges, spread across three major campuses in Macon,

Atlanta, and Savannah, three regional academic centers, and several business partnerships

(Mercer University Board of Trustees, 2010). The following is a description of the

milestones marking Mercer’s transformation based on material found in Mercer archives

as well as interviews of key Mercer personnel conducted by the researcher. Challenges

to President Godsey’s rapid transformation of Mercer are also identified.

In 1979, Dr. Kirby Godsey, former dean of the College of Liberal Arts and

Executive Vice President, became president, succeeding Dr. Rufus Harris and initiating a

period of significant transformation. During his lengthy 27-year tenure, President

Godsey expanded Mercer University from four to eleven schools and colleges, creating

the second-largest Baptist institution in the United States. The four schools included the

College of Liberal Arts (CLA) and School of Law, located in Macon, and School of

Pharmacy and College of Arts and Sciences located in Atlanta, now known as the Cecil

B. Day Graduate and Professional Campus. Respondent 18 stated this expansion was in

conjunction with the opening and closing of six or seven other schools and colleges

during this time. One of the first additions made by President Godsey was the formation

of the Mercer University Press in 1979. The Mercer Press has published more than 1,200

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titles mostly in the humanities (Mercer University Academics, n.d.). This was just the

beginning of a multitude of openings, closings, and mergers of organizations, colleges,

and schools.

Foundation of the Medical School

For more than 10 years prior to the school’s foundation, the idea of founding a

medical school was discussed due to the inadequate health and medical services available

to residents of rural Georgia. The Board of Trustees and President Rufus Harris, had

considered the addition of a school of medicine at Mercer (Jack Tarver Library, n.d.).

Discussion continued into the beginning of Dr. Godsey’s presidency. According to

Respondent 20, conflicting views regarding the addition of the medical school existed.

Some CLA faculty members were largely opposed to the addition of the medical school

based on concerns that Mercer might stray from its liberal arts foundation and that the

university lacked the financial resources required to create such a school. The medical

community was split about Mercer’s proposal as well. Respondent 20 stated that when

President Godsey went to the Joint Appropriations Committee of the Georgia Legislature

to request financial support, the Medical College of Georgia and Emory University

explicitly recommended that the Mercer proposal not be funded. However, President

Godsey’s request of a specific amount of funding and resolution of continuing support

was passed overwhelmingly and the Georgia General Assembly appropriated five million

dollars for the development of the medical school. Additionally, the Macon City Council

and the Bibb County Commission appropriated operating funds, a bond issue of seven

million dollars was approved by Macon citizens, and a referendum was passed

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designating funds for the construction of a facility (Mercer University School of

Medicine, n.d.). Finally, in 1982, acting on their intention to improve the supply and

distribution of primary care doctors in rural and other medically underserved areas of

Georgia, President Godsey and the Board of Trustees opened the School of Medicine. As

reported by Respondent 13, “the mission of the medical school is not to provide

professionals to big structures, big schools, big areas, but to provide service to people

who need healing, who lack these services, who lack the opportunity to make the best of

their lives.” Another respondent, Respondent 20, noted that the medical school’s mission

“is not to provide healthcare for the nation. It is to provide healthcare for Georgia.” This

respondent reported that 65 percent of graduates practice medicine in Georgia compared

to 50 percent of graduates from other Georgia medical schools.

Many respondents cited the addition of the medical school as a turning point that

launched Mercer into becoming a comprehensive university. Respondent 2 stated “Of all

of the many things I am proud of in Mercer University, the medical school is the best

example of knowing how mission meets leadership meets excellence.” Respondents

consistently stressed the medical school’s founding mission—providing medical care to

underserved Georgians—emphasizing its consistency with Mercer University’s mission.

Under the leadership of Mercer’s current president, President Underwood, the partnership

of Mercer University, Memorial Health of Savannah, and the State of Georgia expanded

the university’s medical influence with the opening of a second medical school in

Savannah in 2008. Respondent 2 viewed this as a great opportunity to share resources

with the hospital. He viewed the extension of the School of Medicine as a bold and

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courageous decision, continuing Mercer’s commitment to Georgia citizens while

increasing comprehensiveness without losing sight of founding principles. President

Underwood stated, “The women and men who make up this first class in Savannah will

in a few years join a cadre of Mercer doctors who are making a profound difference in

the lives of countless Georgia citizens” (Mercer University, 2008). The School of

Medicine has received ten consecutive Solver Awards from the American Academy of

Family Physicians for its success in making family practice a top career choice for

graduates, recognizing the school’s service to Georgians (Staton, 2003).

The Mercer University School of Medicine has expanded its academic offerings

to include master’s degree programs in family therapy, family services, and public health

as well as a nurse anesthesia program. Continuing education programs that meet the

professional development needs of graduates are offered at affiliate teaching hospitals.

To date, the medical school functions in collaboration with the Medical Center of Central

Georgia and, since 1999, the Memorial Medical Center in Savannah, Georgia, the

location of its branch campus (Mercer University School of Medicine, n.d.).

Clearly, President Godsey opened the medical school with the goal of improving

the lives of Georgians. However, this momentous occasion in Mercer history served as

the foundation for unrest amongst faculty members, especially those within the CLA.

The unrest lingered throughout Godsey’s presidency.

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The Business Program is Given its Own Identity

In an effort to attract students, the business and economics program was separated

from the CLA in 1984 to become the Eugene W. Stetson School of Business and

Economics. It was named after a1901 graduate who negotiated the purchase of the Coca-

Cola Company by the Woodruff Group from the Asa Candler family in 1919. (Mercer

University Eugene W. Stetson School of Business and Economics, n.d.). The Stetson

School of Business and Economics is widely recognized for its student-centered approach

to business education, an approach that is fully in keeping with Mercer’s commitment to

liberal education. It is accredited by the prestigious Association to Advance Collegiate

Schools of Business, a distinction held by only one-third of the 1,500 business schools in

the country (Mercer University Eugene W. Stetson School of Business and Economics,

n.d.).

Respondents indicated that CLA faculty members feared that the separation of the

business and economics program from the liberal arts school might also cause Mercer to

lose sight of its founding vision, liberal education. This unsettlement about the direction

of Mercer grew as did the opposition to the changes leadership was making.

Foundation of the Engineering School

President Godsey was approached by representatives of the Dobbins Air Force

Base located south of Macon to determine ways to increase their supply of engineers for

their Warner Robbins Air Logistics Center. President Godsey worked with them in

trying to get the Georgia Institute of Technology and Auburn to open branches of their

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engineering schools in the area. However, these institutions were not interested in

extending their programs to southern Georgia. Therefore, in 1985, Mercer University

opened its own School of Engineering. The program provides students with a

comprehensive education grounded in liberal education. It features a solid foundation in

mathematics and sciences, engineering-specific courses, and a strong liberal arts

component (Staton, 2003). Small class sizes facilitate great student-faculty interaction.

The Mercer School of Engineering distinguishes itself by equally emphasizing theory and

practice. Educators focus on real-world experience including project management and

working on teams. Further, the liberal arts foundation of Mercer has fostered an

appreciation of service. As a result, students develop both the technical and emotional

sides of engineering. The one-on-one attention faculty provides ensures students are

well-equipped to tackle real-world issues (Mercer University School of Engineering,

n.d.).

According to Respondent 20, when President Godsey was originally asked to

open an engineering school, he told the Commander of the Dobbins Air Reserve base that

he would be highly disregarded by the Mercer community if he fulfilled the request. His

prediction turned out to be true and so the tension grew.

The Acquisition of Tift College

Mercer University took over Tift College in Forsyth, Georgia, in 1986. Tift

College was a women’s college comprised of approximately 100 students. Respondent 9

felt this was a good idea in the long term for the university because the acquisition

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initiated programs for adult learners. However, President Godsey faced opposition from

the Forsyth community. Dissent heightened when Mercer’s leadership decided to close

the college because they could not afford to keep a large physical campus with that few

students. The Forsyth community was very displeased. As noted by Respondent 20, the

local alumnae sued Mercer and the university lost the trial that lasted several months.

However, the Supreme Court overturned the Georgia Superior Court’s decision, finding

that Mercer had not acted in bad faith.

Respondent 20 discussed ways Mercer was sensitive to the issues surrounding its

taking over of Tift College—naming the education school the Tift College of Education,

which is the largest college in the university, including Tift women on the Board of

Trustees, and using the resources that came from Tift to create scholarships for women at

Mercer.

The Closing of the College of Arts and Sciences in Atlanta

In 1989, the Board of Trustees voted to close the College of Arts and Sciences in

Atlanta. President Godsey, along with the Board of Trustees, did not believe that it made

sense to have two competing liberal education schools, only 90 miles apart, within one

university. According to Respondent 20, leadership would have considered having the

College of Arts and Sciences stay in existence in Atlanta, but only as a branch of the

CLA in Macon. However, those in Atlanta wanted to remain a separate college.

According to Respondent 20, President Godsey tried to find jobs for the faculty

and staff and assist students with the transition to another program. Regardless, President

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Godsey faced immense opposition that actually led to a lengthy trial that Mercer won.

According to Respondent 18, the closing of the College of Arts and Sciences was so

controversial that it was one of the top ten stories of the year in the Atlanta Journal

Constitution. Despite the controversy, according to Respondent 20, “The campus was

refocused and it is now a very prominent and important campus.”

Budget Deficit

In the late 1980s, Mercer University experienced a budget deficit. The Mercer

community turned against President Godsey. Faculty members put on their academic

regalia and marched around the administrative building daily, demanding his termination.

Some attributed the deficit to Godsey’s rapid expansion of Mercer. However, the Board

of Trustees supported President Godsey and gave him the chance to pull Mercer out of

the budget deficit. He succeeded in a swift manner.

The School of Education is Given its Own Identity

In 1995, the Department of Education separated from the CLA to form a new

college and, as noted earlier, it was renamed Tift College of Education in 2001.

Respondent 9 believed this was another effort to attract students. The Tift College of

Education is presently the largest school within the university, consisting of three

branches: teacher education, humanities, social sciences (Staton, 2003). Its collaborative

efforts with public school systems demonstrate the institution’s commitment to

community (Mercer University Tift College of Education, n.d.). As with the CLA’s loss

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of the business and engineering school, dissent grew due to the loss of yet another

program.

The Foundation of the School of Theology

Jesse Mercer’s founding mission of providing students with a classical and

theological education was realized when the McAfee School of Theology was initiated in

1996 on the Atlanta campus. According to Respondent 15, Mercer had recognized the

need for young preachers in area Baptist churches who understood scripture and could

clearly articulate their beliefs. Pastors and students expressed a desire for seminary level

training that provided educational alternatives within the Baptist tradition. Respondent

20 claimed that the theology school was added because it is important to Mercer’s

mission. “We are a historically Baptist institution, and so, the existence of a school of

theology for preparing men and women for ministry sustained the history and character

and founding mission of Mercer.” Respondent 13 agreed and added that the School of

Theology was added in an attempt to fill a void in this country to provide a high level

theological education as well as provide leadership and service in areas of the country

that were thought to be hurting.

Mercer’s Merger to Form a Nursing School

In 2001, the Georgia Baptist College of Nursing merged with Mercer to form the

Georgia Baptist College of Nursing of Mercer University. The Georgia Baptist College

of Nursing’s foundations began in 1901when the Tabernacle Infirmary and Training

School for Christian Nurses opened in a five-room cottage in downtown Atlanta. The

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school created a vision of educating students to heal the needy sick. In 1989, the school

became a college and created and implemented a nationally recognized model for nursing

education (Mercer University Georgia Baptist School of Nursing, n.d.). The merger

between Mercer University and the Georgia Baptist College was based upon mutual

growth and improvement goals as well as shared missions and core values. Dr. Susan S.

Gunby, current dean of the College of Nursing, is committed to embracing the best of

contemporary nursing while holding onto foundational values (Mercer University

Georgia Baptist School of Nursing, n.d.). In 2002, the college moved into a new

academic building on the Atlanta campus.

Founding of the College of Continuing and Professional Studies

The College of Continuing and Professional Studies (CCPS) opened on the

Atlanta campus in 2003 to provide undergraduate and graduate programs and lifelong

learning opportunities for adult learners. The program aims to serve adult learners with

interdisciplinary programs that integrate theory and practice in unique ways. Personal

attention is offered to enable nontraditional learners to reach educational and career goals

(Mercer University College of Continuing and Professional Studies, n.d.). Program

offerings in a wide array of fields at multiple locations throughout Georgia enable Mercer

to reach a large number of adult learners, consistent with institutional missions.

Respondent 16 indicated that the liberal arts program within the CCPS is growing

quickly. This respondent went on to state that “they are constantly getting new faculty

members. The faculty at the CCPS are very excited. They are really creative and are the

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kind of group that will try to create new classes and try to really go forward with new

initiatives and ideas. The leadership over there has really encouraged that.”

Founding of the Music School

The Townsend School of Music is the most recent of new schools. It broke from

the CLA in 2006. Dean Dickson believes in the importance of history and tradition and

emphasizes Mercer’s founding mission. The mission is to inspire the whole musician—

musically, artistically, intellectually, and spiritually. The music school prepares students

for a dynamic society by providing innovative courses including music business and new

media courses. The school distinguishes itself by promoting the traditions of Mercer

(Mercer University Townsend School of Music, n.d.).

Reasons for Growth during Godsey’s Presidency

Clearly, President Godsey’s motive behind the opening of new colleges and

schools was primarily to meet the needs of Georgia as he perceived them. Respondents

also recognized a variety of reasons for the rapid expansion. In general, Respondent 20

described the Board of Trustee’s decision to appoint Godsey as President as a clear

expression of their desire to see Mercer expand and grow. The respondent stated “They

thought about what we want to be when we grow up. It would have been fine to be a

liberal arts school with a law school or become a university, but being in between didn’t

seem to be a realistic course. Mercer needed to be clearer about what we were doing.” In

a similar vein, Respondent 13 felt that the addition of professional schools was because

Mercer wanted to be something different from some of the other higher education

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institutions that were narrowly conceived. Mercer wanted to reach farther and the

increased comprehensiveness is what occurred.

Several respondents correlated the growth pattern with overall trends in higher

education. Respondents repeatedly mentioned dissent over the increased

comprehensiveness because some felt Mercer should have stuck to what it was doing

well and continually make it better. However, President Godsey and others on his

leadership team felt that increasing the number of colleges, schools, and programs would

lead to the best results in the future. Overall, Respondent 9 felt that due to the increased

size of Mercer’s academic profile, the university’s reputation has also increased. The

respondent stated “I think every component is strong.”

Correlating with President Godsey’s motive to serve Georgians, Respondent 13

felt that the new programs came in response to two things, leadership and service. More

specifically, service to humanity, service to the State of Georgia, and service to the

underprivileged of the world. This growth was the result of efforts to support Mercer

University’s founding liberal education and Baptist values according to the respondent.

From President Godsey to President Underwood

The transformative period has continued into President Underwood’s presidency

which began in 2006. President Underwood has launched a second medical school

campus in Savannah, Georgia, added a master’s-level physician assistant program, a

doctoral-level physical therapy program, and doctoral-level programs in clinical

psychology, nursing, counseling, educational leadership, and curriculum and instruction

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(Mercer University, n.d.a). President Underwood has increased Mercer University’s

focus on research through the launching of these programs and through supporting

faculty and student research efforts. Enrollment has increased by about 20 percent during

Underwood’s tenure (Mercer University, n.d.a).

President Underwood has also heightened efforts to engage the Mercer

community in service learning and community engagement, founding missions of the

institution. A revolutionary program at Mercer, Mercer on Mission, was initiated in 2007

to provide exceptional study abroad experiences for students while serving third-world

countries. Additionally, in 2009, Mercer earned a five million dollar grant to support an

existing revitalization project to improve the neighbor hoods separating the Macon

campus from downtown Macon (Mercer University, n.d.a).

Thus far, President Underwood has worked to solidify President Godsey’s

transformative efforts by focusing on the challenges faced as a result of the

transformation. While growth continues in the form of enrollment, smaller programs,

research, and service learning and community outreach efforts, no groundbreaking events

have occurred. However, fear regarding the future role of liberal education at Mercer,

primarily from liberal arts faculty members, lingers. President Underwood is continuing

to make decisions based on Mercer’s founding missions.

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Leadership’s Challenges Resulting from Mercer’s Transformation

Introduction

Based on the historical framework established in the previous section, a

discussion of the data that contributes to the understanding of the research question and

sub-questions follows. The researcher aims to formulate a better understanding of the

leadership attributes and activities that guided Mercer University’s leadership over its

long history as it transformed itself from a liberal arts college into a comprehensive

university. More specifically, the researcher aims to create a context for how Mercer

University’s leaders have balanced the institution’s liberal education values and goals

while, at the same time, introducing professionally-oriented programs and the obstacles

Mercer University’s leaders encountered during the process of transformation and how

did they overcome these obstacles.

First, a summary of emergent themes based on respondents’ responses regarding

Mercer’s transformation and Mercer’s leadership, independent of one another, are

categorized by interview question so as to provide a background for the analysis of

themes to follow. A discussion of participant interviews as well as data drawn from

Mercer’s archives and other written sources follows in order to present the prevalent

themes. These themes include challenges—opposition, increased diversity and

complexity, preservation of founding values, and financing—as well as attributes and

actions—creating and communicating a clear vision, facilitating shared governance,

imposing high expectations, taking entrepreneurial actions, managing resistance, role

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modeling, obtaining the support of the Board of Trustees, and building positive external

relationships. These themes will be discussed by integrating all forms of data collected.

Transformation

In exploring with those interviewed the general theme of transformation, the

researcher asked the following questions:

1. Describe how you feel Mercer has changed since its foundation.

Respondents reported that Mercer has been transformed into a diverse array of

eleven colleges and schools spread throughout Georgia from what was originally a small

Baptist ministerial institution that had grown into a liberal arts college. Responses

indicated that a strong commitment to the liberal arts remains, but has been challenged.

2. What are the implications of these changes?

Respondents reported that both the diversity and complexity has challenged

leadership to maintain a cohesiveness that embraces Mercer’s founding values.

However, respondents overall viewed the changes as either necessary to compete for

enrollment or as efforts to impact Georgians positively. However, respondents also noted

the struggle to maintain the CLA as the heart of the entire institution.

3. Why do you feel these changes were made?

Respondents attributed the transformation to the visionary leadership of President

Kirby Godsey. They felt President William Underwood has taken charge of fine-tuning

these changes and building upon them. Further, it was also noted that the highly

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competitive market for increasingly scrutinizing students desiring a professional

education has forced Mercer to implement professional programs that are differentiated

from other institutions.

Leadership

To examine the issue of leadership in a time of transformation, the researcher asked

the following questions:

1. How do Mercer University’s leaders balance the institution’s liberal education values

and goals while, at the same time, introduce professionally-oriented programs?

Respondents indicated that many professional programs, especially those in the

medical field, have established mainly professional curriculum due to the constraints of

governing bodies. However, it was frequently noted that many programs, including the

law school, medical school, theology school, and business school, incorporate liberal

education into curricula. Further, leadership consistently speaks of the CLA as the

cornerstone of the institution and ensures its well-being.

2. Describe the most prevalent attributes and actions of leadership that has enabled

successful transformation?

As previously mentioned, creating and communicating a clear vision, facilitating

shared governance, imposing high expectations, entrepreneurial actions, managing

resistance, role modeling, obtaining the support of the Board of Trustees, and building

positive external relationships were attributes identified by respondents.

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3. What obstacles did Mercer University’s leaders encounter during the process of

transformation and how did they overcome these obstacles?

Respondents described how leadership exhibited these attributes as they

implemented steps in order to overcome challenges. Challenges discussed included

opposition, increased diversity and complexity, preservation of founding values, and

financing. Specific examples of how leadership managed these challenges will be

detailed.

Opposition

Sources of opposition. According to Respondent 2, most of the significant

turning points in developing Mercer into a comprehensive institution are somehow rooted

in controversy. Other respondents frequently described the high level of dissent created

from various entities throughout this transformation from a small liberal arts school with

a law school to a comprehensive university. Respondent 21 described universities as

conservative places in the sense that they are resistant to doing things differently than

they have done in the past. Some faculty members have responded favorably to

leadership expectations in relation to expansion and have risen to the challenge and

others believed that the traditional ways are best.

Many CLA faculty members have strongly resisted the addition of new colleges

and schools. Respondent 17 summarized the opposition of faculty by stating “Many felt

Mercer was moving away from its mission, diffusing emphases, and compromising

quality.” Respondent 18 described, more specifically, the resistance of the CLA when

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the medical and engineering schools were founded. They thought resources would be

taken from them and the focus on liberal education would be lost. According to

Respondent 15, the faculty members of the CLA have been very resistant to supporting

pre-professional programs as well. The respondent described the CLA’s department of

Christianity and described that, despite similar concentrations of study, the two programs

differ greatly. In contrast to Atlanta’s School of Theology, the CLA’s program does not

specifically prepare people for ministry. The respondent stated “I think that is shifting

some, but still I think the heart of the CLA.” According to Respondent 15, the focus of

the CLA has been, broadly speaking, the humanities and, therefore, these faculty sense

that the CLA’s mission is compromised if they give in to pre-professional programs.

Respondent 6 stated “The faculty has kept a tight commitment in that ideal and purpose

in the CLA.”

Financial concerns have also created resistance to expansion. Respondent 14

stated:

There was a significant sense in the older faculty that the building of new schools was having a significantly adverse effect on the CLA. There was a feeling that the endowment was being pillaged by starter funds. That certain amounts of the endowment were being pillaged by starter funds being transferred to these new entities. As a result, the CLA’s situation was deteriorating. The consequence, of course, was persistent questioning about admissions. Fear of lowering standards of students traditionally recruited. Students who may have been very poor, but bright. It became more of a question of how to get the bodies here and then see if we can get bodies who will pay.

Respondent 9 explained that faculty in the CLA were fearful of financial dissolution and

concerned about pressure to increase their student enrollment in order to increase revenue

and wanted student recruiting to remain selective in their recruiting.

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The rapid expansion of programs may have contributed to a budget deficit in the

late 1980s. Faculty members marched around the administrative building in Macon

wearing academic regalia, demanding the termination of President Godsey. According to

Respondent 18, the large amount of unrest created by the budget deficit in 1989 may have

“simply brought to the floor the discomfort so many had with all the changes that were

happening. They thought they were losing the university they once knew and that he

(Godsey) was changing it into something they didn’t recognize or approve of.”

Ultimately, the Board of Trustees chose to allow Godsey to get the institution out of its

financial dilemma.

Managing opposition. In order to manage resistance, Godsey took several

measures. First, respondents repeatedly discussed President Godsey’s support of dissent.

Respondent 21 stated that Dr. Godsey never held a grudge and that disagreeing with him

did not make you his enemy. Respondent 21 attributed President Godsey’s success to

that quality, to his appreciation of the significance of dissent, to tolerating disagreement,

to his belief that every person counts.

Dr. Godsey had a broad vision for how the university could continue to serve its

mission in an even more impactful way and had the courage and determination to pursue

that mission in the face of opposition from many different corners, according to

Respondent 21. Respondent 20 stated that it is important to listen to critics and try to

understand them, but, leadership must ultimately determine the right decision and move

forward. Respondent 18 stated that Kirby Godsey knew he had to get things done and he

knew he could not be popular all of the time. “Sometimes people kick and scream. They

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can’t see the vision. The leadership is not discouraged by that,” stated Respondent 9.

However, the respondent reported that widespread criticism does not happen at Mercer.

“This (working toward vision) is what needs to go on and what we are excited about.”

Respect for dissent has continued under President Underwood. Respondent 13

stated that Mercer’s leadership encourages lively conversation and has created a feeling

of confidence that “there will not be any retribution for dissent, for opinions or views that

are unlike the majority here. There is opportunity and encouragement for people with

different views to express those views collegially, of course. This respondent went on to

say that President Underwood has held up people who have dissented from the

mainstream here and that these individuals have gone on to see their views ultimately

accepted.

Secondly, respondents identified transparency as a means used by President

Underwood to overcome resistance. Respondent 14 discussed the difficulty of having an

informed conversation unless certain kinds of information are shared though this can be

difficult when it comes to fiscal matters since a lot of faculty’s anxiety hinges on fiscal

outcomes and plans. According to the respondent, it is good that President Underwood

meets every year with the faculty and staff, and with each department, to discuss financial

matters including accomplishments and challenges. Respondent 21 stated “Change is

even harder to bring about when there is suspicion and fear and the best way to counter

suspicion and fear is to be as transparent as you can possibly be.”

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Further, Respondent 17 explained that by sharing the budget with the faculty,

President Underwood is showing that that leadership is not simply taking resources away

from the core mission. According to the respondent, Underwood is demonstrating that

these resources that are committed to programs that support service and helping the

community ultimately funnel back in to support the core mission. As a result, people are

accepting the challenge throughout the schools and colleges to move forward, change,

and grow.

Respondent 21 stated “Current administration in the university, perhaps more than

in the past, endeavors to be transparent about what they are doing. They are very open

about what they are trying to achieve and how they are trying to achieve it.” Respondent

9 indicated an increase in the level of sharing information, budgetary or planning, with

the university community at large. Respondent 10 agreed, stating “There is a level of

transparency in terms of clearly knowing where our president is heading.” Respondent 9

explained that change is still not always welcome, but there is a greater understanding of

why things are happening.”

Ultimately, according to respondents, Mercer’s leadership has recognized and

understood critics, but made decisions to move the university toward its goals.

Respondent 9 stated that overcoming resistance becomes a matter of making sure the

mission and vision get interpreted. This may involve speaking individually with people

to settle any conflict.

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Increased Diversity and Complexity

Respondent 18 claimed that no university in the United States has experienced so

much change in a similar timeframe as has Mercer. “You look at other major schools and

the colleges and schools they have added. You might find one, maybe two. Mercer grew

from four to eleven schools and colleges.” Further, the respondent stressed the

magnitude of the programs added, emphasizing the medicine and engineering schools.

Under President Godsey’s direction, Mercer became the only university of its size in the

country to offer such diverse programs (Mercer University, n.d.b).

The fact that Mercer is a private institution means that it can develop programs

quickly because it is not answerable to a state legislature. Respondent 1 equated the

process to making sausage. You are pleased with the result, but you do not want to see

how it happened because a lot took place. However, Respondent 14 claimed that Mercer

has one of the most complex structures in the country, especially for its size, presenting

several challenges to leadership.

Respondent 10 felt the geographic separation and distinct cultures at each main

campus, Macon and Atlanta, actually allows both sides to thrive. The respondent stated

“If both sides are under one roof, you may experience more of a conflict than we

experience.” Respondent 6 expressed the same concern, stating “I think the biggest

obstacle Mercer has is that if it is not careful, it can compete with itself.” The respondent

used the example of the International Office. The English Language Institute was once

on both campuses. However, the program in Macon was closed in 2004 because it was

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difficult to go abroad and recruit students who were confused by multiple locations.

Respondent 6 referred to it as “information overload.” The Macon program did not get

many international students because they preferred Atlanta due to its familiarity. They

often did not even consider Macon because they had not heard of the city. Respondent 6

expressed felt regret that Macon students would no longer have exposure to the diversity

provided by these students.

Forming a University from Diversified Colleges, Schools and Programs.

Respondent 20 stated that early in President Godsey’s tenure, when Mercer was

comprised of four colleges, they had no connection with one another. The deans had

never even met together. Respondent 20 stated “It was not a university. It was a

collection of four schools that were separate and largely following their own course.”

The respondent revealed that the CLA in Macon would not transfer credits in from the

College of Arts and Sciences in Atlanta when it was still operating.

Several respondents reported that through the 1980s and 1990s as Mercer’s

colleges and schools were being founded, they were very much working independently.

According to Respondent 15, at this time it was understood that colleges and schools

were independent. Each was virtually in complete control of its budget. Each fall a

budget would be determined based on revenues of that college or school. Every school

had its own calendar, own policies, and there was no common tuition rate. Respondent 7

stated “I was witness to these four schools that didn’t really talk to each other at all much

that became a comprehensive university of eleven schools and colleges that were, in a

sense, spread out all over Georgia.” Respondent 14 explained that when he was hired at

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Mercer, the medical school was just forming. “They existed across the way in their new

building and they were too busy putting their new school together to have much

interaction with us.”

The identity of Mercer was undefined, according to respondents. The Respondent

7 described the dilemma presented by the complex arrangement and composition of

Mercer:

You had this traditional liberal arts school in Macon that was the heart of the school. Then you had this commuter college (in Atlanta) which had mostly older students. The question was: what is Mercer? People were confused about that. There was a sense of what do you do to define Mercer?

Respondent 15 agreed, noting that, due to the diversity of educational opportunities

offered, it was somewhat awkward for Mercer to draw both College of Continuing and

Professional Studies type students and those who are upwardly mobile.

According to Respondent 15, presently there are different ethuses in the two

locations. The respondent stated “If you talk to people in Atlanta, they will give you an

Atlanta world-view. If you talk to people in Macon, they will give you a Macon world-

view.” Respondent 14 agreed, stating “There has been a sense that we are less of a

university and more of a series of autonomous campuses and schools that, more often

than not, tend to operate for their own agendas as opposed for the university agenda.”

Further, academic units often compete for resources, according to respondents.

Respondent 2 recognized competitiveness and tension amongst academic units. For

example, “There are those in the liberal arts who grumble about the high salaries in the

medical school and the business school. But none of that seems debilitating.”

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Godsey led Mercer’s expansion into a complex array of colleges and schools;

Underwood is now taking initiative to unite the university. Respondents indicated that

part of current central administration’s ongoing agenda is to make the colleges and

schools come together as a single entity. Respondent 13 stated “I think over time a large

part of them (colleges and schools), to be truly powerful, will need to be part of a

university structure that is under Mercer University.” Respondent 2 discussed

leadership’s commitment to collaborations that improve the health of the overall

university. “I still think the argument has less to do with physical resources and more to

do with what is healthy for the college.”

Thus, according to Respondent 20, current leadership set out to determine what it

means to be to be a university and how to transform the existing collection of four

colleges into a university. More specifically, Respondent 14 stated that leadership

became determined to find an integrating factor to bring the schools together. However,

the process of uniting Mercer has been challenging. Respondent 13 stated “Each of these

colleges and programs that have been added has their own unique histories and ways of

doing things. They each have their own traditions that have to be honored.” Respondent

18 noted that it has been difficult to connect programs. The respondent used the example

of the School of Pharmacy and the CLA. There is no relationship between the two

entities except that some CLA students become pharmacy school students. However, the

pharmacy school is primarily comprised of students from all different places.

Further, individuals’ motives may inhibit building cohesiveness amongst

academic units. Respondent 1 described the struggle to promote collaboration when

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individuals’ interests are vested in their own colleges and departments. Often, faculty

comes to a university for a reason and they settle in and do their own thing. He stated

that he would tell department chairs to fight for what is right for the department and let

the upper administrators worry about the institution.

Respondent 1 expressed concern about Mercer’s bureaucracy. The respondent

explained that because you have 11 deans representing 11 schools and colleges, along

with department chairs, bureaucracy tends to become a major issue. “Schools like

Mercer can become so vertical you sort of lose touch with what is really going on.” The

respondent believes that larger schools can function as individual units. However,

smaller schools need an infrastructure that supports communication amongst academic

units.

Despite these challenges, respondents overwhelmingly indicated that Mercer

leadership, under the direction of President Underwood, is taking action to create a true

university by unifying the collection of 11 colleges and schools established by President

Godsey. Respondent 1 used the term “trans-institutional” to describe the conversion of,

at the time, ten individual schools into one collective university. Respondent 13

described the efforts of current Mercer leadership:

I think we have created a different model here where there is more of an emphasis on bringing things together rather than splitting them apart, separating them. You can see that in (administration) trying to get schools and colleges to work together. Trying to bring the classroom to the world, and bring research projects together. Frankly, we think the 20th century has been the century of specialization and fragmentation. I think what we will see in the 21st century is the century of interdisciplinary studies. Bringing these pieces back together again.

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For example, in 2000, during Godsey’s tenure, Mercer began its Southern

Association of Colleges and Schools (SACS) reaccreditation process which required a

quality enhancement plan (QEP). Mercer decided to focus on increasing the

cohesiveness of the colleges and schools both academically and in student experience.

Respondent 1 indicated this was necessary because, often, colleges had to rely on one

another. For example, when the nursing program expanded to the Macon campus, the

CLA had to supply new or add nursing-specific programs to their curriculum. The

current SACS reaccreditation process has encouraged the revision of the general

education program offered by the CLA. Respondent 10 stated that the new general

education curriculum is cross-disciplinary, incorporating faculty members from all

academic units into its development. Respondent 1 reported that general education

revision has gone very smoothly: “Where ten years ago it would have been a rough road.

So people understand there is a symbiosis between the units of the university that really

determines our livelihood.”

In terms of curriculum, another effort to increase cohesiveness amongst academic

units is the undergraduate and graduate councils. To ensure undergraduate programs are

aware of curriculum changes in other colleges and schools that may impact general

degree required courses, an undergraduate curriculum committee was formed during

President Godsey’s tenure according to Respondent 13. Prior to that, each school and

college had its own curriculum committee that did not necessarily share information with

others. Because of the undergraduate curriculum committee, if the engineering school

decides to drop the first-year seminar program requirement from its curriculum, for

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example, the change will ripple through the undergraduate programs. Class scheduling

would need to be altered, otherwise classes would not be full. Respondent 1 expressed

the importance of this in terms of limited resources, stating “Most of our costs are tied up

in people, faculty, and so we found out that we needed to communicate much better.”

Respondent 1 further explained that Mercer has improved communication efforts

the past five years under President Underwood. He stated that Provost Wallace Daniel

has worked hard to make sure academic units communicate. He developed a graduate

council that approves any curriculum change within a graduate program and

communicates modifications to all programs. Respondent 1 stated “so everybody knows

what everyone is doing.” Respondent 1 revealed that the graduate council, a committee

through which any graduate school curriculum change must be approved, consists of

representatives of each school: “So, the school of medicine actually has a vote, in terms

of curriculum, of what the theology school may want to develop.”

The founding of academic programs under President Underwood’s leadership has

increased cohesiveness amongst colleges and schools. New academic programs often

require collaboration amongst academic units, increasing the sense of unification. For

example, Respondent 2 stated that the new global health program has led to a

collaborative effort between the School of Medicine, School of Pharmacy, School of

Law, CLA, and School of Business and Economics.

Under President Underwood, faculty members are encouraged to promote the

unification of academic units. Mercer administration offers Academic Initiative Money

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(AIM) to faculty and staff applicants to be used to develop a pilot project. According to

Respondent 9 “The only way you are going to get that is if you do something that is

cross-college or cross-department. They (administrators) put a lot of money where their

mouth is.” The respondent continued by saying “If you want to do something new,

creative, you will get the attention of the administration and they will be much more

inclined to partner with you and help you along. Resources are tight and they are going

to put money where they think there is going to be a return on that investment in

reputation, enrollment, or both.”

Mercer has also initiated a program called a lyceum. Respondent 8 described it as

a way of integrating what is going on in the classroom with co-curricular life and service

by hosting large-scale thematic conferences. The current theme is rebuilding democracy.

The ultimate goal is to get all of the different programs, academic and others, on both

campuses, to tie into this theme in some way, building cohesiveness.

The constant emphasis on Mercer’s founding vision is communicated university-

wide, promoting cohesion, according to respondents. Respondent 19 felt Mercer

leadership historically maintains Mercer’s founding vision. Respondent 21 agreed,

stating that adherence to certain core values will unite an institution in the face of all of

this diversity. Liberal arts values are emphasized university-wide at Mercer. For

example, Respondent 8 described how the dean of the CLA has promoted the inclusion of

liberal education into other programs. One of the things he has done is ask all the other

academic units to list classes that could be options within the CLA general education

courses, linking the two units. For example, if there is a requirement for an ethics class, a

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CLA student could fulfill it by taking an ethics class offered by the School of

Engineering. Colleges and schools are connected by this integration of course work.

Additionally, guest speakers such as philosopher Dr. David Gushey are invited to both

campuses, promoting liberal education. Respondents consistently noted leadership’s

constant focus on connecting academic units by relating each to Mercer’s core values.

Respondent 19 attributed the cohesion of the university to open communication

historically encouraged by leadership. For example, one of the first efforts to promote

communication amongst schools was taken by Godsey when he initiated regular meetings

amongst deans according to Respondent 20. Respondent 1 stated that President

Underwood also promotes inclusiveness by encouraging discussion. Respondent 13

described the importance of communication when creating a cohesive university by

stating:

I think the administration can provide a vision, but the vision can never be disconnected from the faculty and students. It has to be connected. You do this by encouraging a rich conversation. Listening to people. Understanding there are many diverse ways to get to the goal. You don’t impose that, you listen carefully to people. Then you understand what drives people and what makes them passionate about things.

Respondent 1 agreed, stating “The biggest thing is that you have to communicate better

as you grow. We have to know what other people are doing and what folks are thinking.”

Respondent 6 simply stated “through dialogue,” when asked how to increase the

cohesiveness of Mercer academic units. More specifically, Respondent 8 stated,

“Dialogue that supersedes any one program but is also tied into action is important.”

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Respondent 2 described the current status of communication at Mercer: “There is

an ethos in the university of openness. I don’t have any impediments. If I want to get on

the telephone and talk to someone in the business school about a project, first of all, I

don’t have to get permission, and second of all, no one is going to say I am out of my

realm.”

Respondent 10 described how leadership has increasingly used service learning to

facilitate cohesiveness. Respondents repeatedly described President Underwood’s efforts

to unify Mercer based on service to others. Faculty from various academic units have

been encouraged to come together in ways to make the experience of Mercer students

really count for something and go beyond the walls of individual schools according to

Respondent 10. According to the respondent:

It is so easy to get narrowly focused, but we don’t seem to allow that here. Service learning is university-wide. Even though something may have been started or embraced in small pockets, we take the best of those small pockets and look at how we can open them up university-wide so that every student can enjoy it and get a good learning experience at Mercer. I love tearing down those walls and educating students with a common purpose.

To further unite the institution, service learning and ethics were formally

identified as the focus in the most recent QEP proposal under President Underwood

according to Respondent 15. The intent was to select either service learning or ethics. In

the end both were chosen, with the undergraduate programs emphasizing service learning

and the professional and graduate schools focusing on ethics. However, according to

Respondent 15, both have been fabricated into every academic unit. “It is in the DNA of

the university. Down the line of schools, there is a commitment to service.”

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The development of student growth experiences, such as Mercer on Mission, a

program initiated by President Underwood, has also promoted collaboration. Respondent

10 explained how Mercer on Mission has integrated programs by describing a situation in

which an English teacher took a group of students on a mission consisting of more than

just English students.

It is the religion teacher and the English teacher taking medical students, education students, graduate students, CLA students. They are coming together in ways to make the experience of our students really count for something and go beyond just the narrow, defined walls of their particular college or school.

Respondents indicated that Mercer leadership, under both Godsey and

Underwood has realized that, in order for the once segmented institution to continue to

grow to become a true university, compromises must be made. For example, decisions

regarding programs require collaboration. Respondent 1 stated, “The President can’t just

start a new major in the CLA. A group of faculty members and administrators talked

about starting a public health major for ten years as a group before we finally got it up

and running.” The respondent continued “Because you have to work together, you have

to bring some sort of compromise and that is tricky sometimes.”

In a similar vein, Respondent 20 stated “It is better to come together and reason

together than to simply shout at each other.” The respondent felt Mercer leadership is

committed is committed to a course of reason. However, Respondent 19 revealed that

this requires a lot of schools and colleges making sacrifices. Respondent 20 noted “I

think you ought to know what you stand for and be willing to go to the wire for certain

things, but most steps forward are made through compromise and by finding a common

ground.”

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Several respondents indicated that they felt that they are beginning to come

together more than ever before. Respondent 19 felt leadership is reaching its goal of

creating a true university. “I think leadership as in the President, the Provost, and former

President Godsey are very engaged with the faculty, deans of the schools, trying to

become cohesive. Not just eleven different little kingdoms between Atlanta and Macon.”

Respondent 16 recognized President Underwood’s strong efforts in trying to get schools

to work together to create joint programs. The respondent, however, concluded that

schools still act independently of each other. However, the respondent stated “As far as I

can tell, at this university people are pushing in one direction in terms of mission. It’s a

positive direction. It’s a tribute to leadership.” Respondent 8 stated “Everywhere I have

worked has talked about collaboration between faculty and staff. But I think this is the

first institution where I felt it is actually happening. According to Respondent 15,

“Increasingly, there has been a centralizing process. We are now aware that when one

college suffers or prospers, we all suffer or prosper.” The respondent used the example

of supporting the business and economics school in recent years as they have struggled

financially for the good of the entire university. Respondent 8 agreed, stating “Now I am

seeing a kind of putting back together of programs.”

The Preservation of Founding Values

Publications indicate that the Mercer University remains dedicated to its liberal

arts foundation. The CLA remains the cornerstone of Mercer’s educational programs

(Staton, 2003). As the university has been transformed into a comprehensive institution,

the leadership of the university has insisted that the purpose of Mercer University is “to

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offer undergraduate, graduate, and professional programs based upon a strong liberal arts

foundation” (Mercer University, 2006). Mercer seeks to integrate liberal education with

professional training within the context of a smaller, student-centered university (Staton,

2003). This notion was summarized by one of Mercer’s earlier presidents, Rufus

Washington Weaver, who described Mercer as “large enough to meet every standard,

small enough to meet every student” (Jack Tarver Library, n.d.). Spright Dowell,

president from 1928 to 1953, described Mercer’s mission as educational excellence

pursued from a Christian perspective (Jack Tarver Library, n.d.).

Through the statements and actions of President Godsey and President

Underwood described in publications and by respondents, this dedication to liberal

education in light of increased comprehensiveness continues. According to Respondent

2, “I think some of the leadership of the university, from the president and provost on

down, are still very much aware of the origins of the comprehensive university and some

of the values of the CLA.” Respondent 20 agreed, stating “I do think there is a strong

commitment to the liberal arts by the current administration.” Concurring, Respondent

15 stated that the university has supported the CLA by seeing that the program is really at

the heart of the university. “In some sense, there is the assumption that the university can

be strong only if the CLA is strong,” according to the respondent. Respondent 4 also

agreed, stating “Mercer really can’t be all it aspires to be without having a high quality

liberal arts program.”

Respondents indicated that protecting Mercer’s heritage has been a challenge to

President Underwood. Respondents did not report on the efforts of President Godsey in

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this respect. According to Respondent 14, “We are still feeling our way toward

implementing liberal arts campus-wide.” Respondent 20 stated that CLA faculty

members have, at times, thought Mercer has not maintained a focus on the liberal arts.

They have feared they were being marginalized. The respondent stated “In my view,

they were not and should never be. You have to continue to say it, to speak of the

centrality of the liberal arts, and you have to translate it into the natural priorities of the

university.”

Underwood has maintained that the liberal arts are the cornerstone of Mercer

University in voice and in action. For example, in 2006, his inaugural year, President

Underwood charged the University Planning Council with developing a vision statement

and a comprehensive, ten-goal strategic plan to support it. One of the goals identified in

the plan that emerged from the planning process clearly states that the university should

strive to “further enhance the learning environment to engage students in challenging,

holistic, and transformational learning,” the values of a liberal education (Mercer

University Board of Trustees, 2008).

Measures to Maintain Liberal Arts Foundation with Changing Demands

Respondent 13 stated that in order to maintain and enhance the liberal arts

foundation at Mercer, leadership must understand the heritage of the university.

Respondent 14 felt President Underwood highly values the liberal arts. The respondent

stated that he comes from a liberal arts background, so he is generally sympathetic.

“They need to understand what has been built here and build on that foundation.”

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Respondent 13 felt that leadership and service are what make Mercer what it is as a

liberal arts institution and it is these that leadership wants to deepen, explore, and enlarge.

Overwhelmingly, respondents indicated that leadership repeatedly speaks about

liberal arts as the cornerstone of Mercer as an effort to adhere to founding missions. “I

feel the university articulates that (liberal arts values) well. In a way, the CLA is the

heart. They are so fiercely committed to radiating out to all the schools and colleges,”

according to Respondent 17. Respondent 1 stated “You have to remind people of it.

What are we trying to do? You need a president providing that leadership showing what

a Mercer education means, which translates into the provost reminding the deans who are

reminding the department chairs.” Respondent 14 agreed, noting present leadership does

emphasize Mercer’s values by stating that “both Wallace and the president routinely

remark on the significance and importance of liberal arts.” Respondent 7 explained

“when you trust people to communicate the message broadly, it doesn’t always happen.”

The respondent continued by stating the importance of higher leadership speaking of the

importance of liberal education and when they do, that the resonance of vision across

campus results. According to Respondent 7, “The message is loud and clear.”

Respondents also explained that President Underwood speaks about Mercer and

its liberal arts foundation externally in places like churches and high schools. According

to Respondent 7, “I receive the message publicly. At every venue, from opening

convocation, trustees’ meetings, and commencements to public venues, leadership is

always talking about the mission of the institution and at the core is always the liberal arts

element.”

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Respondent 5 indicated that CLA faculty members also communicate the

importance of the liberal arts as the foundation of Mercer. Respondent 8 stated “I think

the dean of the CLA has shown a lot of leadership and has done a good job changing the

way faculty think of general education (a component of the CLA).” Further, according to

Respondent 5, “CLA faculty are constantly asserting this is our primary identity. Faculty

are tenacious. They are like pit bulls that will not let go.” According to the respondent,

when faculty fear the higher administration is losing sight of Mercer’s primary mission,

they try to reassert that identity. CLA faculty invite administration into their classrooms

to ensure they understand who and what they are. They also attend admissions events to

communicate the liberal arts vision of Mercer to potential students. Additionally, CLA

faculty try to attract students who are not necessarily interested in pre-professional

programs and who want to be CLA students.

Respondents also indicated that leadership promotes the liberal arts through

financial and other types of program support. According to Respondent 20, leadership

looks specifically at the CLA budget to ensure it is receiving adequate support.

According to Respondent 5, “It (leadership) supports the liberal arts in these tangible

ways. It’s money. It’s faculty.” For example, throughout the transformation, leadership

has put priority on the development and improvement of liberal arts facilities even when

buildings were being constructed for new colleges and schools. Additionally,

Respondent 15 stated that leadership will use other programs to “prop up” the CLA

financially for the good of the entire university. The addition of a Greek village, the

University Center, and improved athletic programs, including the addition of

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intercollegiate football are examples of measures taken by leadership to improve student

life for undergraduate CLA students in Macon. Further, traditions such as homecoming,

currently emphasized by President Underwood, have enriched student experience.

Other efforts to promote Mercer’s CLA are also evident. Respondent 5 explained

that through the Center for Teaching of the Western Heritage, a program which Dr.

Underwood has initiated, a faculty member hosted a National Endowment for the

Humanities summer institute program in which high school teachers from all over the

country participated. The goal was not only to provide opportunities for the participants

to learn and experience the subject matter, but to encourage teachers to promote Mercer

to their students. CLA faculty hoped they would attract students interested solely in a

liberal arts program rather than pre-professional program. The medical humanities major

is another effort to support the role of liberal arts. Respondents viewed this program as a

humanities alternative for pre-medical students. When discussing the medical humanities

major, Respondent 5 stated “That’s a way to infuse a broader kind of liberal arts

program.”

Mercer leadership has recognized that changes must be made to remain relevant

to society. For example, online hybrid courses, to be discussed later, are now offered.

However, respondents emphasized Mercer’s transformation as it related to changing

student demands. Respondent 14 reported that Mercer is wrestling with how to re-orient

the liberal arts for a new generation of vocationally-oriented students. Respondent 12

supported leadership’s efforts to refine Mercer’s offerings, stating “We never grow and

mature if the status quo remains as is, and the foundation of education is to grow, learn,

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and mature.” Respondent 9 agreed, stating “If we are going to be viable and effective

and attractive, we have to find the middle ground of practical and liberal arts tradition.”

For example, leadership has encouraged the development of programs that might offer

science students alternatives within the humanities, rather than traditional science

programs, such as global health and medical humanities. However, Respondent 5 noted

that the global health program contains a large number required courses, limiting

opportunities for electives. Also, the general education revisions previously discussed

are designed to update curricula to make them more attractive to today’s students,

according to Respondent 5. According to the respondent, however, this may limit

students’ exposure to a wide array of educational opportunities, a value of liberal

education. The respondent stated “The administration tells us students are different now.

Apparently, they don’t choose fun stuff, they just want to look at things that just check

off categories, so they are not upset by restrictions. Do what you are told. It’s pretty

easy. Don’t give me freedom, I don’t know what to take when I have 30 courses to

choose from.”

Several respondents indicated an increased emphasis on research. Mercer

University now meets the Carnegie Foundation’s criteria for classification as a research-

doctoral university. Over the past three years, the number of doctoral-level students has

increased from about 25 to over 200. The amount of externally funded dollars has risen

to more than $25 million (Mercer University, n.d.b). Respondent 6 stated:

I think what is different now is there has been a shift from teaching-oriented faculty to teaching with a research emphasis. We now see faculty doing research with undergraduate student and publishing. We see faculty doing their own research initiatives. They are getting outside grants and finding funding. Part of

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it is programmatic and part of it is scholastically-driven. So, I see us taking on more of that kind of role and trying to be more innovative within a cultural framework we have preserved and will continue to preserve.

Respondent 13 explained that Mercer is trying to bring research and teaching together.

Leadership encourages research by both faculty and students. The provost regularly

meets with junior faculty members conducting research to discuss their projects. They

receive funds to travel and conduct their research in the summer. Also, according to

Respondent 13, the number of undergraduate research papers and presentations has

skyrocketed the last several years.

Views of the impact of increased focus on research on liberal arts values varied.

Respondent 13 felt that research is framed by the liberal arts:

It’s what we call a discovery university. It’s a university that wants students to push out frontiers of knowledge. A university that wants to look at the world anew. A university that wants to raise questions about society, about morality, about ethics, about leadership in the world. The University wants to encourage students to be good communicators, good speakers, good writers, the University wants students to read primary sources and to look at them with fresh eyes as if you are discovering for the first time. The University wants to emphasize a higher level research in the sciences and health sciences. I think also in the humanities and the traditional fields.

The respondent stated that Mercer is trying to expand teaching to teaching and research.

Respondent 20 agreed:

I think you have strong research institutions that are defined more by research than by liberal arts. But, I think the character of Mercer is that the liberal arts, by which I mean the large human questions, are questions important in every discipline. That we are not simply doing research. We are doing research for the cause of humanity. We know why we are doing research and why we are practicing medicine. To advance civilization, to advance the human cause. To enable people the tools to make a living, which are important, but we are about changing the center of gravity of a person’s life.

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Respondent 13 provided examples of research at Mercer that may be viewed as

unconventional—a poet in the English department who has had severe bouts with cancer

has published books of poetry that have been recognized nationwide, a faculty member in

the history department has published multiple texts about topics like southern history,

southern food, southern folk ways, and the history of the south, and biology and

chemistry faculty members are doing exploratory research in the laboratory and

publishing. Members of the administration still have their personal research agendas as

well.

Some respondents viewed the transition differently. Respondent 6 described a

more prevalent focus on doctoral programs and research, concluding that there has been a

shift from more teaching-oriented instruction with hands-on application, more

representative of professional education. For example, the International Office is

bringing in post-doctorate students from India and China solely to conduct bio-medical

research with faculty from other institutions including the Mayo Clinic and the University

of Florida. Respondent 6 felt this is an indication of changing the culture from a teaching

institution to a research-oriented institution.

Evidence of the preservation of liberal arts values. Leadership provides

students with experiences both in and out of the classroom that promote liberal education.

First, Mercer University’s curriculum and instruction are indicative of their dedication to

its foundational values. From the foundation of the law school in 1873, the first

professional program at Mercer, liberal arts values have been infused into professional

curricula. The law school’s philosophy is rooted in liberal education by emphasizing

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problem-solving skills, counseling skills, trial and appellate advocacy skills as well as

legal knowledge. Today, the law school is committed to a high degree of student and

faculty interaction by maintaining small class sizes (Mercer University School of Law,

n.d.). Respondent 13 stated “I think legal education is primarily arts and sciences in

terms of speaking and reading primary sources and in writing and in critical thinking.

The two go hand-in-hand.”

Respondent 17 also explained how Mercer curriculum design supports liberal

education.

What you hear all around the university is talk about developing critical thinking, problem solving, decision making, vigor for inquiry, discovery, integration, synthesis. When we build curriculum, we ensure that the student learning outcomes for every single course integrates the development of these skills. The principles of liberal learning are instilled.

According to the respondent, professional schools not only incorporate liberal education

in the form of actual liberal arts courses, but it is integrated in the instruction of

professional courses. Respondent 9 explained that this method of infusing liberal arts at

Mercer is an applied liberal education. The respondent used a required political science

course as an example. “The political science requirement is not just because political

science is a good thing and everyone needs to know about it. It’s how you are going to

teach political science in a context that engages students to really think critically about

those issues and not just read about it in a textbook. How are you going to use that in a

practical way?”

Several examples of liberal education experiences in the classroom were provided

by respondents. When the medical school was founded, according to Respondent 2,

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leadership had the attitude “let us see if we can take a risk and do a medical school in a

nontraditional way.” The medical school is built on problem-based learning. “Our

school was the first medical school to teach in a new way of learning; case-based

learning, issue-based, problem-based. That’s liberal learning,” according to Respondent

17. Respondent 17 then described how the business school focuses on reading and

writing; analyzing text, processing information, and solving problems. Repeatedly, it

was noted that the College of Continuing and Professional Studies, which offers degrees

in the humanities, is experiencing great growth in liberal education in general due to its

increasing number of students.

Respondent 16 noted that Mercer professional programs incorporate a large

number of general education courses compared with those at other institutions, increasing

the number of liberal arts courses taken. For example, the engineering school

incorporates liberal arts courses into its curriculum while the Georgia Institute of

Technology does not. According to Respondent 9, “The engineering students, for

instance, I think are better trained than Georgia Tech students because they have smaller

classes, more leadership opportunities, courses for group projects and learning how to

speak an communicate that keep the liberal arts themes going.” However, the respondent

noted that some professional programs, specifically health science programs, do not have

much leeway in their curricula due to firm guidelines to incorporate liberal arts courses.

Respondent 18 also noted the difficulty some programs have incorporating liberal

education into curricula. For example, health fields often have lock-step curricula due to

the requirements of their professional affiliates.

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Even co-curricular activities strive to incorporate liberal education. According to

Respondent 8, the emphasis on critical thinking, diversity, and competence in expression

are incorporated into student activities outside of the classroom. In addition, school clubs

and athletic teams participate in service activities.

Liberal arts institutions are often differentiated by their student-centeredness,

characterized by a high degree of student-teacher interaction, small class sizes, and

decisions made in the interest of students. Early evidence of the focus on student-

centeredness began when President Gambrell began offering elective courses in 1896.

President Spright Dowell went so far as to use his own funds to help students fund their

educations (Jack Tarver Library, n.d.). Respondents revealed that presently classes are

student-centered, supporting Mercer’s liberal arts foundation. Additionally, Mercer

distinguishes itself because, in most academic units, only full-time faculty members teach

courses, as opposed to adjunct professors according to Respondent 1. The respondent

also indicated that class sizes are small, as opposed to other schools that have a large

number of students in single classes, especially introductory courses. Mercer offers

several sections of the same course to increase student-teacher interaction. According to

the respondent, “Faculty members know what is going on in their students’ lives. They

look beyond what takes place in the classroom.”

Online courses also demonstrate student-centeredness. Respondent 1 discussed

the decision to offer hybrid courses that consist of both in-class and online components.

“Where there’s interface directly with the students and there is a remote piece. That’s a

pretty good balance for us. And part of it is for the students’ sake. If you have an online

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course that gives them the flexibility to go out and work.” The respondent defended a

liberal arts institution conducting a course with no face-to-face interaction, stating “I

would rather have them have a piece of me than none of me. Because these students

were going home and going to a community college (over the summer), I had no quality

control over the course.” Respondent 1 also felt online courses promote liberal learning.

“I can teach a mode of learning half online and half in person. They are learning in a

different way do to a different way of delivering content. They are challenged to learn in

a different way. To communicate in a different way. To exercise discipline.”

Interdisciplinary instruction is another trademark of the liberal arts. As previously

discussed, respondents cited efforts to increase the inclusion of various academic fields.

For example, according to Respondent 15, the development of tracks and dual degree

programs has increased, promoting collaboration and inclusion. Additionally, the Center

for the Teaching of the Western Heritage has grouped faculty from various academic

units to develop a curriculum that takes existing programs and repackages them to create

a new, interdisciplinary major which is another example of interdisciplinary course work.

Respondent 5 explained that this program is attractive to existing students already in the

participating programs and that it is supported by administration because it does not

require a lot of resources. The faculty and resources are in place, they are just being

shuffled around to align with the new major.

Because Mercer was founded as a Baptist ministerial institution, spirituality is a

foundational value. Baptist origins are supported by a program designed for students, the

University Commons. The University Commons was created in 2000 to sponsor

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meetings and seminars to help students “recognize their life’s calling in light of their

faith, education, and abilities.” It aims to connect all eleven colleges and schools based

on common concerns and refocus them toward their common founding values (Mercer

University Commons, n.d.).

Mercer leadership’s commitment to foundational values is also evident in its

support of academic freedom. According to Respondent 14, because Mercer is a faith-

based school, it has a slightly different concept of liberal arts than non-sectarian schools.

Mercer has a strong commitment to freedom of inquiry and teaching grounded in Baptist

principles (Mercer University, n.d.b). Jesse Mercer stated “Religion and ignorance

cannot co-exist,” indicating the importance of giving ministers the freedom to explore

issues beyond the doctrines of the church. According to Respondent 3, it is surprising

that, considering he was from the South and the timeframe in which he actively engaged

in Mercer processes, Jesse Mercer valued those precious freedoms. Respondent 3

explained that many faith-based schools require loyalty oaths. Faculty members promise

only to teach within the doctrine of the associated church. From its foundation, Mercer

has not made this restriction. In fact, it has encouraged the freedom to explore and

question established norms.

Respondents frequently described how the rise of modernism initiated tension

between the Georgia Baptist Convention (GBC) and Mercer University. The relationship

was frequently described as long and contentious. Respondent 2 detailed the dilemma

faced by Mercer University leadership. In 1939, the Heresy trial was held. Thirteen

students accused Mercer professors of teaching ideas that contradicted the doctrines of

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the Baptist church in regards to Bible and creation. According to Respondent 2, “They

had to decide if they had the courage of their convictions for a science curriculum of if

they would cave in to the religious opposition to Darwinism. Mercer chose the courage

of their convictions. To teach without fear of what you might learn and vice versa.” The

professors were cleared of the charges.

Academic freedom in more recent times was discussed by respondents.

According to Respondent 14, President Godsey was a strong Baptist, but was not the kind

of Baptist a lot of the leadership of the GBC liked. “There was constant tension,”

according to the respondent. President Godsey, in so many cases, prevailed over more

conservative elements. For example, several respondents discussed the GBC

condemnation of President Godsey when he published the book, When We Talk about

God, Let’s Be Honest. Respondent 14 noted that, as a philosopher, religious studies was

a subject of President Godsey’s expertise. However, members of the GBC did not find

the text doctrinal and questioned Godsey’s role as president. According to Respondent

20, in a vote of 3,000 members, they voted 2,000 to 1,000 that Godsey be censured.

They also wanted him to be terminated by the Board of Trustees. President Godsey

requested a meeting of the Board of Trustees to allow the head of the GBC to speak about

the reasons why he should be terminated. At the end of the meeting, a trustee stated that

if the president of this university is not free, nobody in the university is free. This

concluded the issue according to Respondent 20.

President Godsey supported the academic freedom of faculty members during the

budget deficit faced in 1989. Many faculty members attributed the deficit to the rapid

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expansion of colleges and schools. President Godsey did not oppose his own faculty

members protesting outside his office to have him fired. Respondent 18 stated that there

were times he would even send out lemonade. “He didn’t even flinch. He moved

forward.”

The tension between Mercer leadership and the GBC reached a boiling point

when the GBC expressed opposition to the formation of a gay-lesbian student group at

Mercer according to several respondents. The GBC and Mercer decided to sever ties in

2005 when it was realized that the GBC could not govern the decisions of Mercer

leadership the way other conventions control their partner institutions. According to

Respondent 7, “The GBC did not support what we do and we can’t adhere to their

expectations of us.” Respondent 20 agreed, stating “The relationship needed to be

discontinued because the differences that divided us had become so great that we needed

to go our separate ways in a friendly manner so the convention could pursue its work

without the encumbrance of the university and Mercer could pursue its work without the

encumbrance of the GBC.” The two parties ultimately dissolved their relationship in a

cooperative process.

To further support academic freedom, Respondent 13 reported that the speakers

invited to Mercer are from all points of view. The respondent remarked on the

conversations that take place including those regarding sex trafficking, creation, the

environment, social justice, and immigration. Often, programs such as conferences result

from these conversations. For example, when students and faculty members discussed

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sex trafficking in the Macon area, they decided to collaborate and host a conference about

the issue. The conference has led to national recognition and new laws in the area.

Respondent 2 stated “I can happily report that, over my tenure, the university has

been very good about maintaining a necessary separation to protect academic freedom as

opposed to being dictated by the Georgia Baptist Convention, for example. Part of that

mission has been to maintain the liberal arts in ways that are not all together comfortable

for all of our constituents.” Prior to severing ties with the GBC, President Godsey would

support academic by stating that we are a university and we must be free. According to

Respondent 14, Godsey felt that no group other than the Board of Trustees can be

allowed to control the university. Therefore, according to Respondent 13, all issues are

on the table. The respondent stated:

Key issues in our society, issues of K-12 education, issues of environmental health, issues of the whole health of our society, issues of individuals being recognized as worthy individuals, all of those have been strongly emphasized by this university.

The respondent felt that is what differentiates Mercer from other institutions, stating, “I

don’t think UGA can do that.”

President Underwood became president shortly after the separation. Respondent

2 felt that the new president was given the gift of a clean slate by no longer struggling to

meet the expectations of the GBC, but the responsibility of maintaining Mercer’s Baptist

heritage without this organic affiliation with the church. To maintain its religious

foundation, President Underwood has cultivated relationships with American Baptists.

He and former President Jimmy Carter held a four day convention in 2008 promoting

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their idea of the new Baptist covenant. Further, respondents noted that the Atlanta

campus’ administrative building has become the repository for the archives of the

American Baptist Historical Society. These relationships have not impeded academic

freedom at Mercer University.

Historically, social justice has been valued by the leaders of Mercer University.

President Gambrell supported co-education due to the addition of a department of

pedagogy in 1895. William Lowndes Pickard, president from 1914 to 1918 also led

movements toward co-education to serve women. Additionally, President George Boyce

Connell obtained Mercer’s membership into the American Association of University

Women, solidifying the institution’s dedication to providing women with educational

opportunities (Jack Tarver Library, n.d.).

Mercer University was a leader in the civil rights movement as the first Georgia

private college or university to integrate in 1963 under President Rufus Harris’ leadership

(Jack Tarver Library, n.d.). During the 1960s, Mercer University welcomed African

students to campus, creating controversy. According to Respondent 2, this led to the

closing of the church that was on campus named Tattnal Square Baptist Church. The

church denied the membership of Sam Oni, a student from Ghana, who was a product of

Baptist mission work in Africa; he was recommended by alumnus, Harris Mobley, for

admission and enrolled and was funded by the university. When the church’s lease

expired in 1974, Mercer did not allow its renewal. The leadership staked out a claim for

social justice according to Respondent 2 who stated “and that’s been a part of our

heritage going all the way back to Jesse Mercer, but it was certainly refocused in the

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1960s.” The respondent continued by noting that Mercer University has the largest non-

Caucasian population of any public or private school in Georgia. Respondent 2 noted

that “this kind of leadership style from the President’s office down has been infused in

the character of Mercer.” According to Respondent 3, leadership often requests Sam Oni

to speak at various occasions as a tribute to Mercer’s pride in leading the civil rights

movement.

Respondents also pointed to other steps taken by Mercer’s leaders to promote

social justice. For example, according to Respondent 20, President Godsey recognized

that female faculty and staff members at Mercer were systematically paid less than men.

Upon accepting the presidency, he quickly corrected this inequity.

Respondent 3 described leadership’s support of the Mercer community when the

GBC attempted to prevent the observation of a gay-lesbian student organization on

campus during Godsey’s presidency as previously discussed. Faculty and students held a

campaign for gay rights that included a rally, campus publications, and a pledge

individuals signed to show their support. The GBC called for the firing of professors

who signed the statement, claiming it was not doctrinal. Leadership backed the

professors. “It was a movement in defense of not only academic freedom, but the

principle liberal arts values. So, instead of all of the animus hostility that creates a

poisoned atmosphere on campus, there was an atmosphere of nothing but respect and

solidarity here. Respondent 3 continued, stating “Ultimately, Dr. Godsey had to stand up

to the GBC and defend the principles of academic freedom and express his sadness that

after 173 years of affiliation, they were dissolving that precious and historic relationship.”

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According to the respondent, an artifact of this tense occasion, a letter from a leader of

this student organization to her mother, is actually published in the first-year student

reader to demonstrate Mercer’s values and show students new to Mercer who the student

leaders have been.

Respondent 9 raised the issue of providing educational opportunities to financially

challenged students and was concerned that Mercer no longer adheres to its tradition of

offering opportunities to students who might not have the opportunity to attend college.

The respondent indicated that the rural areas south of Macon have a low percentage of

people who attend college. Historically, Mercer has prided itself on providing

educational opportunities to this population whether it was minority students, first

generation college students, financially challenged students, or educationally challenged

students. However, due to finances and the desire to increase the university’s academic

profile, Respondent 9 felt these students are not as frequently joining the Mercer student

body. Respondent 16 mentioned the struggle Mercer has with dealing with students who

have less money to pay for an education, saying “How can we accommodate these

students?” Respondent 16 claimed that Mercer is generous when it comes to financial

needs for undergraduate students. However, Respondent 9 claimed that scholarship

funds are increasingly awarded to students with higher academic achievement to enhance

student quality rather than those who are challenged to attend college.

Lastly, Mercer leadership has promoted moral, ethical, and civic values both

through example and through the programs they have developed and supported

university-wide. The term “paideia” epitomizes Mercer’s dedication because it refers to

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educating students for responsible citizenship and virtuous lives (Mercer University,

n.d.b). Respondent 20 stated that as the comprehensiveness of the Mercer increased,

leadership deliberately set out to ensure that each school incorporated moral education

and demonstrated ethical behaviors. Service learning became a flagship of Mercer. “It

dawned on us that service could be embedded in everything we do. You can take

anything, club sports programs, student government, and do service projects. We read

the tea leaves, embraced it, and embedded it into our programs.” Therefore, as discussed

by almost every respondent, leadership has strongly promoted service learning

university-wide. Respondent 5 explained that Mercer leadership’s dedication to service

learning is evident because they are willing to financially support projects to support this

mission. Additionally, Respondent 3 stated that leadership has demonstrated its

dedication to ensuring that service is emphasized by creating a Vice Provost for Service

Learning, a position rarely found at colleges and universities.

Respondents also described Mercer’s commitment to improving the city of

Macon. Historically, according to respondents, Mercer has been interested in the larger

community. This was apparent in Mercer’s foundational motive to educate Baptist

ministers to serve south Georgian communities. In addition, President Gambrell created

a department of pedagogy to train teachers for the community during his tenure (1893 to

1896) (Jack Tarver Library, n.d.).

Additionally. President Godsey led the development of the Mercer Center for

Community Development in 1998, to coordinate Mercer’s community outreach efforts

(Mercer Center for Community Development, n.d.). Respondent 2 noted that “Within the

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past 10 or 15 years, we can see evidence of commitment to a local community and

(Mercer) has become a major player in local renewal. That’s really unusual.”

Respondent 8 explained there once was a divide between the students and the

community. A lot of students did not know what it was like to be a member of the

Macon community. There may have been an isolated activity here or there. According

to the respondent, “Now, for example, we are sending our students out to tutor in schools

that serve disadvantaged students and work in community gardens. They are now

exposed to what the world is really like. If we want our students to be leaders in

combating the ills of the world, we can’t shelter them. We have to expose them to those

things.”

The Mercer Service Scholars (MSS) program was developed in 2000, during

Godsey’s tenure, to provide community service by students. Selected incoming students

are invited to join the program based on their commitment to leadership and service.

They take designated classes together, participate in leadership training and service

learning projects, and create and implement a community-based project to culminate their

four-year experience (Mercer Service Scholars, n.d.). MSS has coordinated and is

implementing a campaign called Local Engagement Against Poverty (LEAP). The goal

of LEAP is for members of the Mercer community to tally 10,000 hours of service (Local

Engagement Against Poverty, n.d.).

According to Respondent 8, “Giving back to the community, having that kind of

responsibility, has been put at the forefront of everyone’s consciousness.” Respondent 2

referred to Mercer as “glocal.” “Mercer is glocal, they have global horizon and local

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commitment.” The increased comprehensiveness may be attributed to President

Godsey’s vision to improve communities. “When you look at every school he started,

there is an emphasis on doing something special for Georgia,” according to Respondent

17. Additionally, many of these schools carry out functions to assist the community. For

example, according to Respondent 16, the law school has a strong law and public service

program that assists individuals who feel they have been wrongly incarcerated.

Professors and students review the case and verdict and assist the accused when they see

fit. President Underwood has continued and built upon Godsey’s efforts.

Mercer leadership has also strongly supported global service efforts, primarily

under President Underwood’s leadership. Respondents repeatedly identified Mercer on

Mission as an example of the service learning concept being encouraged by leadership.

“When President Underwood came to Mercer, he said his goal is to have 250 Mercer

undergraduates spend three weeks to a month in a developing country providing service

to the world and obtaining the very best of study abroad experiences,” stated Respondent

2. Respondent 8 stated that President Underwood aims to make Mercer on Mission a

cornerstone of the institution. Mercer on Mission blends study abroad and service

learning according to respondents. Students earn academic credit while assisting

individuals in developing countries. For example, groups of faculty and students have

distributed water and mosquito nets to villages in Africa, provided Vietnamese amputees

with prosthetic limbs, and taught children in Brazil. The university funds the travel and

in-country expenses of students. Students representing various academic units and

degree levels travel together and collaborate.

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When discussing service learning at Mercer, Respondent 8 tied in other critical

features of leadership including interdisciplinary efforts. According to the respondent,

dialogue should cross programs and be tied into action. “We have expressed what we

think we can do with this administration and now we have kind of been directed by

administration for it to happen. There is an awareness of this service learning concept

throughout the university.”

For example, Respondent 8 noted that Mercer on Mission is funded primarily

through Mercer, which may be criticized by academics due to financial challenges.

According to Respondent 8:

It’s hard to expand service programs without a budget. This is overcome because it is like apple pie. It’s hard not to support them. The students come back transformed. A student may have once said that they want to be an engineer, but they return saying that they want to be an engineer to help the world. You can’t help but be moved by it.

Respondent 13 agreed, stating “If I think about distinctiveness of this university, it is this

international service project and how it is transformative invariably to students who go

out and have these experiences.” The respondent explained that students’ views of the

world have really been changed. Further, in the long run, Respondent 8 felt Mercer on

Mission and other service learning projects will improve the recruitment of students.

Respondent 14 felt the entrepreneurial attitude of Mercer leadership encourages

the institution to continue to look for new ways to address the needs of the broader

community. “They tie institutional goals with actual community needs.” However, the

respondent noted that growth in service has been inconsistent, and that is the next test of

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Mercer leadership. Respondent 13 agreed, stating that leadership is currently challenged

to make these service experiences more than one-time experiences.

Successful Implementation of Founding Values. The success of maintaining

liberal arts values at Mercer was partially attributed by respondents in part to the hiring

practices of leadership. Leadership has been carefully selected according to Respondent

3. For example, the president, provost, and most of the senior administrative staff

obtained liberal arts educations. Respondent 3 felt this creates a trickle-down effect. At

the same time, Respondent 14 noted that Mercer has a poor track record of training

individuals to step into administrative roles. As a result, individuals from other

institutions are brought in to fill administrative roles as opposed to hiring internally.

Respondent 6 believed that careful attention is given to the selection of faculty

and staff at Mercer, that there are “some things you can train, and there are some things

that are just what they are. You have to find the right person who understands the

culture. Leadership aims to hire individuals who not only understand the culture, but take

ownership and contribute to it.” Respondent 9 stated “I think, in hiring, they look for

people who embrace that (liberal education).” “Respondent 17 noted that “we look for

faculty members who promote (liberal education). What do you do in your teaching to

encourage the development of these skills?” Interview processes are carefully planned

and meticulous according to Respondent 6. “Because they are trying to find a good fit.

One that is going to make both parties productive and flourish.” Individuals must believe

in and exercise the values of Mercer.

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Over the years, due to retirements, Respondent 9 indicated that the number of

naysayers has decreased. The respondent attributed this to the hiring of individuals who

are more open to change. The respondent was careful to explain that the selection of

employees does not aim to prevent dissent. Rather, the focus is on the contributions the

candidate can make toward Mercer’s vision. Leadership does not want “dead weight,”

according to Respondent 10. “We want to hire good folks who get very excited about

what Mercer is about.” Respondent 3 claimed that low faculty and leadership turnover

has resulted because individuals truly invest in Mercer.

Respondents spoke about Mercer leadership’s efforts to maintain founding values

in general. Respondent 1 described the challenge of providing a liberal education. “Life

would be a lot easier for us if we were not so rigorous. If we were like every other school

and jack up enrollments and become a degree mill.” The respondent explained that,

because liberal education challenges students not to simply regurgitate information, but to

take a base of knowledge and apply it to unique situations, often the work of a professor

is more difficult. For example, grading a multiple choice test based on facts takes less

time and effort than grading an essay that requires students to apply facts to a problem.

Respondents indicated that programs developed and supported by leadership

demonstrate their commitment to liberal education. Respondent 9 stated:

I think the former president and provost and the current president and provost set that tone by what you see that they really value. Some of the signature programs they highlight in board meetings like Mercer on Mission, service learning, some of the conferences held by and for students. It’s not just lip service. I think the president, provost and deans see that they need to take the liberal arts tradition and shape it and sell it in a way that is more than philosophical and intangible

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benefits to students, but is going to enrich their life in a way that will help them in their career.

The president constantly emphasizes that the Baptist heritage is not about spirituality, it is

about how you put faith into action. This belief is evident in the programs and efforts of

Mercer. Respondent 13 explained that leadership is seeking ways to use technology to

enrich teaching, make connections between the classroom and the world, provide richer

experiences to students, and encourage students to think about new world issues and

experience and address those issues. According to Respondent 20, these experiences:

Are not so much about giving people clear answers to life’s most perplexing problems, but they are about helping us sharpen our thinking, helping us to think more carefully, to speak more precisely, to be able to ask better questions, they are about advancing reason and civility in a world that that is often irrational and uncivil.

Respondent 1 stated that leadership strives to ensure that students take a base of

knowledge and apply it to unique situations. They value going beyond theoretical

learning. Mercer encourages people to think and dream in nontraditional ways, according

to Respondent 2. Further, Respondent 21 explained that a commitment to helping

students develop critical thinking skills, developing students’ oral and written

communication skills, and encouraging students to think about fundamental questions

like the meaning of life are evident in Mercer leadership’s efforts to maintain liberal arts

as the cornerstone of the institution. Overall, leadership emphasizes ethical and

responsible citizenship and an ethos of servant leadership according to Respondent 3.

Experiences are designed to support Mercer’s liberal arts heritage.

Some respondents indicated that Mercer has maintained its foundational values.

“It’s interesting to see how the question, what does it mean to be a Mercerian, has always

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remained the same in some respects,” according to Respondent 6. Repeatedly,

respondents stated that, despite the increased number of professional programs and the

reduced proportion of CLA students, the CLA remains the heart of the university.

Respondent 2 felt that the movement of becoming a comprehensive university has grown

out of the CLA. Respondent 17 stated “But, what I can sense the university has been true

to in all of this is the threading of liberal arts, the principles of liberal learning, the

capacities we want all students to hone, in celebration and support of liberal learning,

thread through the professional schools. Respondent 10 agreed, stating “I have been here

since 1987, so I’ve seen a lot of change. One thing Mercer has never changed is viewing

liberal arts as the core. Respondent 16 stated “We understand our past and what we are

about and our future. We have always had a firm grounding in the liberal arts. I haven’t

seen any faculty not embracing that idea.”

Competition for Students

One major challenge presented frequently by respondents was competition with

other colleges and universities. More specifically, they voiced their concern about the

competition created by the Helping Outstanding Pupils Educationally (HOPE)

scholarship, an academic achievement scholarship given to Georgia students who attend a

public college or university in Georgia. Students who meet specified academic standards

can attend public schools free of charge or receive partial scholarships. Respondent 8

noted that some of the state schools that Mercer is competing with, including the

University of Georgia and the Georgia Institute of Technology, are very reputable.

Respondent 1 simply stated “We are competing with free.”

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As previously discussed, the liberal education foundation of Mercer is viewed as a

differentiator that may improve its competitive strength. Respondent 9 explained that

students have become much more discerning of their opportunities. They are looking for

an educational experience that is different. Parents, on the other hand, are looking for

something that is worth the private school investment. According to the respondent, “I

think the President and Provost and deans see that they need to take that liberal arts

tradition and shape it and sell it in a way that is more than philosophical and intangible

benefits for students, but is going to enrich their life in a way that will help them in a

career. Being able to articulate that.”

Respondent 9 concluded that leadership does a good job of this and must in order

to compete. They are working hard from the top down on this effort. “What can we do

that is distinctive, what can we do that draws colleges and programs together in new

ways, how can we leverage the content areas of teaching in new ways only we can do?”

Respondent 14 agreed by describing leadership’s wrestling with how to re-orient the

liberal arts for a new generation of vocationally-oriented students. As a result, academic

programs like global health and medical humanities are being initiated to attract science

students to degrees within the humanities. Unique opportunities like Mercer on Mission

are supported by leadership to further attract students. According to Respondent 16, “We

have been able to maintain and increase enrollment and I think we basically have always

been able to, in recent history, create new programs that are needed in the state. To

understand the market.”

Finances

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The state of the economy was frequently identified by respondents as an obstacle

faced by Mercer. Respondent 1 stressed the financial issues surrounding the formation of

new schools and colleges. Each school needs a building, for example. The respondent

detailed the difficulty in raising funds, including bond money. Additionally, the

respondent reported that the institution’s endowment is small. This is partially because

the alumni giving rate is not great. The respondent attributed this dilemma to the

newness of schools. Alumni are not yet at the point in their lives to give back to Mercer.

Additionally, the complex structure of Mercer poses challenges to financing.

Respondent 1 compared Mercer to a solely liberal arts institution, Furman University. At

Furman, according to the respondent, every dollar goes to one thing, their college or arts

and sciences. “Every dollar we bring in, and you can look at it abstractly, gets chopped

into eleven different parts. Financing is always tricky.”

Respondent 13 also noted instances where the university had to cut staff positions.

He claimed the cuts were understood. Respondent 14 agreed, stating that the university is

very lean and has slimmed down even more since President Underwood took office.

Respondent 12 noted that, due to the decrease in staffing, the work load has multiplied by

three times. “I do not advocate administrative bloat. I know they work very hard with

fewer resources than we might expect,” stated Respondent 14.

Respondent 19 felt that, because of the economy, President Underwood has

worked really hard to put Mercer on firm financial ground and keep it there. “I think the

key thing we face this next decade is how to do things better with less resources,” stated

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Respondent 13. This requires a lot of schools making sacrifices and contributing to

leadership efforts according to Respondent 19. For example, when discussing

leadership’s demands on faculty members to develop attractive programs to improve the

financial status of Mercer, Respondent 16 stated that faculty members often request more

marketing funds. According to the respondent, President Underwood has responded by

stating that General Motors has a lot of marketing dollars and they still failed because the

product was wrong. However, several respondents felt that President Underwood

presents challenges and sacrifices as being for the good of the entire university.

Respondent 19 felt that current leadership’s budgeting efforts have been effective. “We

are probably in a pretty sound financial state when considering economic times,

especially compared to other schools like Mercer.”

Summary

Mercer University has undergone tremendous transformation within a short

period of time. A wide array of challenges presented from a variety of forces including

faculty resistance to change, reversing fragmentation, and staying true to founding values

have been faced by Mercer leadership. Overall, respondents indicate that leadership has

confronted these challenges using effective measures.

Leadership and Success

In the previous section, challenges faced by leadership and measures taken to

address them were discussed. Respondents also described overall attributes and actions

supportive of leadership’s success. The following is a summary of leadership qualities

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that President Godsey and President Underwood have exhibited through this

transformative period.

Comparing and Contrasting Leadership Styles

Respondents repeatedly indicated differences in the leadership styles of President

Godsey and President Underwood. According to respondents, Godsey was a visionary

leader. The rapid expansion of Mercer during Godsey’s presidency was attributed to his

visionary character as well as his long tenure by respondents. Respondent 9 stated “I

think it was the vision of Godsey and the Board of Trustees that moved Mercer along this

path. It was his ideas and conversations with folks that got things like the medical school

started.”

It was reported frequently that present leadership has a different focus. President

Underwood is looking at how to integrate all of these unique colleges and programs and

how to maximize the expertise in all of the programs to become distinctive. Respondent

21 stated that Underwood’s role is to carry forward what had already taken place.

Respondent 10 explained that there has been a fluid transition from Godsey to

Underwood. “Bill Underwood is continuing Dr. Godsey’s vision by dotting the I’s and

crossing the T’s.” According to Respondent 3, “Bill Underwood has come in and has

preserved the best parts of that clear sense of mission.”

Respondent 18 described it as a “taking care of business” approach. Respondent

1 stated “Bill is much more hands-on. Bill really knows the day-to-day workings of

almost everything in the university. Kirby was much more of a visionary. Bill is a

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visionary, don’t get me wrong, but Kirby was always thinking globally.” He continued

by stating that “Bill is way down into things and Kirby was way up into things.”

Respondent 18 agreed, stating that Dr. Underwood is taking care of the existing

framework. The Respondent felt that he is looking for clear and reasonable paths to goals

so there is less of a grand leap and more of a strategic transition. Respondent 10 agreed,

stating “Leaps of faith before (under Godsey) and now strategic plans (Underwood).”

This transition in leadership styles suits the time period in which the two

presidents served according to Respondent 9. The respondent explained that Godsey’s

visionary leadership style was appropriate to his time due to less competition.

Specifically, the HOPE scholarship played a less significant role according to Respondent

9. President Underwood must maintain a high level of accountability not only in

financing, but because higher education is constantly under the microscope, as described

by Respondent 9.

Clear Vision

Respondents praised Mercer leadership for clearly communicating its vision.

Respondent 9 stated “We know where we are headed as an institution. This is very, very

clearly defined.” Respondent 3 agreed, but added the importance of sticking to that

vision. According to Respondent 1, “The Provost needs to think about what is best from

an academic perspective, and the President must think about what is best for the

institution.

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Under President Underwood, actions have been taken to create, communicate, and

support a clear vision. The vision of Mercer leadership has been framed by and

communicated in its strategic plan according to Respondent 7. One of the first things

President Underwood did was put together groups to work on the plan, according to

respondents. The plan’s development engaged faculty and staff across the university to

look ahead to the next decade to determine what the university needs to aspire to, what

kinds of things it needs to emphasize, and what the priorities should be. The process

created an opportunity for shared buy-in, according to Respondent 4. Respondent 13

stated, “I think the administration can provide a vision, but the vision can never be

disconnected from the faculty and students.”

The ten-goal, ten-year strategic plan aims to put Mercer in the same category of

recognition as institutions like Vanderbilt, Emory, Duke, Wake Forest, and Tulane. The

strategic plan describes the creation of a new model for Christian higher education

promoting intellectual freedom, honoring religious diversity, and fostering both

intellectual and spiritual growth in students, faculty, and staff (Mercer University

Planning Council, 2008). Specific goals are detailed in the plan along with actual

statistical goals.

According to Respondent 9, during the development of the strategic plan, “He

(President Underwood) led us to believe it would be a meaningful document down the

road, not just something that went on the shelf. That has proven to be true.” Respondent

1 noted that the plan gets the university pointed in the right direction, but is flexible.

According to the respondent, “We try to work everything back to it.” Respondent 12

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attributed the university’s more efficient day-to-day operations to the clear vision created

by President Underwood.

Shared Governance

Respondents indicated that Mercer leadership values the incorporation of all

entities in decision-making processes. Respondent 3 stated “Dr. Underwood promotes

inclusiveness and promotes discussion.” For example, Respondent 6 stated “Twice a

semester, we (deans, administrative directors, and vice presidents) meet as an academic

council and discuss the big, broad umbrella issues and take that back to our own divisions

and units. We carry that torch forward and engage our faculty and staff to create a

framework so that everyone has some element of contribution to the discourse.

Respondent 8 agreed, explaining that leadership is not dictating. Respondent 1 stated that

leadership has been successful at not being perceived top-down. Rather, it challenges

faculty and staff to advance Mercer’s vision. Respondent 8 felt that leadership wants the

opinions of others in order to see other’s views and because of the expertise they have to

offer. “Senior leadership works with us. They are developing, they want our opinion,

they want to tie a new aspect to it. They see us as partners.”

Respondent 9 stated the President Underwood expects leadership from others to

move his agenda forward, making leadership more participatory. According to

Respondent 13, “The best ideas come from faculty. I don’t think administration can do

much in terms of transforming or changing. I think the role of administration is to

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provide an environment in which people feel comfortable and safe in bringing their own

ideas to the floor.” The respondent stated:

I think we have a teaching and research effort that has really come from our faculty leaders in virtually all of the schools and colleges. I don’t think that is something administration can do from the top. In fact, I think the kind of movements coming from the top always fail. Thus, administration tries to find ways to provide an environment to allow creative ideas to flourish.

For example, Respondent 13 noted the undergraduate student research initiative that has

been increasing in participation was developed by faculty. Respondent 13 felt faculty can

help Mercer effectively find ways to accomplish more with fewer resources by stating “I

think faculty can answer that question brilliantly.”

Several examples of shared governance were described by respondents. First, as

previously discussed, the university went through a strategic planning process early in

President Underwood’s administration. Faculty and staff were engaged from across the

university to look ahead to the next decade. Several levels of leadership shared in the

process of determining the university’s aspirations, emphases, and priorities.

Additionally, Respondent 15 noted that the faculty participates in the House of Delegates,

a university-wide senate that acts as an advisory committee to the Provost and the

President. It is comprised of faculty members from all academic units. This group was

resurrected by Dr. Godsey and used when needed. However, it has been regularly

utilized by President Underwood according to Respondent 14. Lastly, Respondent 13

discussed decisions related to promotion and tenure. Faculty committees make these

decisions and higher administration rarely overturns decisions.

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Several of Mercer’s programs are faculty-led, including admissions programs and

Mercer on Mission. In fact, the AIM program was started by a professor, not senior

administration. Respondent 8 stated “The ownership of leadership permeates here.”

Respondent 2 described community revival efforts prompted by a faculty member who

was a philosophy professor interested in urban renewal. Mercer leadership listened to

the faculty member’s concerns for the surrounding neighborhood and supported a

collaborative effort with the city, and ultimately the federal government, to revitalize a

low-income public housing structure. This effort has grown and now, due to student

interest, supports the Mercer Corridor, an economic renewal project aiming to revive the

neighborhoods connecting the Macon campus to downtown Macon.

Another attempt at making Mercer more participatory is in the development of

new colleges, schools, and programs. Respondent 16 stated that leadership has tried to

allow schools to develop their own programs, missions, and goals, thus distributing

leadership. The respondent is pleased because academic units like the College of

Continuing and Professional Studies can grow under that model. However, the

respondent noted a lack of collaboration with other schools is a result. These efforts

indicate the high level of participation of the entire Mercer community. When describing

shared governance, Respondent 1 stated “Central administration has listened

appropriately and selectively.”

Respondents also indicated that shared governance does not always occur. “I

think sometimes we just suck it up and do it. Sometimes we are forced to change,”

according to Respondent 10. Respondent 14 stated that a minority of administrators see

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faculty as “step-children who need to be patted on the head, told everything is fine, and to

go about their business.” Respondent 10 attributed this to failing to take time to educate

faculty about fiscal matters. The respondent felt it is marginally better, but still needs

improvement. Respondent 5 also indicated that faculty members do not always

participate in decision-making. “Most things are handed down fait accomplit.” The

respondent used the example of the merger with the nursing school about which,

according to the respondent, no one in the humanities had any conversation about.

Respondent 5 explained the problem with top-down leadership. “What doesn’t

work well? The faculty in the college can be pretty resistant to something that seems top-

down.” The respondent used the initiation of the global health program as an example.

“That just sort of popped up. I mean, we knew this was coming, but it wasn’t initiated by

the faculty.” The respondent then explained that once it was clear that the program

would be implemented, faculty members of the CLA participated in the development of

the program so it could “at least bear the stamp of the CLA. This was perceived as top-

down, yet faculty took it and shaped it.”

Respondents indicated that President Underwood has used a more participatory

governance system. Respondent 9 felt that, under President Godsey, the leadership was

much more focused in his role as president. Further, Respondent 14 described President

Godsey as becoming more insular and more distant from the faculty in his last ten years.

“In a sense, it became a more emphatic, top-down management style,” according to

Respondent 14. Some respondents preferred Dr. Underwood’s leadership approach.

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Historically and in modern times, Mercer leadership has promoted a sense of

family which may or may not be related to shared governance. The archives of the Jack

Tarver library (n.d).noted that President Gambrell (1893 to 1896) originated the emphasis

on the Mercer community becoming a family. Modern times support this founding value.

Participants noted that Mercer promotes a feeling of family. Respondent 12 stated:

I have experienced and witnessed great highs and lows, but always with the sense that we would weather our storms together. The people within our unit are like family. I heard a minister say long ago that we should strive to be like a stream, constantly moving and flowing, instead of a swamp where things remain stagnant and die. Mercer is a whitewater river rafting experience and I would not want to be anywhere else.

Respondent 18 attributed this sense of family to cultural norms that formulate Mercer,

stating “Everybody at Mercer seems to value individuals, the student. It’s a personal

place. It’s kind of a family feel where people have this care for others. I think that

comes from our Baptist roots, our church-related roots and the values that came out of

that and continue to inform who we are.”

High Expectations

According to respondents, leadership has high expectations of the Mercer

community and holds it accountable for contributing to its missions. Respondents

reported that, in order to receive support of leadership for projects, you must demonstrate

how your effort will strengthen Mercer as a whole. According to Respondent 7, “The bar

they set for people is always there regarding the mission of the institution.” More

specifically, the respondent reported that expectations of academic units regarding

growth, retention, new initiatives, and identifying Mercer’s mission in terms of service,

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both locally and abroad, have been clearly communicated and that people are expected to

rise to these challenges. President Underwood expects that people are visionary and

creative in terms of what they can do to support the mission of the university.

Respondent 7 gave examples of leadership expectations of CLA faculty. The

CLA has been challenged to create a new interdisciplinary global health program as well

as update the existing general education curriculum as part of the QEP as previously

discussed. Respondent 7 indicated that the expectation to prove the value of potential

programs to the Mercer community in order to receive the support of leadership creates

competition amongst academic units. According to the respondent, this could further

motivate faculty to promote Mercer missions or, on the other hand, increase the level of

dissent.

Leadership demonstrates its accountability as well. Respondent 10 described the

how the development of a strategic plan shows that current leadership has placed

expectations on itself:

One of the best things I will say for this administration and for Bill Underwood is he expects a lot from people here, but he holds himself accountable as well. This became evident when, during his first couple of years, he outlined leadership’s goal in the form of the strategic plan and begins each year with a review of Mercer’s status regarding the ten goals. This lets us know that our strategic plan that aims to move us toward our mission truly matters.

Entrepreneurialism

Respondents frequently described Mercer leadership, especially under President

Godsey, as entrepreneurial. Respondents indicated that President Godsey was a visionary

willing to try new things and take risks. President Godsey was “looking for opportunity

for growth and jumping in and taking it,” as stated by Respondent 10.

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Respondents indicated that entrepreneurial efforts would not be successful if the

leadership, as well as faculty, is not well-informed. Respondents indicated that it is

important for Mercer leadership to “be aware of the landscape that is bigger than Mercer

itself,” as stated by Respondent 10. An understanding of national and global trends is

critical. Decisions made at the institutional level must be made in the context of what is

going on in this country in terms of higher education. Respondent 4 agreed, stating

“Leadership has demonstrated the ability to look at the landscape of higher education and

see what the trends are. There were opportunities for Mercer to meet the needs of the

constituents we serve.”

Respondent 16 noted that Mercer administration, under both President Godsey

and President Underwood, has been aware of programs demanded by students and

needed in the state. In response, new programs have been created. Respondent 16 stated

that knowledge of the market has led to the founding of Mercer’s medical and

engineering schools in order to meet the needs of the community. Respondent 2 agreed,

stating “They did their homework and found there was no medical school in rural

Georgia.” More recently, President Underwood has initiated programs including doctoral

programs that are turning away overwhelming numbers of applicants according to

Respondent 15. According to Respondent 2, leadership under President Underwood

carefully reads cultural trends as well. For example, the global health program was

encouraged from the Provost’s office due to his observation of a current trend. Usually

these ideas are initiated at the faculty level. “It came from leadership that was looking

into a cultural shift and led to the Provost saying we really need to do something about

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this.” According to Respondent 16, “That is how we have really been able to be part of

the community and increase enrollment in this difficult time.”

Further, knowledge of the actions of other institutions similar to Mercer or those

Mercer aspires to be more like may strengthen leadership’s ability to move the institution

toward its mission. Successful actions of other institutions can serve as evidence that

decisions are viable at Mercer. Also, according to Respondent 10, “People in higher

education are very generous. You can ask them for help and ideas for change.”

Respondent 10 concluded that leadership can then introduce faculty and staff to new

things not previously considered and generate excitement.

Further, Respondent 1 indicated that leadership under President Underwood

supports faculty professional development to stay relevant in their field. “It keeps faculty

vibrant which means that they translate the stuff into the classroom.” For example,

Respondent 1 described sending faculty members to Vermont for training regarding the

general education revisions.

Respondent 4 described leadership’s entrepreneurialism through the addition of

colleges and schools. “Mercer has not been shy about starting and acquiring new

programs. Leadership has been willing to take risks and start new programs, sometimes

with great controversy and in some significant backlash. “I think leadership once aspired

Mercer to be different and saw that it could offer quality education in different

disciplines,” stated Respondent 9. Respondent 18 felt that Mercer is the legacy of Kirby

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Godsey who was a visionary and had the courage to push forth a vision and a dream

despite large opposition. Respondent 17 stated:

Current and previous administration have been good at inspiring members of the (Mercer) community to want to get on board with transformation and change. Some programs in the past were forced (by leadership) to reorganize, reallocate, develop new programs, and terminate programs with low enrollment. Now, everyone seems to have that entrepreneurial spirit.

Respondents discussed Mercer leadership’s ability to be flexible when

implementing ideas. Respondent 14 stated “We have been relatively nimble. We

(Mercer) have taken advantage of opportunities as they (administration) have seen them.

Further, they encourage an entrepreneurial attitude.” For example, President Underwood

has begun physical therapy and physician’s assistant doctoral programs and founded a

regional academic center in Newnan due to a perceived demand for them. Respondent 10

expressed amazement in leadership’s ability to take existing structures under the umbrella

of a larger unit and develop them into individual entities to attract students or fulfill a

need. For example, under President Godsey’s leadership, pulling the business and

education schools out of the CLA enabled them to grow as individual academic units,

attracting more students. Additionally, the respondent was impressed by leadership’s

ability to identify and formulate relationships with external entities that share similar

values, visions, and goals to move Mercer toward its vision.

Online courses were identified as a recent innovation adopted by Mercer. Faculty

questioned whether off-site interaction supported Mercer’s vision. At first, the President

Underwood was even skeptical because he thought it would hurt Mercer’s brand,

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according to Respondent 1. The respondent attributed his acceptance of initiating online

course work to listening to the ideas of faculty who were in favor of the idea.

In order to make entrepreneurial ideas become reality, respondents stated that

effective leaders make a decision and move forward. They must listen to all views,

including both supporters and critics, and make the decision they feel is best for Mercer.

Also, respondents noted that leadership must control the tendency for lengthy discussions

that inhibit timely action. Respondents indicated that Mercer leadership has pushed

forward to take action. During Underwood’s presidency, Respondent 7 used the example

of placing time limits on general education revisions to demonstrate leadership’s

expectation of faculty to make decisions and move forward. Respondent 5 stated that

administration gave faculty incentives to get the general education revisions completed

along with a firm deadline. Respondent 14 stated “We tend to talk and talk. He

(President Underwood) would rather see more movement and less talk.” Respondent 1

noted that faculty tends to pick things apart and dissect things, whereas leadership does

not have time, they have to keep moving, creating a tough dynamic: “That is the art of

being a good leader. You have to keep things moving, but you can’t just make people do

stuff.” Respondent 1 agreed, stating “Leadership needs to appreciate that faculty’s way

of doing things is different than leadership’s way of doing things. You must

compromise, yet move forward.” According to Respondent 1, “There is a middle ground

there and that is called progress.”

Respondents provided examples of Mercer leadership’s efforts to push agendas

forward despite conflicting opinions. When describing the opposition faced by Godsey

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when founding the medical school, Respondent 2 stated “Culture is always going to have

tension. Someone has to have the courage of their conviction to stake out some claims

and lead on the basis of those staked out claims.” The respondent concluded by praising

Godsey for opening the medical school despite opposition. Respondent 4 added:

Leaders have to listen to what the university is saying, but you can’t fixate it to the point of letting every criticism, every criticism, every objection stop you. So it’s a really delicate balance between having healthy dialogue within the institution about its priorities and direction and yet, at the end of the day, leaders have to make decisions and move the University forward. Those decisions are not always popular. I just don’t see how a leader of any university can be successful if their primary concern is keeping everybody happy. It’s an unachievable objective. At the same time, you can’t run shop over everyone. You have to find the balance between fostering a community of respect where opinions are heard and valued while, at the end of the day, making decisions you feel are in the best interest of the institution but may not be popular.

Respondent 20 agreed that effective leaders determine whether to pursue it or dismiss it.

As previously discussed, decisions made and imposed unilaterally by leaders tend

to fail. However, Respondent 1 described how Mercer on Mission, a program initiated

by President Underwood, is successful:

Now it’s tricky because most things at the college level are grassroots. It starts at the faculty level and works its way up. But, it you do that, nothing is ever going to happen. Because faculty talk about stuff, not necessarily do. And that’s the dynamic of effective leadership. How do you move things forward without creating ill will with the faculty. Most presidents who fail are autocratic. It’s more of a negotiation. Getting to yes. Effective leadership is when the faculty think, ultimately, that the idea is theirs.

Thus, President Underwood was able to see Mercer on Mission become a university-wide

reality even though it was originated by administration

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Management of Resistance

The management of resistance by Mercer leadership, especially during the

transformative period under President Godsey, was frequently described by respondents.

“I think you have to appreciate the significance of dissent. Permitting dissent,

appreciating the right to dissent. That does not mean the dissenter is always right, but it

does mean they have a right to be heard. And I think that is, incidentally, rooted in the

liberal arts,” stated Respondent 20. Respondent 1 agreed, stating “I like healthy tension.

I think administration should push on faculty pretty hard, but I think faculty should push

on administration really hard. I think it keeps both of us on our toes.” The respondent

continued by stating that there is usually a kernel of truth in the ideas of dissenters. You

have to appreciate each other’s views.

Respondent 21 discussed the opposition faced by President Godsey. The

respondent attributed Godsey’s perseverance to his ability to allow people to disagree

with him. Godsey had the attitude that when people are critical, he needed to listen to

them and hear what they had to say and think about it. Further, Respondent 1 claimed

that if you have someone who is sort of an outlier, who can approach the problem

differently, they are probably the ones that are going to bring the innovative solutions.

Actions

In general, respondents indicated that leadership decisions are made in order to

further Mercer’s efforts toward its mission. “We see it translated in the things we do,”

according to Respondent 9. Respondent 10 reported that leadership “puts its money

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where its mouth is.” For example, when the university decided to strengthen the role of

service learning in its vision during Underwood’s presidency, the position of senior vice

provost for service learning was created.

Role modeling has been important to Mercer leadership according to respondents.

According to Respondent 13, “I think first, that for leadership to be effective, you have to

have university leaders who are going to model and exemplify what it is you want.” For

example, In reference to Provost Wallace Daniel, Respondent 9 stated “I think having a

provost who is an active scholar sets a tone.” Respondent 13 agreed, explaining that it is

important to Mercer that leaders have experience in both teaching and research, not just

administration. When describing leadership under President Underwood, the respondent

stated “They don’t see themselves as administrators, they see themselves as practitioners

of these two qualities.” Current Mercer administration is comprised of individuals who

have spent years in the classroom and currently conduct their own research. In fact, some

administrators teach classes at Mercer according to respondents.

Respondent 13 expressed the importance of this, stating “It is important that you

are not just asking faculty members to commit to these processes, but you are doing these

things yourself as an administrator.” According to Respondent 1, administration works

very hard. The respondent stated “These folks, these leaders are unbelievably busy.

Wallace works all of the time, Bill, I mean it is 24-7.”

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Board of Trustees Support

Mercer University leadership has historically needed the support of the Board of

Trustees to push their initiatives forward. An earlier example of the results of lack of

support is the short tenure of President Charles Lee Smith in 1905. Despite the period of

prosperity to which he contributed, he was replaced after one year due to the lack of

support given by the Board of Trustees (Jack Tarver Library, n.d.). President Godsey and

President Underwood have been dependent on the support of the Board of Trustees.

Respondent 9 emphasized that it is not just the president making decisions, it is also the

Board of Trustees. Respondent 14 explained that because President Godsey was a

visionary and was often faced with intense opposition, he especially needed the full

support of the Board of Trustees to carry his visions forward. For example, Respondent

20 explained that the Board of Trustee’s swing vote that fell in favor of President

Godsey’s vision of a medical school at Mercer, Judge Bell, went into the meeting

strongly opposed to the school. However, after listening to President Godsey’s vision, he

voted in favor of adding a medical school to Mercer.

The significance of the support of the Board of Trustees was also apparent during

the budget deficit during President Godsey’s tenure. There was a huge amount of

negative publicity around Mercer in both Macon and Atlanta at this time, according to

Respondent 18. For example, the salaries of all senior administration, confidential

information, were published in the local newspapers. President Godsey was greatly

criticized by a variety of entities including the Mercer faculty, who picketed in their

academic robes daily outside of the administration building. Respondent 20 explained

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that President Godsey told the Board of Trustees that they could carry the vision of

growth and expansion forward and see the deficit overturned in five years, or withdraw

from the vision and scale-back. The Board supported Godsey and the deficit was

corrected within three years. Respondent 18 stated:

I think there is not a college president in America who could have survived this except Kirby Godsey. The reason is he is so smart. But mostly, he had built this incredible relationship with the board. He stated that Godsey survived because the trustees were convinced that he got them into this mess and he is probably the only person who can get them out. He understood what he had built and he convinced them that he could get Mercer out of the mess. The trustees could not imagine where else to turn. They had vested so much in this man over the years. They believed in him and they were excited about the results.

The respondent felt that Mercer came out better. According to Respondent 14 “President

Godsey was so smart and so gifted at oratory. He could take them (GBC) on. He

understood them.”

External Relationships

Respondents indicated that creating partnerships with external entities with

complementary visions and goals has been important to Mercer leadership. In earlier

years, President Samuel Jameson Young served as an officer of the Southern Baptist

Schools during his presidency from 1906 and 1913 and his predecessor, President

William Lowndes Pickard served as President of the GBC’s Board of Education .

Spright Dowell, president from 1928 to 1953, continued to develop supportive

relationships with Baptist churches and organizations (Jack Tarver Library, n.d.).

Respondent 2 described more recent relationships that build on Mercer’s Baptist

heritage. For example, the Atlanta campus’ administrative building became the

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repository for the archives of the American Baptist Historical Society and the

Cooperative Baptist Fellowship has offices on the Atlanta campus. In addition, the

Hilton Garden Inn was built on the Macon campus. In a broader sense, under President

Godsey and President Underwood, Mercer has built a solid relationship with the Macon

community. Respondent 2 described the tension between many universities and their

local communities. The respondent described it as “the old town versus gown.”

However, respondents felt Mercer’s relationship with the community is strong.

Summary

By communicating a clear vision, facilitating shared governance, setting high

expectations, implementing entrepreneurial decisions, appreciating dissent, role-

modeling, and earning the support of the Board of Trustees and external entities, Mercer

leadership has successfully managed the challenges of rapid transformation into a

comprehensive university. As a result, Mercer provides high quality, demanded

educational opportunities that fill a need in Georgia or in the world. Further, Mercer

University continues to embrace its founding values by implementing them into course

work as well as into activities outside of the classroom.

Conclusion

Through this historical case study, findings provided by archival resources,

institutional publications, and personal testimonies were integrated in order to determine

the themes integral to the historical narrative of Mercer University. The transformative

period that occurred under President Godsey and the efforts to carry these changes

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forward led by President Underwood were identified in terms of challenges faced,

methods and evidence of managing these challenges, and leadership qualities possessed.

Leadership has implemented strategies to successfully transform Mercer University from

a small liberal arts institution to a large comprehensive university.

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CHAPTER 5. CONCLUSIONS AND RECOMMENDATIONS

Introduction

The increasing demand for professional programs has led some liberal arts

institutions to revise curricula in order to be relevant to students’ lives as well as to

maintain and increase enrollment in a highly competitive market for students. As with

leaders of other institutions with strong liberal arts roots, Mercer University’s leaders

have been challenged to initiate professional programs without straying from founding

missions and maintaining a cohesive institution. This historical case study of Mercer

University serves as an example of how a liberal arts institution can transform itself by

successfully integrating professional programs into course offerings without losing sight

of liberal education values. This study provides higher education leaders who are leading

transformative efforts with examples of and insights into leadership and change

strategies. It not only depicts the historical transformation of Mercer University, but it

also describes the role of the presidents involved, the reasoning behind the

transformative efforts, challenges faced, and specific examples and leadership attributes

relevant to transformation. Higher education leaders can apply this information to their

own institutional setting in order to ensure that transformative efforts make certain the

institution’s relevancy and value to students, but also that they also maintain and build

upon foundational values.

In order to better understand transformation and leadership at Mercer University,

the following research questions were explored.

• What leadership attributes and activities guided Mercer University’s leadership

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over its long history as it transformed itself from a liberal arts college into a

comprehensive university?

o Sub-Question 1: How did Mercer University’s leaders balance the

institution’s liberal education values and goals while, at the same time,

introducing professionally-oriented programs?

o Sub-Question 2: What obstacles did Mercer University’s leaders encounter

during the process of transformation and how did they overcome these

obstacles?

Based on these research questions, a summary of the results, a discussion of the study’s

findings including how they relate to the existing literature, implications for practice,

limitations, and suggestions for further investigation are presented in this chapter.

Discussion of the Results

Research findings frequently correlated with ideas presented by scholars relevant

to the primary research question: What leadership attributes and activities guided Mercer

University’s leadership over its long history as it transformed itself from a liberal arts

college into a comprehensive university?

President Godsey and President Underwood have presented similar leadership

styles. Both have sustained hierarchical leadership structures which scholars have

indicated dominate higher education. Altbach et al. (2005), for example, claimed that

budget pressures and external demands for accountability creates this directive leadership

style. There is a clear division of roles and clear understanding of individual

responsibilities as described by Bolman and Deal (2003).

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Based on the statements of respondents, President Godsey’s visions led to what

Goleman (1998) referred to as a coercive leadership style, characterized by seeking

compliance. Once approval was achieved, President Godsey then implemented

Goleman’s authoritative leadership style which mobilized individuals within the Mercer

community for action, whether they were in favor of the change or not. The opening and

closing of schools and colleges provides evidence of President Godsey’s implementation

of both of these leadership styles.

Kemper (2003) indicated that shared leadership is a trend in higher education

leadership. President Underwood has implemented shared leadership into his directive

leadership style. This is evident in his efforts to be open with his constituents and to give

them opportunities to participate in the leadership of Mercer. For example, respondents

indicated the high level of participation of faculty members in the formation of the

strategic plan. Further, respondents indicated that President Underwood expects

leadership at all levels as stressed by Astin and Astin (2000).

Due to the liberal education founding values embraced by Mercer, Love and

Estanek’s (2004) pervasive leadership style is featured by both President Godsey and

President Underwood. They have focused on building relationships, appreciating the

coexistence of diverse viewpoints, creating cohesiveness amongst academic units, and

stressing moral purpose. President Godsey and President Underwood have demonstrated

their focus on relationships by making choices that reflect an awareness and

understanding of the needs, concerns, and hopes of the Mercer community.

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Conducting this study, the researcher found the following attributes and activities

played a critical part in the presidents of Mercer providing effective leadership during the

period of transformation:

• establishing and a communicating clear vision

• implementing shared governance

• taking entrepreneurial actions

• managing resistance

As stressed by Keenan and Marchel (2007), because higher education institutions

are increasingly held accountable for providing a product that is beneficial, desired, and

unique, Mercer leadership has taken steps to update its liberal arts heritage to make

opportunities more relevant to students. Scholars also indicated a shift toward

professional education. Mercer has followed this trend through its transformation. The

origination of professional colleges, schools, and programs has broadened Mercer’s

potential student base. However, as discussed by Mazzarol and Souzar (2001), unique

programs are essential for competition because they create a strong marketing position,

thus, Mercer leadership has built upon its liberal arts foundational mission to distinguish

itself from other institutions that offer professional programs. Mercer’s leadership has

striven to make liberal education more relevant by incorporating research efforts, service

learning, and community development efforts into educational opportunities, both in and

out of the classroom. These transformative efforts are supported by the following

leadership attributes and activities.

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Establishing and Communicating a Clear Vision

In Chapter 2, it was noted that a clear vision is vital to leadership. President

Godsey’s visionary nature led to the creation of significant transformation during his

tenure. He saw the fruition of his visions as a result of clearly communicating their value

to the Board of Trustees, the Mercer community, and external parties affected by or

involved in the changes in order to earn their support. President Underwood has led the

development of a strategic plan that has been recognized as a valuable asset by

respondents as well as by scholars including Kezar et al. (2006) and Taylor et al. (2008).

These scholars felt that the increasing complexity of higher education institutions

demands a better understanding of the institution and its mission university-wide,

especially when undergoing change. During the transformative period led by President

Godsey, respondents did not indicate the presence of a viable strategic plan. However,

President Underwood has created a strategic plan in his role described by respondents as

managing the pieces put in place by President Godsey and expanding upon them.

As suggested by Jones et al. (2008), this strategic plan deepens the purpose of

Mercer’s actions because they are based on common goals. The increased complexity of

Mercer’s structure has challenged leadership to create a cohesive movement toward

institutional mission. The ten-year strategic plan helps guide Mercer’s diverse range of

entities toward a common goal that benefits all. This document clearly outlines the

vision of Mercer leadership.

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Both scholars and those interviewed at Mercer underscored the importance of

effective communication by leaders during periods of major change. This was especially

evident in regards to institutional missions and goals. Respondents stressed the

importance of leadership’s voicing of Mercer’s liberal arts foundations and contemporary

efforts including service learning and research. Efforts to communicate Mercer’s vision

are evident in the strategic plan as well as participants’ frequent responses that leadership

is constantly speaking about Mercer’s missions and taking actions to achieve them.

Further, respondents repeatedly reported that leadership has been transparent regarding

information of interest to Mercer’s stakeholders. It has shared as much information as

possible with the Mercer community. As suggested by Cohen (2003), this reduces the

anxiety often associated with change. Respondents agreed with Cohen, stating frequently

that, especially under President Underwood, they have felt more comfortable with change

efforts due to the large amount of information revealed under his leadership.

Implementing Shared Governance

As noted in Chapter 2, scholars of higher education have indicated a trend in

favor of shared governance and that strong institutions have leaders at all levels.

Respondents indicated that this trend can be found at Mercer as well. President

Underwood expects all members of the Mercer community to lead efforts relevant to

mission. Further, respondents felt all views and ideas have been appreciated by

leadership, concurring with Eisler and Carter’s (2010) view that effective leaders engage

and empower others.

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Mercer’s structure represents a traditional hierarchy. Leadership, however, is

distributed. Wirth’s (2004) transtheoretical model best describes Mercer. The university

has undergone a collective transformation of behaviors with the participation of all

stakeholders based on a common goal, as directed by the model. McCaffery (2004)

describes what he calls “university citizenship,” encouraging people to identify with

transformational goals in order to bridge the gap between individual and institutional

goal. While a few respondents identified situations where decisions were handed from

the top-down, overwhelmingly respondents felt they have had opportunities to take part

in decision-making. According to respondents, this has been especially true for efforts

promoting interdisciplinary connections and service learning, two of Mercer leadership’s

foci.

Taking Entrepreneurial Actions

Leaders of higher education institutions must be innovative and take risks.

Mercer leadership’s transformative efforts clearly indicate that they embraced change as

opposed to viewing it as a task. This is especially evident in President Godsey’s era. As

noted by respondents, there is probably no institution in the United States that has

undergone such a major transformation as occurred during Godsey’s twenty-seven years

as president. Godsey not only founded programs not common to liberal arts institutions,

but he also led efforts in academic freedom and community service.

Further, Mercer leadership has promoted transformative efforts supportive of

institutional missions by encouraging faculty members and students to develop

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initiatives. For example, under President Godsey, a faculty member along with a few

students began community development projects and under President Underwood, a

student initiated the sex trafficking conference on campus. By inspiring the entire

university community to take entrepreneurial actions, Mercer leaders have inspired the

creation of a shared vision.

Managing Resistance

Entrepreneurial efforts often produce resistance. Respondents discussed the

opposition faced by President Godsey when he opened the medical school and the

engineering school and when he closed the College of Arts and Sciences in Atlanta.

Higher education leaders must determine what changes are beneficial. For example,

Cohen (2003) stated that change should be implemented when dissatisfaction with the

status quo and vision for the future are greater than the cost of change. Mercer leadership

has demonstrated the use of this formula by listening to all viewpoints and gathering

information to make informed decisions in the best interest of the university. Mercer

leadership has understood that once the data and all viewpoints have been considered, a

decision must be made and the university must push forward, despite opposition.

However, Mercer leadership has maintained a balance between innovation and tradition

by aligning transformative efforts with founding missions. For example, when the

medical school was opened, President Godsey stressed that it was to serve rural

Georgians as well as to provide a unique type of medical education that would

incorporate Mercer’s liberal arts education values.

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Regardless of the supporting reasoning for change, resistance can be ever present

during a period of transformative change and this opposition can be either detrimental or

beneficial. Mercer University leadership has minimized the delays often created by

debate by setting deadlines and by creating and communicating clear expectations for

those involved in change efforts. For example when developing the new general

education program, a time limit was set in order to minimize unproductive faculty

discussions. Further, especially under President Godsey, unpopular decisions were made

with the support of the Board of Trustees and were pushed forth.

At the same time, opposition may be beneficial to transformative leaders.

Clearly, Mercer leadership’s dedication to openness, as well as academic freedom, has

served as a powerful tool during its transformation. According to respondents, Mercer

leadership has not only created a forum for open dialogue, but has encouraged it. As a

result, leadership has made decisions reflective of an awareness and understanding of the

Mercer community’s needs, concerns, and hopes. For example, President Godsey did not

oppose faculty members picketing for his termination and both President Godsey and

President Underwood have been willing to meet in person with dissenters to discuss

concerns. Respondents indicated that they felt free to express their views, even if they

did not agree with those of leadership. Further, the shared governance system

incorporated into Mercer has served to promote the inclusion of various viewpoints.

Further, Bolman and Deal (2003) have noted that transformation often creates a

loss of meaning for those affected by change, especially when they are not given

ownership of the change. President Underwood has sought to prevent a loss of meaning

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in regards to institutional missions by including faculty members in the development of

Mercer’s strategic plan. Respondents indicated that President Underwood led them to

believe that the document would be meaningful and not just sit on a shelf gathering dust.

Further, as previously discussed, leadership’s transparency has reduced the negative

impacts of resistance.

In summary, both President Godsey and President Underwood have demonstrated

important leadership attributes by establishing and maintaining a clear vision, by

implementing shared governance, by being active entrepreneurs, and by effectively

managing resistance.

Recommendations for Leaders of Liberal Arts Institutions

In addition to the primary research question previously discussed, this study also

included two sub-questions which will now be discussed in order. Sub-question 1 was:

How did Mercer University’s leaders balance the institution’s liberal education values

and goals while, at the same time, introducing professionally-oriented programs?

As noted in the literature review, scholars have argued that it is imperative that

liberal arts institutions refine student opportunities to make liberal education more

relevant to students. To do so often requires the leadership of liberal arts institutions to

use effective strategies and attributes to bring about transformative change.

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Reconceptualization of Liberal Education

The adoption of strategies to deal with this new reality is necessary for liberal arts

institutions. Scholars have suggested a reconceptualization, rather than replacement, of

liberal education. Mulcahy (2009) agreed that liberal education remains rich and

powerful but needs redefining. He stated:

It needs to be recast in a way that retains its emphasis on what Newman called cultivation of intellect, recognizes the importance of practical knowledge and education for action, accommodates the view that education of the whole person brings into play emotional, moral, and spiritual formation, and adopts a pedagogical stance that gives full recognition to the experience, capacities, and interests of the individual (p. 6).

Respondents indicated that President Godsey and President Underwood have led efforts

to ensure Mercer’s relevancy to today’s student market without straying from

foundational values, thus reconceptualizing rather than replacing liberal education.

Respondents also indicated that the use of the institution’s founding values should be

preserved to set it apart from competitors.

As noted previously, liberal education must implement practical learning to

survive. Findings indicate students increasingly demand professional programs.

However, scholars and respondents believed liberal education values do not need to be

sacrificed. Devitis et al. (1998) suggested that creating a linkage between liberal and

service learning and promoting critical reflection in all settings will position liberal arts

institutions to prove their relevance to society. Mercer University leadership has made

efforts to enhance liberal education both in service learning and by promoting liberal

education values including critical thinking, teamwork, leadership, and problem-solving.

223

Freeland (2009) proposed the goal of enriching liberal learning by connecting it

more strongly with the lives students will actually live after college through community-

based activities, study abroad programs, and internships. According to Freeland, liberal

education should empower students to be effective actors and problem solvers in

organizational, social, and civic settings. As previously discussed, Mercer leadership has

extensively supported service learning initiatives as well as others that are designed to

make lasting changes to students’ lives including Mercer on Mission. Astin and Astin

(2000) added that students need to be empowered by teaching them to lead. They noted

that it is difficult to be an effective leader without experiencing effective leadership in

one’s education. Again, Mercer leadership has made efforts to promote student

leadership by supporting programs such as the Mercer Service Scholars program and

initiatives led by students such as the sex trafficking conference. These programs will

make students’ experiences at Mercer more relevant to their lives beyond college,

supporting scholars’ beliefs that if liberal education commits to improving leadership,

students, as well as current leaders, will be capable of and committed to proving

relevancy in response to societal demands and needs.

In addition, liberal education needs to be more socially conscious and activist.

Undoubtedly, Mercer University has historically supported social activism from

integration and women’s rights movements to religious and academic freedom, and

leadership has linked liberal education to real-world situations. Mercer celebrates an

appreciation of social justice and academic freedom.

224

Respondents frequently discussed the unique programs offered by Mercer that

integrate liberal arts values including critical thinking, problem solving, and teamwork.

For example, the medical school offers a unique problem-based curriculum and the

business school integrates a thorough reading and writing component. The experience of

group challenges prepares engineering students for real-life situations. Also, small class

sizes and the large number of liberal education general courses support these values.

However, some programs, especially medical programs, are more difficult to inject a

large number of liberal education requirements into due to the rigidity of associated

organization standards.

Scholars claim that the implementation of professional program attributes should

prove simple due to the relationship between liberal and professional education. A

“profession” is defined as a field of endeavor whose practitioners have a collective idea

of the good in their work that does not overlap exactly with the self-interests of

individuals according to Lemann (2004) who stated “professionals do work that has a

public purpose” (p. 15). At Mercer, for example, the law school provides service to the

wrongly accused. The dedication to benefiting society correlates with liberal education

values. Lemann (2004) concluded that both liberal and professional education

demonstrate a commitment to a broad purpose that is not necessarily utilitarian. Grubb

and Lazerson (2005) promoted a similar notion. They asserted that a broad

understanding of professionalism provides its own avenues back to liberal education.

Professional education provides a logical connection to many elements of liberal

education.

225

Respondents indicated that liberal education is found in professional programs at

Mercer and its inclusion has seemed natural. Mulcahy (2009) agreed that this

reconceptualization is natural, stating that liberal arts education needs to simply develop a

new conception of a venerable idea. He suggested that liberal education take a multi-

dimensional approach, more broad in scope than traditional conceptions. The resulting

curriculum blends academic disciplines with practical studies. For example, Mercer

University leadership’s increased focus on research, which many view as professional in

nature, is combined with liberal education to encourage faculty and students to question

existing ideas and explore new ideas. This partial departure from largely academic

curriculum redefines liberal education at Mercer with ease.

Basically, a conversion that combines theoretical pursuits and practical pursuits

such as work, knowledge production, and service would make liberal arts institutions

more competitive. Clearly, Mercer University is an exemplary of this concept. Service

learning, for example, is integrated throughout the university, both within and outside of

the classroom. Thus, the integration of a professionally-based curriculum, such as

business, is based on the belief that vocational instruction and the arts and sciences are

complementary, not competitive. They are both integral elements of a complete

education (Arenella et al., 2009). A hybrid approach to learning emerges. Real-world

action should be integrated into the emphasis on intellectual qualities at liberal arts

institutions according to Freeland (2009). Mercer is an exemplar of this notion.

According to Kuh (2003), a more meaningful approach to evaluating an

institution is to determine how well it fosters student learning. Thus, a connection

226

between collegiate quality and student engagement is emerging. The incorporation of

practice-oriented curriculum provides an opportunity to engage students through a multi-

faceted, varied, and individualized educational experience will result. The Carnegie

Foundation (n.d.a) concurred, quoting Carnegie President Lee S. Shulman:

It’s important for students to learn to think, to reason, to interrogate text, and to understand it; but that is not enough. It’s also important that students learn to act, to do, to perform—but this is still not enough. Today’s undergraduates must learn to think and act responsibly, with integrity, civility and caring. Practical reasoning integrates these three habits—of mind, hand, and heart—that are essential for the formation of today’s students (p. 16).

Respondents frequently agreed. According to Respondent 13, President Underwood

frequently speaks of the importance of action to serve others and demonstrate faith.

Promoting Liberal Education

According to Mazzarol and Soutar (2001), because education is a service

industry, promoting qualities and benefits is more difficult than in product-oriented

industries. Perhaps a result of this challenge, many scholars have claimed that liberal

education has become undermined due to failure to promote its qualities. Thus, they

stressed that the values and benefits of liberal education need to be communicated and

promoted. Carol Schneider, president of the American Association of Colleges and

Universities, a group that promotes liberal arts education, discussed the disguise of many

liberal arts institutions. Many students of these institutions are unaware they are

receiving a liberal education. Thus, it is clear the general public does not understand the

features and values of this form of education. Schneider claimed that the public does not

value liberal education by name, but place great value in the intended educational

227

outcomes (AACU, 2009a). Thus, just as leaders must clearly communicate visions to

stakeholders, leaders must do a better job of articulating and justifying the value of liberal

arts according to DiMaria (2010). Liberal education needs to communicate a clearer

sense of what is implied by the idea of education as preparation for life.

The Liberal Education and America’s Promise National Leadership Council (n.d.)

noted the decreasing understanding and emphasis of liberal arts educational learning

outcomes nationally. Yet even business leaders believe that student learning outcomes

associated with a liberal arts education should be emphasized more. Thus, according to

Morrel and Zimmerman (2008), “It is incumbent upon colleges and universities

committed to the liberal arts to make concerted efforts to design strategies that effect

changes in understanding, attitude, and appreciation of liberal education among current

and prospective students and among broader constituencies” (p. 2). Mercer leadership

continually speaks to the importance of liberal education both internally and externally

while concurrently adapting existing modes of instruction to create a product desirable to

students according to respondents. They make conscious efforts refine liberal education

without sacrificing foundational values.

Both Presidents Godsey and Underwood have managed to maintain successfully a

balance between liberal and professional education. Despite the larger number of

professional schools with significantly more students than the CLA and humanities

majors within the College of Continuing and Professional Students, Mercer leadership

still speaks of the CLA as the cornerstone of the university and stresses liberal education

values including service learning.

228

Mercer University Leadership Successful Responses to Challenges

The second sub-question deals with specific obstacles faced by Mercer leadership.

What obstacles did Mercer University’s leaders encounter during the process of

transformation and how did they overcome these obstacles? Three key challenges were

identified—opposition, increased complexity and diversity, and maintaining foundational

values. As previously discussed in this chapter, respondents and scholars shared similar

views on leadership’s ability to manage opposition and Mercer leadership’s dedication to

maintaining liberal education values in the form of verbal, curricular, and monetary

support. Another challenge faced by leadership has been unifying an increasingly diverse

and complex university. It was noted that just prior to President Underwood’s tenure, the

university seemed to be comprised of highly separated colleges and schools.

Respondents discussed efforts President Underwood has been making to increase

collaboration and cohesiveness amongst the academic units at Mercer. Scholars,

including Wheatley (1999), have stressed that collaboration will yield a more adaptive

response to transformation. In congruence with this view, respondents indicated that

there has been a push by leadership to increase collaboration throughout Mercer.

Interdisciplinary efforts are supported and, at times, required. For example,

undergraduate and graduate curriculum committees ensure all academic units have a

voice in curricular changes and financial support is often provided to projects promoting

interdisciplinary studies. Other efforts, including the emphasis on service learning, have

been used in an attempt to unify the entire university. For example, Mercer on Mission

brings together faculty and students from a variety of academic units to serve others

229

globally. As stressed by Kezar et al. (2006), when collective action is not taken,

fragmentation results, impeding the ability to obtain institutional goals. These are efforts

identified by respondents to reduce debilitating fragmentation.

Limitations

There were limitations to the design of this study which may or may not have had

an impact on outcomes. First, there was limited availability of archival data. This was

especially true for information regarding the foundation of Mercer University. Thus,

secondary sources were used to develop an account of the Baptist college movement and

the early development of the University. On the same note, respondents frequently

reported on the foundation of Mercer as well as the transformative period, but did not

witness first-hand these periods in their entirety.

The self-reporting nature of interviews presents another limitation. Respondent

data may incorporate bias. In addition, respondents may have presented inaccurate data,

either intentionally or unintentionally.

Recommendations for Further Research

The research findings could be expanded upon through further studies. First, the

views of current students in regards to the transformation of Mercer University into a

comprehensive institution would provide insight into liberal and professional education

as well as transformative leadership strategies. These views would be compared and

contrasted with those analyzed in this study to ensure Mercer leadership is meeting

students’ needs and desires. Similarly, a historical case study of a liberal arts school that

230

has not implemented professional programs so as to compare and contrast findings to

those of this research may be beneficial to higher education leaders. Additionally, it

would be interesting to study a purely secular institution that has undergone

transformation to compare it to Mercer as a religiously-affiliated institution. A study of

the impact of Mercer University’s efforts to maintain founding values on the Mercer

community, including students, faculty, and staff, as well as external stakeholders,

including community members and those targeted by study abroad programs, to

determine the value of Mercer’s missions may legitimize leaderships’ efforts.

Studies not specific to Mercer University may provide valuable insight to leaders

of higher education institutions. A study of how professional schools have changed over

time may reveal future trends in higher education. Additionally, a comparative study of

professional programs offered by liberal arts institutions and those offered by institutions

founded on professional education may demonstrate the role liberal education actually

plays in these programs. An action research study of a liberal arts institution adding

professional programs for the first time would provide data directly observed by the

research regarding the transformative process and the role of liberal education. Lastly, a

study of the role of liberal education in all institutions would determine the potential of a

trend toward liberal arts education once reconceptualization has been implemented.

Summary of the Results

Mercer’s overall transformation and leadership activities and attributes during

transformative processes were the focus of this study. Respondents felt transformation

occurred due to President Godsey’s visionary motivations as well as a desire to serve

231

Georgia. Further, respondents indicated change has been necessary to compete for

student enrollment. Challenges including opposition, increased diversity and complexity,

and the preservation of founding values in light of significant transformation have been

faced by leadership. When discussing leadership efforts to overcome these challenges

and move Mercer toward its missions, respondents emphasized the significance of

developing and communicating a clear vision, implementing shared governance, setting

high expectations, implementing entrepreneurial ideas, managing resistance, role

modeling, obtaining the support of the Board of Trustees, and developing positive

external relationships.

An emphasis on leadership’s dedication to Mercer’s liberal arts foundational

values developed throughout the historical narrative. In terms of Mercer’s

transformation, respondents indicated that a strong liberal arts commitment has remained,

but has been challenged. This is due to the increased complexity and diversity that has

decreased the cohesiveness of the colleges and schools. On a positive note, respondents

identified that leadership has used Mercer’s liberal arts foundation to differentiate it from

other institutions as a source of competitive strength.

Conclusion

As society changes, so will the demands placed on higher education institutions.

It is the role of the leaders of these institutions to identify the dynamic forces that drive

students to choose colleges and universities in which to enroll. Liberal education has

held a steady position in the ranks of higher education. With its broad-based education

232

that promotes a skill set applicable to most any life situation, it has appealed to those

desiring a strong higher education. However, increasingly students have favored

professional educations designed to prepare them for specific careers.

Mercer leadership has identified this trend and determined that it is possible to

meet this demand without compromising its existing to commitment to liberal education.

Further, it can promote the livelihood of Georgians by educating students to serve

positions such as doctors, engineers, and teachers in areas in need of their services.

Mercer leadership has faced significant challenges, but has developed strategies to

manage them in order to push forward with the institution’s mission which has remained

essentially the same since Mercer’s foundation in Penfield in 1833. Mercer University is

an exemplar of an institution able to mold itself into a relevant and competitive institution

without losing sight of its founding identity.

233

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