2017-2019

Fire Protection Practices and Competence-

Based Training in Historical Buildings

(Protecting People and Cultural Heritage)

2017-1-TR01-KA202-04560

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Republic of Turkey

Minister of Foreign Affair

Turkish National Agency

Fire Protection Practices and Competence-Based Training in Historical Buildings

(Protecting People and Cultural Heritage)

Project Number: 2017-1-TR01-KA202-04560

Co-Funded by The Erasmus+ Programme of The European Union

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“Funded by the Erasmus+ Program of the European Union. However, European

Commission and Turkish National Agency cannot be held responsible for any use

which may be made of the information contained therein”

“By showing the source, partly or completely can be quoted”

© October 2019

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The Project Team

Gazanfer Erbay, Ph.D., Karabuk AFAD, Turkey

Bora Balun, Karabuk AFAD, Turkey

Mateja Gris, Slovensko Zdruzenje za Pozarno Varstvo, Slovenia

Gasper Golob, Slovensko Zdruzenje za Pozarno Varstvo, Slovenia

Kasım Yılmaz, Ph.D., Karabuk University, Turkey

Hüseyin Yavuz Erbil, Karabuk University, Turkey

Kim Lintrup, Frederiksborg Brand Og Redning, Denmark

Jimmy Braunschweig Andersen, Frederiksborg Brand Og Redning, Denmark

Yılmaz Olcay, Safranbolu Municipality, Turkey

Mehmet Gökcü, Safranbolu Municipality, Turkey

Salvatore Santuccio, Ph.D., Universita Degli Studi Di Camerino, Italy

Andrea Marconi, Universita Degli Studi Di Camerino, Italy

Correspondence Address

Karabuk AFAD - Disaster & Emergency Directorate, Karabuk/Turkey

www.fireskills.org / www.karabuk.afad.gov.tr

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Preface

Europe’s and Turkey cultural heritage, both tangible and intangible, are our common

wealth – our inheritance from previous generations of Europeans/Turks and our legacy

for those to come. It is an irreplaceable repository of knowledge and a valuable

resource for economic growth, employment and social cohesion. It enriches the

individual lives of hundreds of millions of people, is a source of inspiration for

thinkers and artists, and a driver for our cultural and creative industries. Our cultural

heritage and the way we preserve and valorize it is a major factor in defining Europe

and Turkey's place in the world and its attractiveness as a place to live, work, and visit.

Cultural heritage teaches us about the history that happened before we were born and

promotes the respect for those who lived in different times and different societies.

Cultural heritage enriches the individual lives of citizens, is a driving force for the

cultural and creative sectors, and plays a role in creating and enhancing Europe's and

Turkey’s social capital. For France is known for the Eiffel tower, for Italy the Historic

Centre of Siena, Turkey for the Sultan Ahmet or Ayasofya Mosques, Ephesus, Divriği

Great Mosque and Hospital and Safranbolu and etc. Historical structures bring

character and certain charm to the neighborhood that people live in.

Historical buildings reflect the state of the art at the time of their construction.

Materials were used that are often viewed critically today with regard to fire safety.

The biggest challenge is to ensure optimal fire protection of the building structure and

the interior (stucco, ceiling and wall paintings, paneling, furniture and chandeliers) as

well as the historical artifacts inside a building, without affecting their aesthetic value

and historical integrity. Fire safety in all buildings is a critical topic, but fire protection

in historical buildings is also of great cultural importance. Fire and the consequential

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damage can result in monetary losses that run into the tens of millions of Euros and

the loss of irreplaceable historical artifacts. Restoring these damaged buildings and

items can be very costly and sometimes impossible.

There is no specific training course (competency-based) for experts and staff working

at Search& Rescue Services and Fire Brigades located in cultural and historical

protected cities. Fire Safety Management in these cities is totally different from the

big cities or new built cities and it is totally different in terms of current techniques,

using equipment’s, competencies and skills.

When considered from this point of view, the experts and staff working at Search&

Rescue Services and Fire Brigades working in cultural and historical protected cities

like a Safranbolu (TR), Marche (IT) and Ljubljana don’t have enough up-to-date

knowledge and competencies in terms of Fire Safety Management (Prevention,

Preparedness and Response).

In this context, competency-based training module is an approach, which ensures that

staff becomes competent and remains competent and that experience and changing

demands are incorporated in the Fire Safety Management involved.

On the other hands, people living in historical buildings and inhabiting historical

sites/areas/region don’t have enough practical knowledge in case of fire and how to

take basic precautions as part of fire intervention, fire safety, fire protection and

practical fire safety arrangements.

The target group for “the FireSkills” project is broadly defined because the scope for

recruitment is so large. There is a need to identify and tackle Fire Safety Management.

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In order to decrease the effects of fire accidents, the task is to examine best practices

in this area and thereby to develop a professional profile who can manage together

with local authorities of fire brigade, security, health, education, emergency and safety

concerns.

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Acknowledgements

The project team would like to thanks their institutions, Karabuk Provincial Disaster

and Emergency Directorate, Karabuk University, Universita Degli Studi Di Camerino,

Safranbolu Municipality, Frederiksborg Brand Og Redning, Slovenian Fire Protection

Association (Slovensko Zdruzenje za Pozarno Varstvo). They also express their

special appreciation to European Commission, for funding the Erasmus KA2 Project

(2017-1-TR01-KA202-04560).

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TABLE OF CONTENTS Page

PREFACE iv

ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS vii

TABLE OF CONTENTS viii

LIST OF FIGURES xix

LIST OF TABLES xxvi

CHAPTER 1 1

RISK ANALYSIS AND RISK ASSESSMENT 1

1. Risk analysis and risk assessment 1

1.1. Safety in maintenance of historical building 1

1.2. Conformation of historical inner cities in Italy 1

1.3. Historical inner cities safety as a whole 4

2. Safety in residential historical buildings 6

3. Special historical buildings' safety 7

CHAPTER 2 16

RISK MANAGEMENT 16

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1. Introduction 16

2. Fire safety management approach 18

2.1 Leadership and commitment 19

2.2 Fire safety management plan, strategy and action 19

2.3 Management regular support 21

3. Fire safety management system elements 23

3.1 Documentation 23

3.1.1 Fire Safety Handbook 23

3.1.2 Fire Safety Logbook 24

3.1.3 Damage Limitation Plan 25

3.2 Reporting 27

3.3 Controlling and compliance auditing 27

3.4 Improving the emergency response of employees and other users of

the building 31

3.5 Closing of an audit 34

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CHAPTER 3 35

FIRE PREVENTION MEASURES 35

1.Introduction 35

2. Basic principles 36

3. Fire prevention measures 37

3.1. Good housekeeping 38

3.2. Waste disposal control and control over storing packing material 39

3.3. Smoking policy 40

3.4. Use of open flame, including hot works 41

3.5. Maintenance and inspection of chimneys 41

3.6. Electrical installations and appliances 42

3.7. Control over fire characteristics of decoration and claddings 42

3.8. Control over spread of fire to adjacent rooms 43

3.9. Control over installed fire protection systems 43

3.10. Evacuation of the people and animals 44

3.11. Training of employees 44

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3.12. Protection from a fire from outside 45

3.13. Access to buildings for firefighting vehicles and personnel 45

3.14. Salvage of artefacts 46

3.15. Expecting the unexpected 46

CHAPTER 4 48

FIRE BASICS

(BEHAVIOUR, CLASSIFICATIONS, EXTINGUSHING AGENTS) 48

1. Introduction 48

1.1. Aim 48

2.Fire basics 48

2.1. Fire theory 49

2.1.1. The fire triangle 51

2.1.2. Combustible materials 52

3. Fire behavior 52

3.1. The fire process at a fire in a room 53

3.1.1. The early fire process 53

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3.1.2. Initial fire 55

3.1.3. Example of a fire process in a room 55

3.2. How to minimize fire development? 59

4.Classifications & Extinguishing Agents 59

4.1. Overview of Fire Classes 59

4.2. Handheld extinguishing agents 61

4.2.1. Overview of fire-fighting extinguishing types 61

CHAPTER 5 68

FIRE SUPPRESSION ACTIVITIES AND FIRE DETECTION/WARNING

SYSTEMS IN HISTORIC BUILDINGS 68

1. Introduction 68

2. Fires and suppression activities in historic buildings 69

3. Fire detection and warning systems 88

3.1. Heat detectors 91

3.2. Smoke detectors 91

3.3. Flame defectors 92

3.4. Gas detectors 93

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4. Portable fire extinguishers 93

5. Types of fire extinguishers 94

5.1. Extinguishing agents used in portable fire extinguishers 95

5.2. Operating Portable Fire Extinguishers 98

CHAPTER 6 101

EVACUATION 101

1.What is evacuation? 101

2. Evacuation methods 102

2.1. Vertical evacuation 102

2.2. Horizontal evacuation 102

2.3. Stay in place 104

3. Evacuation plan 104

4. Establishment of the evacuation team 109

5. Fire evacuation considerations 111

6. Things to consider at the time of evacuation 112

7. Considerations after evacuation 113

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8. Evacuation of people with disabilities 114

8.1. Evacuation of the mentally handicapped 116

8.2. Discharge of physically disabled persons 116

8.3. Evacuation of the visually impaired 117

8.4. Evacuation of the hearing impaired 118

CHAPTER 7 120

COOPERATION WITH EMERGENCY ORGANIZATIONS 120

1. Introduction 120

1.1. Chapter composition 120

1.1.2. Learning outcomes 120

1.2. General information 120

1.3. The Combined force of the emergency agencies 121

2. Police 123

2.1. Responsibility and organization 124

2.1.1. Strategic level 124

2.1.2. The Police districts 124

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2.1.3. Police efforts 125

2.1.3.1. Coordination of the overall effort 125

3. Fire & Rescue 127

3.1. Tasks 127

3.1.1. Technical management of an incident 128

4. Public health agency (EMS/EMT etc.) 128

4.1. In general 128

4.2. Regional emergency medical services 129

5. DEMA 130

5.1. The regional emergency Service (DEMA) 130

6. Incident task management 131

6.1. Emergency call center 132

6.1.1. Dispatch center (Police / Fire & Rescue / AMK) 133

6.2. Summary 134

CHAPTER 8 137

LAWS, REGULATIONS AND STANDARDS ABOUT PROTECTING

CULTURAL AND HISTORICAL SITES 137

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1. Introduction 137

2. Ethical principles 140

3. Instructions and covenants (treaties) 143

3.1. Construction products regulation for fire safety in buildings (electric cables)

(CPR) 143

3.1.1. Aim 143

3.1.2. Scope 145

3.2. European commission application statute dated 2 May 2014 and

(EU) 447/2014 146

3.2.1. Aim 146

3.2.2. Scope 146

4. Directives 146

4.1. EU construction products directive – 89/106/EEC 146

4.1.1. Aim 146

4.1.2. Scope 147

4.1.3. Field of implementation 148

5. Standards 148

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5.1. EN 50575 148

5.2. EN 50399 149

5.3. NFPA 909 149

5.4. EN 13501-6 150

5.5. EN 60332-1-2 150

5.6. EN 61034-2 150

5.7. EN 60754-2 150

5.8. EN 13501 150

5.8.1. Roof 151

5.8.2. Material 151

6. Agreements and conventions 151

6.1. Convention for the protection of the architectural heritage of Europe 151

6.2. Europe 2020 strategy 152

6.3. European Environmental Policy 152

CHAPTER 9 154

NEW TECHNOLOGIES 154

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1.Introduction 154

2.Sound wave fire extinguisher 154

3.Water mist systems 156

4. Early suppression fast response fire sprinkler systems (ESFR) 158

5.Integrated voice evacuation and messaging system 159

6.Fire behavior simulation software 160

7.Personalized vocal smoke alarm 161

8.Wireless internet connected smoke detector 162

9.Wireless heat detector 162

10.Beam detectors 163

REFERENCES 164

EXERCISES QUESTIONS 174

ANWERS 202

THE PROJECT MEETING PHOTOS 213

ACTIVITIES 217

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LIST OF FIGURES

CHAPTER 1

Fig.1. Percentage of fire and explosion type interventions 2

Fig.2. Distribution of fire and explosions at provincial level 3

Fig. 3. The “Sassi” of Matera, historical inner city all made up by stone and with many

difficulties under the light of emergency operations 5

Fig.4. Fire at the Royal rider, in the center of Turin, in 2016. The flames remained

limited to the building concerned 9

Fig.5. Plants and sections of small theaters in the Marche 13

Fig.6. Petruzzelli Theater in Bari, before the fire and after the restoration with

fireproof materials, of 2007 14

CHAPTER 2

Fig. 1. Four basic interest groups for providing fire safety in historic buildings 17

Fig. 2. Fire brigade should be invited to cooperate in the process of planning of fire

safety of a building 18

Fig. 3. In historic buildings, it is not always possible to arrange the escape routes

according to present standards of fire safety for new buildings. Fire brigade shall be

familiar with special features of the building 20

Fig. 4. Project cycle management 21

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Fig. 5. Training of employees for the first response in a case of fire shall include proper

use of fire extinguishers 22

Fig. 6. Restoration works and other changes of the building and installations can

reduce the level of fire protection in the building, so fire safety measures shall be

prepared in written in advance, before the works start 23

Fig. 7. Firefighters should be invited to cooperate in preparation of damage limitation

plan 26

Fig. 8. Incidents shall be reported to authorities having jurisdiction and investigated,

so similar events do not happen in the future 27

Fig. 9. On regular basis, emergency response of fire brigade shall be checked, as well

as access roads and areas and water supply for firefighter’s vehicles around the

building 32

Fig. 10. Escape routes can be improved to reach, or at least get closer to present

standards 33

Fig. 11. Appointed person (responsible person, which is familiar with the building)

shall be trained to communicate with firefighters, to provide information for

successful intervention 33

Fig. 12. Closing meeting shall be organized after each external audit. Closing meeting

can be very useful as a tool for defining corrective actions and modification of the fire

safety system of the premises 34

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CHAPTER 3

Fig. 1. A Historic building fire at Safranbolu, October 08, 2018 35

Fig. 2. The fire prevention triangle 37

Fig. 3. A historic building fire at Safranbolu 38

Fig. 4. Safety Distances between waste containers and buildings shall be

considered 40

Fig. 5. Areas for smoking shall be arranged with suitable ashtrays 40

Fig. 6. Hot work shall be permitted only under defined circumstances 41

Fig.7. Electrical installations and appliances 42

Fig. 8. Penetrations of installations through walls and ceilings can present a path for a

fire to spread 43

Fig. 9. Employees shall be trained to extinguish an initial fire 44

Fig.10. A historic building fire at Safranbolu 45

Fig.11. A narrow street at Safranbolu old town 45

Fig. 12. Narrow access road to the castle courtyard in Český Krumlow, Chech

Republic 46

CHAPTER 4

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Fig. 1. Photo from: "Brandforløb". illustrate a flame fire (the light) and glow fire

(cigarette) 49

Fig.2. A combustion is a chemical process that develops heat. Basic it is about the fuel

reacting with the oxygen, thereby forming water carbon dioxide and various residues

……………………. 50

Fig. 3. The picture shows different types of flames. The different colors of the flames

tell a lot about eg. combustion, temperature etc. To the left is a typical diffusion flame

and to the right a typical premix flame 50

Fig.4. The fire triangle with the three factors to create a fire 51

Fig.5. To left are a detached fire, and to the right a fire in a room is illustrated 53

Fig.6. The early fire process is market with red to the left. To the right are some factors

illustrated which may become influence in the following fire process 54

Fig.7. To the left the initial fire shows in red. To the right some examples of an initial

fire 55

Fig.8. To left shows the candle on the sofa and start an initial fire. To the right the

initial fire is marked in red in the fire process 56

Fig.9. To the right an illustration about how the smoke is rising up to the ceiling and

starting to bend out to the side. To the right the next step on the fire process "Early

fire process" is marked in red 57

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Fig.10. The flashover phase defines the transition from the early fire process to the

fully developed fire in a room. The phase occurs when the radiant heat from the fire

and the flue gas layer becomes sufficiently large enough to the room ignites 57

Fig.11. The fully developed space fire where all flammable material burns 58

CHAPTER 5

Fig.1. Sarıaltınlar mansion 69

Fig. 2. Kalealtı primary school 70

Fig. 3. Galatasaray University Fire 72

Fig. 4. Erbil house, typical stairwells in historic Safranbolu houses 73

Fig. 5. Erbil house, attics in Safranbolu houses 74

Fig. 6. Water mist systems, Eksel fire and safety systems Inc. 79

Fig. 7. FM200 gaseous agent extinguishing systems 80

Fig. 8. Erbil house, rough terrain in Safranbolu 81

Fig 9. Arasta, narrow streets/close building layout in Safranbolu 81

Fig. 10. Class A foam application 82

Fig. 11. Components of fire detection and warning systems 90

Fig. 12. Principle of operation of an ionization smoke detector 91

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Fig.13. Operation principle of photoelectric smoke detectors 92

Fig.14. Portable fire extinguisher containing foam 96

Fig.15. Portable fire extinguisher containing carbon dioxide 96

Fig.16. Dry chemical portable fire extinguisher 97

CHAPTER 6

Fig.1. Evacuation sign 101

Fig.2. A Historic building blaze 102

Fig.3. Evacuation methods 103

Fig.4. A Sample evacuation plan for buildings 106

Fig.5. A Sample evacuation practice from school building 107

Fig.6. A sample evacuation practice from top the roof 108

Fig.7. A sample evacuation practice via fire ladder 108

Fig.8. The evacuation team 109

Fig.9. The burned building 114

Fig.10. The burned building 114

Fig.11. Classification of people with disabilities 115

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CHAPTER 7

Fig.1. DEMA Logo 130

Fig.2. DEMA facilities in Denmark 131

Fig.3. Danish emergency call center 132

Fig.4. Dispatch center 133

Fig.5. Action area at everyday events 135

Fig.6. Incident area at major events 136

CHAPTER 8

Fig. 1. CPR burn rate classification 143

Fig. 2. CE marking of cables 144

Fig. 3. Classifications of cable under CPR 145

Fig. 4. EU Construction products directive 147

CHAPTER 9

Fig.1. Sound wave fire extinguisher 156

Fig.2. Water mist systems 157

Fig.3. Early suppression fast response fire sprinkler systems (ESFR) 158

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Fig.4. Integrated voice evacuation and messaging system 159

Fig.5. Fire behavior simulation software 160

Fig.6. Personalized vocal smoke alarm 161

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LIST OF TABLES

CHAPTER 2

Table 1. An example of a checklist for periodical inspection 30

CHAPTER 6

Table. 1. Comparison of building materials’ performance under heavy load and fire

conditions 70

Table. 2. Safranbolu municipality fire statistics (2013-2017) 74

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CHAPTER 1

RISK ANALYSIS AND RISK ASSESSMENT

1. Risk analysis and risk assessment

1.1. Safety in maintenance of historical building

It is necessary to focus attention on 3 fundamental principles to face problems such

as fire protection, architectural and urban heritage. The first one, is guarding

inhabitants', rescuers' and users' life from the effects of fire. The second one is

preserving the building or the urban portion from the effects of fire, facilitating its

gateways or rescuers' access routes, and the third one is limiting the impact of fire

precautions on considered urban spaces, without adversely affecting its main

characteristics or historical specificities.

1.2. Conformation of historical inner cities in Italy

Unlike many other European Countries, whose conformation of historical inner

cities is essentially based on wooden buildings and therefore high fire risk, both for

the single building and entire districts; in Italy, the most part of historical inner cities

is made up by masonry, brickwork or natural stone buildings. This comes from an

ancient and consolidated historical tradition. Nuraghe e Dolmen, two kinds of

architectural prehistoric structures present in Italy are made of stone, and the ancient

Romans' building tradition has spread the usage of brickwork, vaults and arched

passages all over the nation territory.

This does not mean that in historical inner Italian cities there are no fire

vulnerability elements. The most part of horizontal surfaces in masonry structures

are indeed supported by wooden beams, mutual feature with attics and lofts.

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This kind of conformation carries around some positive specificities. The first one

is that rarely the fire of a single building in the historical inner city spreads into near

urban blocks. Since the fire is usually limited to the inner part of the building, it is

unusual that flames are able to cross perimetral walls and to transfer into close

building units.

This causes efforts of reducing fire risk to be cut in Italy, starting from single

buildings and concentrating on urban district safety , in terms of identification and

facilitation of gateways and access routes for rescuer teams, important issue

depending on the high firmness of some urban residential areas.

In the annual report on internal activity of Italian Fire Department this reduced risk

factor in historical areas is clearly shown .

It is shown in Fig.1 that over the years the activities related to fire and explosion

emergencies in Italy never went beyond the 35% of the total of operations, bearing

in mind that the same explosions and fires are caused by brushes (32,5%), wastes

88,2%), passenger cars (5,7%), scrubland (5,5%), while "wooden supporting

structure" can barely reach the 0,5% as a cause.

Fig.1. Percentage of fire and explosion type interventions

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The same applies to the distribution of rescue calls in Italy, where the condition is

limited in cases, also including the summer plague of forest fires, except for specific

areas characterized by the presence of industrial activities, waste disposal, airports

etc. such as Rome.

Fig.2. Distribution of fire and explosions at provincial level

Within this framework the focus on fire prevention must not be considered bland

nor nonexistent.

This issue has been treated with attention making references to the various

specificities of Italian situation, and therefore dealing with the thematic of historical

inner cities, whit particular regard to solutions for logistic problems relating to

gateways and prompt actions, instead of paying attention to the potential damage

propagation considering the single buildings, working on the specificities of the most

vulnerable of them.

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1.3. Historical inner cities safety as a whole

The issue of historical inner cities and their safety in case of fire comes from their

urban morphology, usually based on reduced traffic sections and building density

often verging on a single mass, that constitute their aesthetic beauty and the most

important source of interest under the light of life quality they can offer in

comparison with great metropolis.

In this field it is clear that the fundamental principle of solutions is found in the

urban legislation that restrict parking places, traffic transit areas, the stationing of

fake commercial elements, and everything that can constitute an obstacle to the free

passage of routes, very important to evacuate areas in case of fire and to make help

accessible.

Lately, in an invitation tender published by the Italian Ministry of the Interior, the

Italian Fire, Public Rescue and Civil Defence Department, and the Central

Management for logistic and strumental resources, called “veicoli di nuova

concezione per il soccorso tecnico in aree urbane di difficile accessibilità (centri

storici)” has clarified the specific issues of historical urban Italian areas, through the

required skills in the context of means to be designed.

Principle specific concern qualifications for historical inner cities, for which a

specific project for a new rescue truck is required are: 1_ the presence of narrow and

cramped streets; 2_ Stationary vehicles that cause travel difficulties; 3_the presence

of short radius turns; 4_Difficulty to access to residential blocks; 5_steep hills and

climbs with low coefficient of grip; 6_water resources, often unavailable or

inefficient.

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Fig. 3. The “Sassi” of Matera, historical inner city all made up by stone and with

many difficulties under the light of emergency operations

It is clear that not all of these issues can be faced with appropriate urban

legislations. Apart from the implement of the hydraulic network (operations usually

expensive and difficult to realize) and from the prohibition of parking in certain

areas, providing for example the realization of silos parking in areas far from the city

center and appropriate public transport services; for the majority of cases,

precautions cannot be related to technical equipment, such as the provisioning of

means able to face these difficulties and a good satellite view of the area, to help

rescuers and runners to keep in touch.

While designing these new means, the Italian Fire Department has focused on

these technical characteristics, adjusted on the movement issues in historical inners

cities. These characteristics are: small size, high maneuverability, a good power-to-

weight ratio, high safety, strength and reliability, simplicity of use and low costs for

maintenance.

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In other words, the proper conformation of our historical inner cities, based on a

basically pedestrian mobility, can be in this moment the main fuel of uncertainty in

fire case, it is indeed necessary to work to mediate between the need for injuries

protection and life quality.

2. Safety in residential historical buildings

About the vulnerability of historical buildings, I will make reference to the

comprehensive conference held in Trento in 2008 by the architect Roberto Lenzi,

from the Permanent Fire Department of the Autonomous Province of Trento, where

the majority of the following considerations come from.

The majority of residential buildings found in historical inner cities own different

building types, different techniques and times of construction, usually subject to

important transformations making hard to identify standard solutions to prevent and

manage assistance in emergency states.

This trait creates specific vulnerabilities, considering critical issues which can be

beared in a limited area, in other words evaluating the important risk for a single

residential unit.

Buildings' vulnerability elements in historical inner cities are related to different

parameters which define safety and protection issues: these aspects, considered from

the point of view of the difficulty to be planned, keep suggesting different problems

whose solution cannot be found among the standard ones.

These factors can range from the presence of wooden structural elements, which

make hard to predict structural responses; to lacks in the escape routes network. It is

also important to consider that these buildings are usually rich in valuable elements

whose protection is usually as important as inhabitants' lives. It is also important to

be aware that some functional transformations phenomenon of historical inner cities

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have widely increased their risk factors. This happens in case of transformations in

use, differing from original conception; in case of inflow of people, both in quantity

and distribution terms; in case; in case of overwhelming increase of modern

technological plants and machineries which may constitute by themselves risk

elements in case of breakdown or malfunction.

How to face all of these problems? The answer is not easy. Users' fragmentation

can be defined as one critical issue, a second one can be beared by emergency

operations that can be even more harmful than the fire itself because of some

ambiances' delicacy (painted vaults, fine furniture...).

One of the most important point is the acquaintance of places in which the

operations have to take place. The updating and the dissemination among the Fire

Department about the real conformation of the internal residential areas' distribution

is a necessary prerequisite which is still far from being realized. The continuous

changing in internal distributions which are not recorded in real time on maps, not

only creates potential vulnerability conditions, but also gives rise to difficulties in

rescue operations for those who have to understand how to access to the involved

compartment.

A second interesting idea can be to create specific first aid districts, without

equipping house by house, the identification of blocks of accommodation can

constitute a solution, through equipped minimal first aid units.

3. Special historical buildings' safety

A different issue is dealing with special buildings, the ones subjected to

guardianship for their architectural and environmental qualities, which constitute an

exception in terms of quality and vulnerability.

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In this case, among the needs for safety related to people and rescuers, other

requirements are linked with artifact’s' protection and damage limitation, creating

sometimes bad lacerations.

Unlike what happens in Anglo-Saxon world where people safety is the main

priority, and the artifact’s protection is just an insurance matter, in Italy there are

specific rules about the preservation of goods: a document coming from the

Provincial Fire Department of Ascoli Piceno claims "in case of fire, besides the

safeguard of human life, it is also necessary to preserve the cultural heritage. Beyond

the fire prevention safety, it is essential to focus on different topics, such as

conservation, safeguard, restoration...These are different and complicated domains

which tend to enter into conflict between them if not faced in a coordinated manner.

In Italy technical safeguard rules usually deal in a prescriptive way with "subject

activities" which can concern public buildings and subject to protection. In these

cases, fire safeguard has to ensure not only human life protection, but also

preservation of goods considering both historical buildings, and objects inside. The

conservation needs of the protected property very often do not allow compliance with

the prescriptions imposed by a deterministic approach...”.

From a legislative point of view, buildings are classed following their specific use

characteristics and it is not rare that specific regulations in terms of safety are edited.

In principle these buildings are classed in three big legislative categories: specific

regulations for historical buildings: museums, arcades, exhibitions, libraries,

archives; regulations for other "subject activities" into historical buildings as hotels,

theatres, offices, schools, hospitals...; and regulations for other historical buildings

such as churches, civil buildings, monuments...

The rules are divided into two broad categories; those that regulate the existing

condition and that guarantee the protection and security of a historical asset where

9

vulnerability are consolidated in history, and, a little more complex case of buildings

are transformed into site of complex activities in terms of vulnerability, which

therefore require a very detailed design control.

However, it remains clear that in design conditions on buildings of great value

there is a need to go in derogation of the rules, trying to balance this exception,

especially with regard to structural solutions, with more accurate attention to

management and to the responsibility of the workers.

Fig.4. Fire at the Royal rider, in the center of Turin, in 2016. The flames

remained limited to the building concerned

In 2016 a document was prepared, by the Ministry of Cultural Heritage and Fire

Protection, where notwithstanding solutions are proposed for managing and

simplifying to comply with structural adjustments and plans.

Once the risks have been assessed, these indications want to be an aid for designers

in order to find design and management solutions that can ensure an equivalent

degree of fire safety.

10

In any case, therefore, the issue of fire prevention for historical buildings is

considered as a design and a verification of the implementation of the projects and

of the preventive provisions by the Fire Brigade.

The fire prevention regulation referred to in the D.P.R. of 2011 includes the

"buildings subject to protection", with a new formulation compared to the old lists,

and prescribes specific rules for "valuable buildings", open to the public, designed to

contain libraries and archives, museums, galleries, exhibitions and exhibitions,

regardless of gross area and quantities; as well as for hotels with more than 25 beds,

theaters with more than 100 seats, offices with a flow of more than 300 people,

schools with more than 100 students and hospitals with more than 25 beds, etc.

For this type of buildings, the prescription foresees:

the presentation of the project and the declaration of commencement of work,

the inspection by the local Fire Brigade Command through technical

inspections.

The inspection is to verify compliance with the prescribed provisions, as well as

the subsistence of the fire safety requirements so that, at the end of the works, having

ascertained that all the requirements have been met, the firemen themselves issue the

"Fire Prevention Certificate" for that building.

As mentioned, however, the work of adjustment are generally very difficult due to

the numerous constraints which make compliance with the prescriptive technical

rules.

These difficulties can be of different nature.

location of the site,

11

communications with the outside,

separations,

access to the area of emergency vehicles.

Access to the area and the combination of emergency vehicles, for example,

requires considerable space that is not always available in historic centers.

Furthermore, communications with non-pertinent activities (eg theaters,

entertainment venues, etc. communicating with non-pertinent offices or activities)

are generally not permitted, but this is not always possible and therefore, in addition

to the various compensatory measures, it is generally imposed the non-

contemporaneous use. As for the commences with other environments, these are

allowed only with certain pertinent activities, they have REI windows or smoke-

proof filters.

Other problems come from the constructive characteristics of the building,

understood as resistance to fire, reaction to fire, compartmentalization, organization

of stairs and paths, etc. Here the main theme is the fire resistance of structural wooden

components, such as beams, pillars and floors, which pose different problems and a

spectrum of complex solutions.

Then there are the problems related to the measures for the exodus (crowding, flow

capacity, length of the exodus paths, characteristics of the exit routes, width of the

exit routes, number of exits, ...).

Many times the historical conformation of the buildings does not allow the respect

of the minimum dimensions of the exodus paths, often less than 80/90 cm. Thera are

also other cases where the heights are less than 2 m. or in other cases the excessive

lengths of paths (one-way or non-directional) let impossible to create external

12

staircases without detecting historical feats, or simply due to the absence of spaces

that allow it.

Frequent are the cases in which the historical conformation of the buildings does

not allow the respect of the minimum dimensions of the exodus paths, often less than

80/90 cm, cases in which heights are less than 2 m. or excessive lengths of paths

(one-way or non-directional), as often it is impossible to create external staircases

without detecting historical feats, or simply due to the absence of spaces that allow

it. etc.

The work necessary for the installation of pipes of the “naspi” or hydrants network

can be complicated as the installation of automatic extinguishing systems or fire

detection and alarm systems. Similar problems happen for cables and pipelines: the

detection, signaling and alarm systems, the safety signs that must be visible, clear

and congruous to the aesthetics of the building and finally the organization and

management of security (plan of emergency, information and training, safety

instructions).

In Italy, in case of restructuring, for the historical buildings the derogation of the

fire regulations is possible for the fulfillment of the prescriptions.

However, to derogate from the rules, you have to make a request for an exemption

to the Fire Brigade. The request involves a specific documentation signed by a fire

professional, supplemented by a report that assesses the additional risk resulting from

the failure to comply with the provisions to be waived; as well as a proposal for

technical measures deemed appropriate to offset the additional risk.

The application is carefully examined by a Fire Brigade Commission that can

approve the proposals or impose additional or different solutions, and then verify that

the execution of the project is in compliance with the approved requests.

13

A special example: theaters.

In Europe - and in particular in Italy - there is an important cultural heritage of

historical theaters of inestimable architectural and artistic interest that deserves to be

preserved. Very often they are located in historical centers very complicated from

the point of view of urban spaces, with insufficient escape routes and narrow spaces

around.

Sometimes, they are part of historical buildings, encapsulated within them for the

delight of the noble families. In this context, the theater has the problems discussed

above (the difficulty/ impossibility of operating inside by following the canonical

norms of fire prevention).

The project should be guided by a deep knowledge of architectural structures and

by the interest in preserving the historical and artistic values that are evidence of the

ancient art of building that should be preserved rather than distorted.

Fig.5. Plants and sections of small theaters in the Marche

In case of historical theaters, there is a risk of fire due to the presence of wooden

structures with a particular historical and artistic value, furnishings in quality

precious fabrics, and decorations and elegant wooden bas-relief.

14

Increasing the fire safety of this type of building is in contrast with the architectural

and decorative heritage, as it generally clashes with the maintenance of the original

building features.

In order to comply with current protection regulations, massive and irreversible

interventions would be required.

Then there is the problem of overcrowded spaces linked with the internal and

external evacuation routes that, in many cases, cannot be completely solved. Since

the spaces were designed with criteria very far from these problems, the interventions

would totally distort the sense of the project.

All these characteristics bring theaters as buildings that more than any other are in

derogation from the rules in force in case of restructuring and restoration.

The main balancing element to these exceptions consists in adopting fireproof

materials in the redefinition of furnishings and decorations. In this sense it has

reached a level of excellent quality, both in terms of fire performance and that of the

overall image of the restored building.

Fig.6. Petruzzelli Theater in Bari, before the fire and after the restoration with

fireproof materials, of 2007

15

Regarding the safety of the occupants, it is clear that this depends a lot on the

behavior of the spectators and their ability to quickly evacuate to a safe place because

of the absence of adequately escape routes is a constant.

It seems absolutely necessary to work specifically on the design and

implementation of a clear and unequivocal system of emergency evacuation reports,

easily understandable even in extreme conditions of smoke or blackout.

16

CHAPTER 2

RISK MANAGEMENT

1. Introduction

The minimum level of safety of historic buildings and cultural sites are defined on

the international level (see Chapter 1). Level of fire safety shall be defined more

precisely within national laws and regulations. The approach to achieve the defined

goal - a certain fire safety level - depends on many factors, but always starts with the

awareness of the society, especially of the owner of the premises, that fire can happen

anywhere, anytime.

In large premises, responsibility for fire safety can be dispersed among the owner,

facilities manager, building manager, risk assessor, employee and every-day user.

The main burden lies to the ones who should provide resources. Financial resources

often present a problem, because built-in fire safety measures in historic buildings

are usually more complicated and therefore more expensive than the ones in ordinary

buildings. Manpower resources can be critical in small communities, dislocated

premises, etc. A resourceful manager can find solutions. For example, well managed

historic buildings often presents a source of income for local or even national

hospitality tourism, so the support from local or national authorities and budget can

be expected.

From the firefighters point of view, good cooperation of fire brigades and local

voluntary fire fighters with local community, including owners of historic buildings,

might have positive influence on relations within the community, and, consequently,

on the financial resources of the fire brigades. Firefighters can also be prepared better

for the intervention, when familiar with the premises.

17

Summarizing all above mentioned, at least four interest groups shall be included

in the process of providing the desired level of fire safety in historic buildings: the

owner, local or national authority, fire brigade and community, interested in

preservation of historic buildings (see Fig. 1).

Fig. 1. Four basic interest groups for providing fire safety in historic buildings

Fire safety management policy should be incorporated into overall management

policy of the premises. The recommended approach is to implement a management

operating system [1] which incorporates identification of fire hazards, with

prioritization of fire safety measures, ensuring resources for safety measures, using

improvement tools and takes care of organizational behavior, which supports the

proactive organization of fire safety, as described in this chapter.

Since this manual is prepared for firefighters and other first responders, there is no

need for detailed description of the management of historic buildings. There is a need

for firefighters to be familiar with the proper management approach, so the

communication with an owner or property manager is easier, and, at the end, the

intervention can be more effective.

Fire brigade

CommunityOwner

Authority

18

2. Fire safety management approach

In historic buildings there are at least two additional goals besides basic ones of

fire safety in buildings: preservation of historic building, or at least a part of it, and

preservation of artefacts and other items of cultural significance. Some other goals

can be added when building is in use: prevention or at least limitation of disruption

of the business in a building. These goals shall lead owner or his manager to introduce

a fire safety management policy, incorporated into overall management policy of the

premises. High standards of fire safety shall be indorsed, if possible, written in a fire

safety management manual or similar document.

Fire brigade can play an important role in the process of providing the desired level

of fire safety in historic building. Usually, fire brigade is invited to cooperate in the

process of planning, auditing and performing drills.

Fig. 2. Fire brigade should be invited to cooperate in the process of planning of

fire safety of a building

19

2.1 Leadership and commitment

Commitment of leadership of the premises to follow the fire safety management

policy shall be clearly and accurately defined, especially when delegated from the

owner to general manager and further to other managers, especially to fire safety

manager, supervisors, etc. All parties shall understand their duties and undertake

actions to do their job.

2.2 Fire safety management plan, strategy and action

Ways of approach to deal with fire safety shall be written in fire safety

management plan. Basic goals of fire safety shall be described, for example:

preventing an outbreak of the fire in buildings and infrastructure,

preventing serious injuries of people and animals if fire breaks out,

optimization of the alarm system for users of the building,

taking care of escape routes, so people will be able to evacuate by themselves

as soon as possible; taking in consideration people with disabilities,

limitation of spread of fire inside and outside of the building,

preventing the damage of the neighbor’s property,

limit the damage of the historic building,

limit the damage of artefacts or items of cultural significance,

minimize possibility of negative impact to the environment in case of a fire.

20

Fig. 3. In historic buildings, it is not always possible to arrange the escape routes

according to present standards of fire safety for new buildings. Fire brigade shall be

familiar with special features of the building

Fire risk assessment shall be made on the basis of information about the buildings

and infrastructure, defined level of fire safety, resources, etc. Risk assessment is an

on-going process with a goal to achieve and support a certain level of fire safety in a

historic building. Investment in risk assessment planning, made by professionals – a

team of fire protection consultants and restoration experts - and preparation of cost-

benefit analysis, can provide acceptable solutions and save money; especially in

larger, more complicated, more important buildings.

The risk assessment should be kept up to date. It should be reviewed on a regular

basis, not less than annually, before and after maintenance works, special events, etc.

21

Usually, trained in-house personnel can check if fire safety is on a required level and

ask for help of fire protection consultants, if needed.

Ways of approach to deal with fire safety and to achieve the defined goals shall be

defined in a fire risk management strategy. Actions, taken to achieve goals, shall

be based on fire risk assessment, monitored and evaluated. The Project Cycle

Management (PCM) method can be an effective way to manage fire safety of the

premises.

Fig. 4. Project cycle management

2.3 Management regular support

Management need to provide the resources, needed for the establishment,

implementation, maintenance and improvement of actions, defined in Fire safety

manual. For example, to ensure that there is enough staff appointed for certain duties,

that people are trained, so they are competent to do their job. Competence of each

Programming

Identification

Formulation

Implementation

Evaluation & Audit

22

person need to be defined. Arrangements for ensuring competences shall be

described in detail, for example:

general manager shall be coached by authority having jurisdiction and fire

brigade, at least every 3 years,

head of the maintenance/technical director shall receive mandatory training,

at least 3 weeks training course on fire safety management,

coordinator of evacuation shall receive 8-hour training at least every 2 years,

fire evacuation team members - fire warden and evacuation chair operator -

are required to attend at least one training per year, etc.

Fig. 5. Training of employees for the first response in a case of fire shall include

proper use of fire extinguishers

23

3. Fire safety management system elements

3.1 Documentation

Comprehensive documentation should be prepared to describe the building,

installed fire prevention appliances, the changes of use of the building with an eye

on fire protection, the organizational structure in place for fire prevention, and the

alterations that occur. It should be considered if any changes reduce the level of fire

protection in the building. Documentation should be compiled and maintained by in-

house personnel who are well versed in the operation and building details.

Fig. 6. Restoration works and other changes of the building and installations can

reduce the level of fire protection in the building, so fire safety measures shall be

prepared in written in advance, before the works start

3.1.1 Fire Safety Handbook

Information on all fire safety systems and components should be detailed in a Fire

Safety Handbook or similar document, according to national rules. This Fire Safety

Handbook should include floor plans with locations of fire extinguishers, hose reels,

24

hydrant points, gas shut-off valves, wiring diagrams, charts, specification sheets and

replacement parts lists. The Fire Safety Handbook should also incorporate the

operational, service and maintenance instructions for fire protection systems and

equipment, together with details of any modifications or upgrades undertaken on the

equipment. Safety procedures for special occasions when higher risk is expected

should also be written in the Fire Safety Handbook. Special occasions are special

events with fireworks, and/or additional electrical equipment, work where hot works

are performed, etc.

3.1.2 Fire safety logbook

A Fire Safety Logbook or similar document, according to national rules, should

be created and used to record information such as:

Fire training sessions undertaken or delivered, including the duration of the

event, the content and the names of those who attended.

Fire drills undertaken, including time, duration and the names of those who

participated. The record should include a “comments” column for noting any

particular problems or other observations. If a problem or difficulty has been

encountered, details of the remedy should also be provided.

Inspections or visits by service personnel of fire protection equipment,

insurance company visits, fire brigade or other persons should include brief details

of any observations made

Full details of all fire equipment inspections and fire systems maintenance,

including emergency lighting. It is suggested that this information is recorded in the

Fire Safety Logbook even when there are separate maintenance logs for equipment

such as fire detection or alarm systems.

25

Details of any fire incidents, false alarms or other matters of interest together

with the responses or remedial action taken.

3.1.3 Damage limitation plan

A Damage Limitation Plan should form the basis for all the work to be carried out

when fire starts and help from the fire brigade is needed. The Damage Limitation

Plan should set out in some detail the organization’s response to the emergency to

include such information as:

A brief description of the premises and the use.

A sketch plan showing access roads, drives, fire hydrants and other features

such as main gas valves and electrical switch rooms.

Identification of the items that can be removed in an emergency, together with

pre-identified safe locations to which the items will be taken.

Allocation of tasks to employees and others, together with home/mobile

phone numbers.

Duties of managers and supervisors.

Liaison with the fire and rescue service.

Names and addresses of resources such as contractors, conservation

specialists, etc.

26

Fig. 7. Firefighters should be invited to cooperate in preparation of damage

limitation plan

In developing a Damage Limitation Plan, a system of categorization should be

established to ensure that clear priorities exist for object removal. This should

identify:

First priority: items of international heritage value which are intimately

connected with the building or its previous occupants.

Second priority: items of national value or which are important to explain the

history of the building or its occupants. This should also include items that have a

high monetary value.

Third priority: items which would be difficult or expensive to replace and

which contribute to the history of the building.

Unclassified: items that will be left in place.

27

The Damage Limitation Plan should be developed and updated with the

cooperation of local fire service.

3.2 Reporting

Incidents, such as fires, burglary and other criminal acts, etc. shall be reported to

management and documented in Fire Safety Logbook (see 3.1.2). Authority having

jurisdiction shall be informed as well. Responsible persons shall investigate the

incident to prevent similar events in the future.

Fig. 8. Incidents shall be reported to authorities having jurisdiction and

investigated, so similar events do not happen in the future

3.3 Controlling and compliance auditing

Periodical controls shall take place at all levels of organization providing fire

safety measures. Appointed persons shall carry out regular fire inspections.

Checklists shall be prepared and used, specially made for each type of audit (daily,

weekly, monthly and annually checklists of self-inspection and fire system

maintenance). The number of appointed persons and content of checklists has to be

28

defined in the Fire Safety Handbook. See an example of a checklist for periodical

inspection [2] in table 1.

Escape Check that

Escape routes

­ Escape route is not obstructed.

­ Escape doors are not obstructed. Check also on the

outside that they are not obstructed by snow or

something else.

Signs for escape

­ The sign is in place.

­ Sign is easy to see from suitable points in the

building.

­ Luminous or illuminated signs are intact and the

light is on.

­ Where emergency power supply is installed, it is in

working order.

Compartment boundary Check that:

Wall at compartment

boundary

­ There are no holes, leaks, gaps etc. in the wall.

­ Openings in walls for e.g. pipes, cables, ventilation

ducts are sealed.

Fire resistant glazing,

windows

­ The glass is intact.

­ Windows are closed.

For all doors in and to

escape routes, regardless

of whether or not they

have a fire separating

function, the following

shall be checked

Function

­ Check that the door can be easily opened without a

key, code or card and that it opens at least 900 mm

­ Check that the escape route is not obstructed by

some object

­ Check that the force needed to open the door does

not exceed 130 N (ca 13 kg)

Maintenance

­ When the door is opened, make a visual inspection

of hinges, locks, door handle, frame, fixing of glass

(if any), any damage, rating label, function of door

handle, etc.

Door closer

­ Open the door ca 10 cm and release it. Check that

the door closes completely, and that

­ The spring bolt engages with the striking plate

­ Check for oil leaks

­ Check for damage to the alarm system that affects

door closer function

29

­ Check the fixing of door closer housing and of the

arms

­ NOTE that split/hold-open arms are not

recommended for doors at compartment

boundaries

Additional locks

­ When burglar proof locks are installed, check that

the lock is open during working times

Firefighting equipment Check that:

Portable extinguishers

­ Extinguishers are in their intended place

­ Pressure gauge indicator is in the green field

­ There are signs for the extinguishers and that they

can be seen

­ The extinguishers have had annual external checks

(there must be a sticker on the extinguisher which

shows date of last inspection)

­ The extinguishers are not obstructed and it is

readily accessible

Electrical installations Check that:

Fluorescent tubes

­ The tube is not blinking when the light is switched

on and it does not blink in normal operation

­ The tubes are not burned out and/or their ends are

not glowing red

Halogen lights and

incandescent lights

­ There is no combustible material such as curtains

near, or in contact with, lights

­ The fitting is stable and properly fixed

­ Fittings are not sited so that excessive heating is

caused

Electrical installations ­ Cables are not damaged or pinched

­ Wall sockets or switches are not damaged

­ Combustible materials are not kept nearer than 1 m

from a fuse board

­ Electric heaters are not covered

­ There are no loose cables

­ Cables are free from harmful amounts of thermally

insulating dust

Gas installations Check:

Gas piping connections ­ distance from combustible materials, fresh air

supply, fuel storage, etc.

­ heating device installation

Other items Check that

Kitchen and/or staff ­ Naked lights are not left unguarded and

30

room

combustible candle holders are not used. Check

also their placing in relation to combustible

materials such as curtains, on the TV, etc

­ Percolators, hotplates etc. have timers

­ Near cookers there is no combustible material that

can fall down or cause a fire in some other way

­ The tops of cookers are not used as storage places

­ Fan filters are clean

Other potential causes of

accidents

­ Skid resistant surfaces on e.g. stairs or in other

places where these are needed are in a serviceable

state.

­ There is no smoking other than in authorised

places.

First aid ­ Existing contents agree with list of contents.

Cleaning/order

­ Litter is regularly carried away.

­ Rubbish or empty packaging is not stored in large

quantities or in an unsuitable place indoors or too

near the facade of the building on the outside.

Pallets, containers and

storage of combustible

materials

­ Combustible materials, e.g. pallets, waste

containers etc. are not placed nearer then 6 m from

a facade with openings such as windows, doors or

air inlets, unless these are of fire resistant

construction.

­ Single combustible garbage containers if together

not more than 600 l are not placed nearer then 4 m

from a facade with openings such as windows,

doors or air inlets, unless these are of fire resistant

construction.

Arson Around the outside of buildings

­ Rubbish and empty packaging or other

combustible materials are not placed along the

facade or under a canopy.

­ Containers for combustible materials are not kept

nearer than 5 m from a building

­ Store rooms are locked.

­ There are no ladders or some other equipment that

can be used to get up on the roof.

­ Windows and doors are locked.

­ External lighting is not damaged.

Table 1. An example of a checklist for periodical inspection [2]

31

Basic types of checks are:

check of the specific activities at the opening of the premises at the beginning

of the working day,

check of the specific activities at the closing of the premises at the end of the

working day, week or before the holiday season or similar,

check of the specific activities at special occasions or events, etc.

check of the operating ability of the fire protection systems, such as fire alarm

system, sprinkler system, etc.

Authority having jurisdiction shall perform compliance audit at least once per

year, when special events are planned, new materials or technologies are introduced,

etc.

3.4 Improving the emergency response of employees and other users of the building

Management shall check and improve the emergency response of regular and

seasonal employees and cooperation with fire brigade and other emergency services,

if needed.

32

Fig. 9. On regular basis, emergency response of fire brigade shall be checked,

as well as access roads and areas and water supply for firefighters vehicles

around the building.

Training of staff shall be performed on regular basis, according to the plan and

their duties defined in Fire Safety Handbook. Residents of historic buildings shall be

involved in the training, too.

Drills of evacuation shall be performed, at least once per year, as well as after

change of the use, layout, organization structure, etc., when special events are

planned, new materials or technologies are introduced, etc.

33

Fig. 10. Escape routes can be improved to reach, or at least get closer to present

standards

Fig. 11. Appointed person (responsible person, which is familiar with the

building) shall be trained to communicate with firefighters, to provide information

for successful intervention

34

3.5 Closing of an audit

An audit shall be completed with a closing meeting. The scope shall be defined by

responsible persons and procedure of it defined in the Fire Safety Handbook.

Enforcement of corrective actions and modification of the plan shall be realized.

Proposed modifications shall be approved by authority having jurisdiction.

Fig. 12. Closing meeting shall be organized after each external audit. Closing

meeting can be very useful as a tool for defining corrective actions and

modification of the fire safety system of the premises

35

CHAPTER 3

FIRE PREVENTION MEASURES

1. Introduction

The proactive approach enables to achieve the best cost-effective solutions of

safety issues. In the field of fire safety, fire prevention with a tailor-made solution is

proven to be the most effective way to deal with issues in any building, especially in

a historic building.

Basic principles and fire prevention measures are described in this chapter.

Fig. 1. A Historic Building Fire at Safranbolu, October 08, 2018

36

2. Basic principles

When decision is made that something has to be done about fire safety, the owner

of the building or other organization or person, who is responsible for fire safety of

a building, has to start somewhere. Some basic knowledge about fire safety is needed

even with small, simple buildings. Comprehensive knowledge is required to deal

with fire safety of larger, complicated buildings, with high fire load, for places of

assembly, etc.

Fire prevention of historic buildings and sites should be based on the results of risk

assessment (see chapter 1). Knowledge and experiences are needed for simple and

effective solutions. Investment in risk assessment planning made by professionals –

a team of fire protection consultants and restoration experts - and preparation of cost-

benefit analysis can provide acceptable solutions and save money. Basic

requirements are written in laws and regulations (see chapter 9). Specific knowledge

about dealing with fire prevention measures in historic buildings can be found in

national and international standards, guidelines and other literature. Some of these

are listed at the end of this chapter.

On the basis of risk assessment, fire prevention measures shall be defined to

achieve a requested level of fire safety. Usually, there are more stages of the

implementation of fire safety measures. The implementation of organization actions

is usually easier and less time consuming to implement than other measures, like fire

compartmentation, installation of extinguishing system, etc. Step by step

implementation of measures is better than no action at all. In any case, the

documentation of fire prevention measures with the description of the building and

its installed fire protection systems and appliances should be prepared, the changes

of use of the building with an eye on fire protection, the organizational structure of

fire prevention, and the alterations that occur. Changes should not reduce the level

37

of fire protection of the building. Documentation should be compiled and maintained

by in-house personnel who are well versed in the operation and building details.

3. Fire prevention measures

Fire is a chemical phenomenon caused by the combination of matter and heat and

oxygen.

A fire needs three elements:

a. Oxygen

b. Heat

c. Fuel

Fig. 2. The fire prevention triangle

For the realization of the combustion; The fuel (solid, liquid, gas) must reach its

own ignition temperature in the oxygen environment. Therefore, these are three

factors must be taken into consideration for the measures to be taken against the fire.

38

When we examine the historical buildings structurally, we see that they are made

of mainly wood-based materials. The fact that the ignition temperature of the wood

is lower than that of the other materials causes the fire occurrence in these buildings

to be easier and to grow in a shorter time. This situation brings to a more specific

location of the fire precautions in the historic building. We also see how important

fire safety in historic buildings is when we take into account that the disappearance

of historic buildings and a date will disappear and that it cannot be compensated.

There are some basic fire prevention measures, which are relevant for most types

of historic buildings. Most common are described below; most important, evacuation

for example, are described in detail in a separate chapter of this manual.

Fig. 3. A Historic Building Fire at Safranbolu

3.1. Good housekeeping

Good housekeeping is not a typical fire prevention measure to start with, but it is

essential to maintain a certain level of fire safety in any building. Regular cleaning,

39

proper storage and disposal of litter, controlling electrical installations and

equipment, cleaning of filters in kitchen hoods, cutting the grass around the building,

keeping records of maintenance, etc. are everyday tasks which lower the fire risk.

Some of these are more elaborated in the texts below.

Basements and attics shall be kept clean and locked. Access to non-public areas

shall be limited and controlled.

Plenums, void and similar spaces shall not be used as storage area unless protected

with automatic detection or fire suppression systems.

3.2. Waste disposal control and control over storing packing material

Litter bins, waste containers, scattered garbage, packs of packing material, etc. are

ideal places for a fire to start. Waste disposal shall be controlled. Opened litter bins

shall not stand near fireplaces or in boiler rooms, for example. Garbage shall be taken

outside (to the waste containers) at the end of the working day. Safety distances

between waste containers and buildings shall be considered.

Special attention shall be paid to the increased volume of garbage at various

events, organized inside or outside the building.

Packing material shall not be stored on the public areas, under the stairs, on

evacuation corridors, etc.

40

Fig. 4. Safety Distances between Waste Containers and Buildings shall be

considered. Photo: Mateja Gris, SZPV

3.3. Smoking policy

Smoking shall be prohibited in the buildings and outside in the areas, where

smoking material can cause a fire.

Areas for smoking shall be arranged with suitable ashtrays. Regular disposal of

smoking material shall be organized.

Fig. 5. Areas for smoking shall be arranged with suitable ashtrays. Photo: Mateja

Gris, SZPV

41

3.4. Use of open flame, including hot works

Use of open flame (candles, making fire in fireplaces, fireworks, hot works

(welding, cutting of metal, heating with hot air, etc.)) in or near the building and shall

be prohibited unless conditions of the use of the open flame are well defined. Persons

dealing with open flame shall be trained, open flames should be monitored all the

time, fireplaces shall be protected by screens, open flames shall be extinguished at

the end of the working time.

Hot work shall be permitted only under defined circumstances: when hot work

permit is issued by qualified person, based on the risk assessment, performed by

workers who are familiar with fire safety issues, supervised by fire guards, etc.

Fig. 6. Hot work shall be permitted only under defined circumstances. Photo:

Gašper Golob, SZPV

3.5. Maintenance and inspection of chimneys

Chimneys in use shall be checked regularly. The ones which are not is use shall

be checked occasionally.

42

3.6. Electrical installations and appliances

Only technically adequate electrical installations and appliances shall be used.

Additional attention shall be paid to temporary wiring, heating and use of other

appliances which generates heat, sparks etc.

During special events, extra lighting or heating may be required, which is allowed

only when carefully planned and installed.

Fig.7. Electrical installations and appliances

3.7. Control over fire characteristics of decoration and claddings

In the initial stage of fire, spread of fire across the room depends mostly of fire

characteristics of furniture, decorations and claddings. In historic buildings, there

often are limited possibilities of replacing combustible building materials with

noncombustible ones or improving fire characteristics of materials with retardants or

similar. Therefore, it is important to keep ignition sources (searchlights, electric and

gas heaters, candles, etc.) away from combustible material. Permanent and other

decorations (during holidays and other special occasions or parties) shall also be

43

noncombustible or treated with fire retardants, so the fire characteristics meet the

requested level.

3.8. Control over spread of fire to adjacent rooms

Fire might spread to adjacent rooms through doors, ventilation system, ducts of

electrical cables, voids in the construction of the building, etc. Penetrations of

installations through fire resistance walls and ceilings and fire characteristics of these

elements shall be checked on regular basis. Unsuitable products shall be replaced

with products with better fire characteristics, if possible.

Fig. 8. Penetrations of installations through walls and ceilings can present a path

for a fire to spread. Photo: Mateja Gris, SZPV

Fire doors shall be kept closed when the building is occupied.

44

3.9. Control over installed fire protection systems

Installed passive and active fire protection systems shall be checked regularly to

be reliable in any time of a day, any weather conditions, etc. Materials, products and

systems used for the detection of a fire, limitation of spread of fire, providing time to

escape for people in the building, for water supply, etc., like fire doors, fire dampers,

fire penetrations, sprinklers, etc., shall be inspected on the regular basis.

Lightning protection shall be maintained in a good condition and inspected

regularly.

3.10. Evacuation of the people and animals

Evacuation of a building in a case of fire is the basic requirement of fire safety, so

special attention shall be taken about it (see chapter 6).

3.11. Training of employees

Employees shall be familiar with fire risks and prevention measures (first response

at initial fire and evacuation of visitors and other users which are not familiar with

the premises) and be able to cooperate with fire brigade in case of fire.

45

Fig. 9. Employees shall be trained to extinguish an initial fire. Photo: Gašper

Golob, SZPV

3.12. Protection from a fire from outside

Historic buildings located in woods, near markets, buildings with high fire load,

etc. may catch fire from outside. Precaution measures shall be taken to prevent fires

near the historic building, especially during Summer, special events, etc.

Fig.10. A historic building fire at Safranbolu

46

3.13. Access to buildings for firefighting vehicles and personnel

To enable efficient firefighting, vehicle access to the exterior of the building and

access into the building for firefighters is needed. Access requirements depend on

building size and height. Access areas shall be checked regularly in cooperation with

fire brigades.

Fig.11. A narrow street at Safranbolu old town

Fig. 12. Narrow access road to the castle courtyard in Český Krumlow, Chech

Republic. Photo: Mateja Gris, SZPV.

47

At special events, temporary tent buildings are used. They shall not cause

limitations for the access of firefighters and their vehicles.

3.14. Salvage of artefacts

Salvage of items of historic value may require special design of the evacuation

routes or special equipment. A damage limitation plan should provide solutions to

prevent crowding of routes and congestion of the personnel and rescue teams if

evacuation of people and items of historic value is going on at the same time.

3.15. Expecting the unexpected

Statistically, one of the main causes of fires in historic buildings is arson. Not

much can be done to protect property against determined arsonist. Security alarm

systems and other measures can lower the risk of arson.

Provisions shall be made for the time during and after a fire. Disaster plan shall be

prepared, describing duties of employees, plan for removal of accumulated water

from/after firefighting operations, post-construction plan, etc.

48

CHAPTER 4

FIRE BASICS

(BEHAVIOR, CLASSIFICATIONS, EXTINGUISHING AGENTS)

1.Introduction

The aim of this chapter is a basically understanding of how one “normal” fire at a

room developed, as well there be focusing on special phenomena, there in connection

with a fire at a room can arise and challenges or risks to the rescue team, is essential

for a safe and effective effort in connection with fire at buildings. This chapter is

inspired by the Danish book: “Brandforløb”. The chapter is building that way trying

to create structure as well as models which prove how a fire at a room can develop.

It is important to emphasize, that a fire in a room as a starting point, an event is out

of control, and therefore there is many difference factors which can affect a fire’s

development. Whit order words it means when a fire process evaluated, there is

rarely anything that is “black or white”. It is almost like a rule that there are several

different development opportunities, and phenomenal that may occur. Some of these

are not described in detail in this chapter.

1.1. Aim

The aim of this chapter is to get a deeply understanding and knowledge about what

is a fire and how can fire develop. In this chapter there be focusing on fire from

theories perspective.

2. Fire basics

A basic understanding of combustion theory as well as fire and flame spread

creates the foundation for understanding and evaluating of how a fire in a room

development. The flame spread is, for example, crucial for how a fire in a room

49

develops in relation to speed, intensity and direction. Combustion Theory is a

comprehensive theme that includes several physical and chemical one’s processes

that may be useful to have knowledge about. In this book there will only be focused

on the actual flame combustion process, as it is primarily the one there forms the

basis for understanding the development of a fire in a room.

2.1. Fire theory

A fire is a chemical reaction, also called a combustion process. Overall there may

be two different types of fires (combustion processes) – one flame fire or a glow fire.

Fig. 1. Photo from: "Brandforløb". illustrate a flame fire (the light) and glow fire

(cigarette)

When talking about fire at buildings (fire in rooms), it is typically a flame fire you

want to observe. Glow fires are also common in connection with fires in a room but

will rarely have an impact on the fire process, since the power development from

this type of fires is relatively limited. The flame combustion processes are crucial for

the development of a fire process, therefore then knowledge of this type of process

is a prerequisite for understanding of a fire in a room’s development and influence

on the environment.

50

Fig. 2. A combustion is a chemical process that develops heat. Basic it is about

the fuel reacting with the oxygen, thereby forming water carbon dioxide and

various residues. Photo “fire process” p. 9

There are different types of flames. By looking more closely at the types of flames.

In a given situation, you will be able to assess which one type of the fire process that

may be involved. One will for example get an indication of which type of combustion

is involved, including combustion rate and pressure accumulation. These two

parameters relate to assessing how fast the fire can spread and how violent it can be.

Fig.3. The picture shows different types of flames. The different colours of the

flames tell a lot about eg. combustion, temperature etc. To the left is a typical

diffusion flame and to the right a typical premix flame (Photo: Emergency

Management Agency Technical School)

51

There are basically two different types of flames: diffusion flames and premixed

flames. These two flame types have significantly different properties. for example,

combustion rate and temperature. The basics The difference between the diffusion

flames and the premixed flames lies in it way the fuel and air meet each other and

react chemical.

2.1.1. The fire triangle

Too understand a fire, there are some rules for a fire actually can found place to

get the chemical reaction which can produce a fire.

- Oxygen, too produce a fire, oxygen are necessary, you can remove oxygen to

a fire by putting a lid on the pan. In larger scale for an example a fire in a room, close

windows and doors.

- Fuel. To produce a fire there most be something which can burn. The Most

things can actually burn but have very different ignition temperatures, for an example

wood have a low ignition temperature so if you turn a lighter and a small peace it

will starts to burn immediately, on the other hand, if you do the same for iron, it will

take longer because iron has a higher ignition temperature than wood.

- Heat. there must be sufficient heat before a fire can break out, what the

ignition temperature is the fuel it depends on again.

Fig.4. the fire triangle with the three factors to create a fire Photo: Firefighting

101 with FireRescue1.com Staff

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2.1.2. Combustible materials

Flammable substances occur in 3 modes:

Fixed substances Liquids Gases

For example:

Wood

Textiles

Paper

For example:

Oil products

alcohols

ether acetone

For example:

Methane / natural gas

LPG acetylene Gases from solids

Vapors from liquids

Solids burn with flames and embers, but there are some exceptions e.g.: fats,

stearin, plastics, rubber and pure plastics. These solids must change state in order to

ignite, which means they must.

Chapter Fire cycle transition from solid to liquid before a fire is possible. This is

due to, that the melting point is lower than the ignition temperature.

3. Fire behaviour

A fire in a room and fire processes are two very central concepts throughout the

subject booklet. The definition of a fire in room is:

The basic difference between a fire in a room and a detached fire, is they

surrounding structures and their influence on the development of the fire. There need

not necessarily be a completely closed room, but just one construction that makes it

possible to hold the flue gases. Skunk room suspended ceilings, etc. is also to be

considered room in this sense. The surrounding structures will cause pressure

“A fire that develops in a room with surrounding Structures ".

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differences to occur in the room and one will be formed hot flue gas, which causes

additional heat radiation to the fire. It is precisely these "external" factors that cause

a space fire to develop differently than a detached fire. See example figure 5.

Fig.5. to left are a detached fire, and to the right a fire in a room is illustrated.

Photo: “Fire process”. p. 26

The definition of a fire process is:

3.1. The fire process at a fire in a room

To understand the fire process, will this chapter give you some knowledge about

the different phases that a fire in a room can develop.

3.1.1. The early fire process

The early fire process is the term for the first phase of the fire process for a fire in

a room (see Figure 6).

The definition of "The early fire process is:

The development of fire in a room over time, as well as the various

phases and phenomena that may occur within this period”.

54

To have knowledge about the development of a fire in rooms in this phase is

crucial for being able to assess and implement an effective extinguishing tactic. For

example, an assessment of whether the fire is the fuel or ventilation control, and

knowledge of which factors that influence the spread of smoke, be instrumental in

choosing one appropriate extinguishing tactics. The early fire cycle usually causes

no one special hazards in relation to the rescue crew, however it is during this phase

that some of the very basic elements of space fire development seriously affects the

continued development of the fire.

The factors include:

Fire effect development, including fuel or ventilation-controlled fire

Smoke fan and flue gas layer

Heat radiation

Pressure conditions in the fire room and smoke distribution

Ignition of the flue gases

The time period from the start of the fire to fire in a room enters the

flashover phase.

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Fig.6.The early fire process is market with red to the left. To the right are some

factors illustrated which may become influence in the following fire process. Photo

“Fire process”. p. 33

3.1.2. Initial fire

A fire in a room, and thus also the early fire process, starts with a so-called initial

fire.

Fig. 7. to the left the initial fire shows in red. To the right some examples of an

initial fire. Photo "Fire process" p.27

3.1.3. Example of a fire process in a room

It is evening, and a candle is forgotten in a window sill in a quite ordinary living

room with a sofa, a TV, a couple of chairs, a coffee table, carpets on the floor and

pictures on the walls. The window is open, and a sudden gust of wind topples over

the candle on the sofa. The fire spreads rapidly to the upholstery. This is a so-called

initial fire, which is the start of the space fire. See figure 8.

The initial fire is the term for the fire "that starts itself fire event.

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Fig. 8. To left shows the candle on the sofa and start an initial fire. To the right

the initial fire is marked in red in the fire process. Photo " Fire process". p.28

As there is plenty of material (fuel) on the sofa, the fire increases in size.From the

fire on the sofa, there is now a tab of hot gases and particles, too called flue gases,

up against the ceiling. This is the start of the first phase of the fire process called the

early fire. The flue gases consist of air and other various substances and gases that

are residues from the combustion process, ex. carbon monoxide, carbon dioxide, as

well various hydrocarbons and soot particles.

The smoke fan rises upwards and hits the ceiling, whereby the smoke "bends" out

towards the sides. At some point, the smoke enters the surrounding walls where it

stays "Braked" and begins to form a flue gas under the ceiling. The flue gas layer is

almost invisible at first, but as more smoke, and thus also several soot particles, rising

in the flue gas layer, become darker.

This process goes relatively fast and is usually over within approx. 1-2 minutes

among other things depending on what is burning, where it burns, the location of the

material as well room dimensions. See figure 9 for an illustration.

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Fig. 9. To the right an illustration about how the smoke is rising up to the ceiling

and starting to bend out to the side. To the right the next step on the fire process

"Early fire process" is marked in red. Photo “Fire process”. p. 29

If there is enough oxygen (air) in the room, the initial fire will increase further,

and the flue gas layer will be lowered towards the floor. The heat in the flue gas layer

causes everyone objects in the room such as furniture, clothing, etc., are heated by

the radiant heat.

When the surface temperature of these objects approaches 100-300 °C, starts

pyrolysis normally, which means that all heated materials in the room now emits

flammable gases.

The next phase of the fire process is the flashover phase. The ignition phase marks

the transition from the early fire to the fully developed fire in a room, where

everything combustible in the room burns. The ignition phase can last anywhere

from a few seconds and up to approx. 1 minute.

Fig. 10. The flashover phase defines the transition from the early fire process to

the fully developed fire in a room. The phase occurs when the radiant heat from the

fire and the flue gas layer becomes sufficiently large enough to the room ignites.

Photo “Fire Process” p. 30

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The extent of the fire as well as the temperature and pressure in the fire room and

will increase quickly. The flue gas layer will be rapidly lowered towards the floor.

Most often there will also be an ignition of the flue gases at this stage.

For any Fireman who is working in the room can experience the flashover phase

as quite dramatic, but with proper protection and extinguishing techniques, including

option to withdraw or withdraw, the phase can be handled. For people who don't

have the same protection, for example the injured person, is the flashover phase a

very critical phase, where the probability of survival is small.

Fact Box: The flashover

The flashover phase is followed by the fully developed fire in a room. The phase

can last anywhere from a few minutes to several hours. The time depends primarily

on how much combustible material (fuel) is in the room and about there is enough

with oxygen in the room. Furthermore, the time will depend on whether the fire

spreads to other rooms or buildings.

Figure 11: The fully developed space fire where all flammable material burns.

Photo "Fire process" p. 31

The flashover is a stage in the fire process that represent the transition

from the early fire to the fully developed fire in a room.

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The fully developed fire in a room is followed by the cooling phase. The cooling

phase is characterized by the fact that most of the combustible material is being burnt

away, and both power generation and temperature fall. The cooling phase can take a

few hours, but also for many hours and sometimes even days depending on the size

of the fire. In the above, it is described what is termed the "normal" fire process for

a fire in a room. However, the fire process can also develop in other ways. For

example, scenarios may occur where only openings in the space are limited, which

causes the fire to decrease in intensity due to lack of oxygen before it enters the

flashover phase. This development of the fire cycle is called one room fire with

limited ventilation or an under-ventilated fire.

3.2. How to minimize fire development?

When the initial fire is discovered, a quick reaction, with handheld extinguishing

agents, can stop or minimize the fire and damage. The next thing to do, is to close

windows and doors, as evacuating the area.

4.Classifications & extinguishing agents

4.1. Overview of fire classes

In Denmark, we follow the Danish and European standard DS / EN3, which

includes: indicates performance requirements and test methods for fire extinguishers.

It describes 6 categories that fires are divided into as shown in the box below. It is

for most of Europe the same standards we are setting the standards after.

Fire class E is not really an independent fire class, but we still count on it for two

reasons:

A very large proportion of fires are caused by electricity.

Electric fires require an extinguishing agent that is not electrically conductive.

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Fire class A

Fire class A - Flammable solids

Wood paper, cardboard, textiles, some plastic materials and all glowing materials.

Fire class B

Fire class B - Flammable liquids

Petrol, oil, alcohol, fiberglass, paint and the like

Fire class C

Fire class C - Flammable gases

Propane, butane, acetylene, natural gas and the like

Fire class D

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Fire class D - Flammable metals

Magnesium, sodium, aluminum powder, iron sulphide, titanium and the like.

Fire class E

Fire class E - Electric fires

Fire in electrical equipment (electrical installations, equipment etc.)

Fire class F

Class F - Furniture

Cooking oil, fat and fryer

4.2. Handheld extinguishing agents

4.2.1. Overview of fire-fighting extinguishing types

Powder extinguishers (A, B, C, D, E)

Powder extinguishers are the fire extinguisher that can extinguish most fire classes

and are also the easiest to use for an untrained user. It is extremely efficient and

switches off, for example. 5 times as efficient as the water extinguisher. Please note

that not all powder extinguishers are suitable for extinguishing class D.

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Water extinguisher (A)

Water extinguishers contain plain water but are 10 times as effective as a bucket

of water because you can direct the water more efficiently and accurately.

Foam extinguisher (A, B)

Foam extinguishers are suitable for extinguishing fires in flammable liquids and

solid materials such as wood, cardboard and paper. However, be aware that not all

foam extinguishers are equally environmentally friendly, so inquire with your

supplier if you are in doubt.

Water mist extinguisher (A, E)

The water mist extinguisher contains distilled water, which is atomized in a fine

water mist. It is made to gently extinguish fires in electrical equipment and solid

materials. It makes it ideal to have in office environments.

Freezer extinguishers (A, E, F)

Grease, oil and fryer hold much better on heat than other materials and liquids.

Therefore, frying is also much more difficult to extinguish. They ignite if you do not

use the right extinguishing agent. The only effective way to extinguish frying is to

stop the supply of oxygen for a long time. This is exactly what a fryer can do. The

extinguishing agent is an alkaline liquid that reacts with the liquid and effectively

seals and cools the fat.

Carbon dioxide extinguisher (B, C, E)

Oxygen extinguishers extinguish fires by absorbing oxygen around a fire. It is well

suited for petrol stations and charging stations but should never be the only

extinguishing agent present. Oxygen extinguishers cannot extinguish fires in solid

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materials (fire class A). On the contrary, they risk spreading the fire further, and are

therefore not suitable for ordinary office environments.

Water and Foam

Water and Foam fire extinguishers extinguish the fire by taking away the heat

element of the fire triangle. Foam agents also separate the oxygen element from the

other elements.

Water extinguishers are for Class A fires only - they should not be used on Class

B or C fires. The discharge stream could spread the flammable liquid in a Class B

fire or could create a shock hazard on a Class C fire.

Carbon Dioxide

Carbon Dioxide fire extinguishers extinguish fire by taking away the oxygen

element of the fire triangle and also be removing the heat with a very cold discharge.

Carbon dioxide can be used on Class B & C fires. They are usually ineffective on

Class A fires.

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Dry Chemical

Dry Chemical fire extinguishers extinguish the fire primarily by interrupting the

chemical reaction of the fire triangle.

Today's most widely used type of fire extinguisher is the multipurpose dry

chemical that is effective on Class A, B, and C fires. This agent also works by

creating a barrier between the oxygen element and the fuel element on Class A fires.

Ordinary dry chemical is for Class B & C fires only. It is important to use the

correct extinguisher for the type of fuel! Using the incorrect agent can allow the fire

to re-ignite after apparently being extinguished successfully.

Wet Chemical

Wet Chemical is a new agent that extinguishes the fire by removing the heat of

the fire triangle and prevents re-ignition by creating a barrier between the oxygen

and fuel elements.

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Wet chemical of Class K extinguishers were developed for modern, high

efficiency deep fat fryers in commercial cooking operations. Some may also be used

on Class A fires in commercial kitchens.

Clean Agent

Halogenated or Clean Agent extinguishers include the halon agents as well as the

newer and less ozone depleting halocarbon agents. They extinguish the fire by

interrupting the chemical reaction and/or removing heat from the fire triangle.

Clean agent extinguishers are effective on Class A, B and C fires. Smaller sized

handheld extinguishers are not large enough to obtain a 1A rating and may carry

only a Class B and C rating.

Dry Powder

Dry Powder extinguishers are similar to dry chemical except that they extinguish

the fire by separating the fuel from the oxygen element or by removing the heat

element of the fire triangle.

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However, dry powder extinguishers are for Class D or combustible metal fires,

only. They are ineffective on all other classes of fires.

Water Mist

Water Mist extinguishers are a recent development that extinguish the fire by

taking away the heat element of the fire triangle. They are an alternative to the clean

agent extinguishers where contamination is a concern.

Water mist extinguishers are primarily for Class A fires, although they are safe for

use on Class C fires as well.

Cartridge Operated Dry Chemical Cartridge Operated Dry Chemical fire

extinguishers extinguish the fire primarily by interrupting the chemical reaction of

the fire triangle.

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Like the stored pressure dry chemical extinguishers, the multipurpose dry

chemical is effective on Class A, B, and C fires. This agent also works by creating a

barrier between the oxygen element and the fuel element on Class A fires.

Ordinary dry chemical is for Class B & C fires only. It is important to use the

correct extinguisher for the type of fuel! Using the incorrect agent can allow the fire

to re-ignite after apparently being extinguished successfully.

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CHAPTER 5

FIRE SUPPRESSION ACTIVITIES AND FIRE DETECTION/WARNING

SYSTEMS IN HISTORIC BUILDINGS

1. Introduction

Special efforts are being made to protect cultural heritage against fire or other

disasters around the world. Experience shows that the following elements increase

the risk of fire in historical buildings:

There are different sources of ignition in these buildings (open flame, electricity,

lighting etc.)

New sources of ignition are added during restoration works.

Fire warning and protection systems are neither existing at all nor operational.

The building content and the structural elements consist of combustible materials

and there are usually no barriers to prevent the spread of the fire in the whole

building.

Automatic fire detection and extinguishing systems are not available.

Delays in the notification of the fire to fire department.

The awareness and training on fire safety are generally insufficient [1].

Safranbolu is a historic city that has been included in the UNESCO World

Heritage Site and is at risk of fire. Safranbolu, situated on the road that connects the

Black Sea coast to the West, North and Central Anatolia due to its location, has

gained importance as the center of trade between Asia and Europe in the 18th

century. Today in Safranbolu, there are about 2000 traditional Safranbolu houses

69

that reflect the history, culture, economy, technology and lifestyle of 18th and 19th

centuries Turkish social life, and about 800 of them are under lawful protection.

Traditional Safranbolu Houses have stone, soil, mudbrick and wooden materials

both in the building system and as building materials. Stone is used at the foundation

and ground floor with built-up wood as a filler and reinforcing material. Wood is

used as a structural material for the buildings and roofs and as building components

for coatings. Fir, beech, pine and oak trees grow mainly in Safranbolu region. As

load-bearing elements fir and pine trees are usually used for construction (Fig.1.) [2].

Fig.1. Sarıaltınlar mansion (Courtesy of civil engineer M. Baki Duvan)

2. Fires and suppression activities in historic buildings

Historic Safranbolu mansions are mainly made of wood materials. Compared to

other building materials, wood has some superior properties in terms of sustaining

its durability under fire conditions. Although natural wood is a combustible material,

it shows excellent resistance properties especially in the first stages of fire. Steel,

since its high thermal conductivity, suddenly collapses when exposed to heat. The

70

concrete that wraps the metal component is cracked and broken due to the difference

in tension. The thermal expansion coefficient and thermal conductivity of wood

materials are very low. Natural wood material, when used in construction with

sufficient thickness, shows resistance against high temperatures and combustion and

gives enough time for extinguishing and rescue activities (Fig. 2) [3].

Fig. 2. Kalealtı primary school (Courtesy of civil engineer M. Baki Duvan)

Comparison of the performance of building materials under load and fire

conditions is given in Table 1 below [4].

Table. 1. Comparison of building materials’ performance under heavy load and

fire conditions [4]

Material Compression Tension Shear Fire

Exposure

Brick Good Poor Poor Fractures,

spalls,

crumbles.

Concrete Good Poor Poor Spalls

Reinforced

Concrete

Good Fair Fair Spalls

Stone Good Poor Fair Fractures,

spalls,

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Wood Good

w/grain, poor

across grain

Marginal Poor Burns, loss

of material,

Structural

Steel

Good Good Good Softens,

bends, loses

strength,

Cast Iron Good Poor Poor Fractures

However, especially in the historical wooden structures that are not well

maintained and renovated, the wood material may lose its endurance and start to rot.

High temperatures in fires in such structures can make the timber load bearing

structural elements less functional. In addition, the water applied to extinguish the

fire also creates an extra load on the building components. The collapses in the fires

in Safranbolu are related to this mechanism and the length of time between the start

of fire and suppression activities.

The roofs in historical buildings are the places where fires progress and expand

really fast. Since there is a wide open space in the attic, the fire in this area extends

fast and cause collapse and find ways downward. Roof fires are difficult to intervene.

The excessive water applied into the attic area causes great damage at lower floors.

Another reason of fire spread in historic buildings is the lath and plaster walls and

voids in the walls. Fire that penetrates into the walls in historical buildings find ways

to advance to unexpected points. If electrical wiring and installation do not comply

with related regulations, it wouldn’t compensate the electrical load which today’s

communication, heating, lighting and information technology devices require. Such

inadequacies may result fires. The historic Galatasaray University/Istanbul fire in

2013 is a good example to show the effects of roofs, voids in walls, water load,

electrical non-compliance and deficiency as the fire cause and fire extension (Fig. 3)

[5].

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Fig. 3. Galatasaray university fire [5]

In Safranbolu, historical houses were built as 2 or 3 story single houses. While

some of them are being used for commercial purposes such as hotels and restaurants

after restoration, most of the historical buildings are used as residentially. There are

historical houses lawful protection which are subject to private ownership but cannot

be renovated and maintained due to personal resource deficiencies. There are also

vacant historical buildings which haven’t been maintained at all due to owners’

inadequate financial resources. In Safranbolu, fires were recorded in vacant houses

as a result of illegal use of abandoned buildings.

Fires in wooden single houses in Safranbolu can progress rapidly between the

floors. The main reason of vertical fire extension is unprotected stairways connecting

the floors. The stairwell work like a chimney in fires causing rapid vertical fire

advancement. In this scenario, the life of the residents trapped over the fire are

threatened in a short period of time (Fig. 4).

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Fig. 4. Erbil house, typical stairwells in historic Safranbolu houses (courtesy of

architect Yavuz Erbil, photographed by Nisa Yılmaz)

Compared to the past, today houses have higher fire loads because of the materials

of houseware and furnitures. The flashover point is usually reached in a shorter time

and higher and faster rates of heat release and accumulation occurs. This increases

the severity and fatality of fires [6].

In fire suppression continuous water supply need may become a challenging issue

in a historical area because of inadequate substructure of water supply network.

Delay in intervening the fire affects the size of the fire and the extent of fire damages.

Typically, in a single house fire, two initial attack lines with 600 liters / minute

capacity are required. If surrounding buildings are in close proximity extra lines with

at least same capacity are needed to prevent extension. In Safranbolu, historical

houses were generally built close to each other. Hydrants are the ideal sources for

water supply. In lack of hydrants, the next option may be tanker operations. In

Safranbolu, narrow streets and heavy traffic loads are among the factors that

complicates the operation of fire suppression vehicles and tankers.

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As a result of fires that starts in the attic or fires that starts at lower floors and

reach into the attic, the building components that carry the roof are weakened and

the roof usually collapses. The collapse impacts the stability of the building under

fire and increase the risks for firefighters for aggressive suppression activities by

going into the buildings. Therefore, early intervention in fires in wooden buildings

is important in terms of protecting the lives of both civilians and firefighters (Fig. 5)

[7].

Fig. 5. Erbil house, attics in Safranbolu houses (Courtesy of architect Yavuz

Erbil, photographed by Nisa Yılmaz)

A total of 102 fire incidents occurred in Safranbolu between 2013-2017. Fire cause

for 46 fire incidents wasn’t identified, 26 of them were originated from negligence,

13 were caused by electrical malfunctions, 7 cases were related with chimneys and

8 were caused by wrong stove use (Table. 2) [8].

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Table. 2. Safranbolu municipality fire statistics (2013-2017)

Year Fire Cause Total

Electricity Chimney Stove Negligence Collapse Unknown Smoking

2013 3 3 1 6 0 11 0 24

2014 2 1 2 8 0 10 1 24

2015 4 0 4 3 0 9 0 20

2016 1 2 1 6 0 8 0 18

2017 3 1 0 3 1 8 0 16

Total 13 7 8 26 1 46 1 102

Chimney fires can extend into the structure and the attic if not noticed or

extinguished at the early stages. In older buildings, cracks in the chimneys facilitate

the passage of chimney fires to the structure. Chimneys must have sufficient fire

resistance in order not to spread the fires to the building. The detailed rules to be

complied with about chimneys are included in the ‘Regulation on the Protection of

Buildings against Fire’ in Turkey. Generally dry chemical powder is used for

quenching chimney fires. In large chimney fires, it may be necessary to use water

and foam. In order to prevent chimney fires, chimneys should be maintained

according to the standards, chimney walls have to be fire resistant and thermally

insulated, the fuel used has to be compliant with the heating device and chimney

service and maintenance has to be done periodically by qualified personnel [9].

Faults in electrical wiring and improper use of electrical devices are among the

main fire causes in historic buildings. Many historic buildings in Safranbolu are now

used for commercial purposes such as hotels, restaurants, shops, educational

institutions, coffeehouses and entertainment centers. Electrical wiring and

installations need to be renewed and maintained in accordance with the electrical

load those activities require. “Regulation on the Protection of Buildings against

Fire”, orders that in all types of buildings, electrical installation, protective devices,

short circuit calculations, insulation materials, connection and fixing elements,

extension cables, electrical installation projects and heavy current installation must

be compliant with laws and regulations such as “Regulation on Indoor Electrical

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Installations”, “Regulation on Grounding at Electrical Installations”, Regulation on

Electrical Heavy Load ınstallation”. Compliance with the laws and regulations has

to be strictly supervised by competent authorities [10].

Passive fire safety measures in buildings aim to prevent fires or delay the fire

advancement. Some passive measures are low cost and ideal for ”fire protection in

historical buildings”. For example, periodic control and maintenance of electrical

equipment and installation enhances fire prevention capability at very low cost. The

quality of the wood material used in restoration works is also important in terms of

fire risk. The tests show that while the fire resistance of oak is very high, it is lower

for soft and loose textured trees. It is useful to evaluate the materials to be used in

the buildings for restoration in terms of fire safety. The use of fire retardant

chemicals in historic buildings may also be recommended. However, while fire

retardants use in ceilings, floors, walls, facades, railings, handrails and furniture. It

is stated that fire retardants have limited effect on load bearing wooden structural

elements [11].

As active fire safety measures, automatic fire extinguishing systems are designed

by considering the building type, use and residents. In automatic systems, water

(foam), wet chemical, dry chemical, carbon dioxide, halon and clean agents are used

as extinguishing agents. In historical buildings most appropriate agent should be

chosen by evaluating the historical assets to be protected.

Water-Based automatic fire sprinkler system can be used in specific areas in

historical buildings used as residentials. The reasons fire sprinklers are so effective

are:

The system is always ready to operate without human interaction.

The system applies water to a fire well before the fire brigade arrives.

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It prevents the spread of fire and resignation.

Water damage is much less than a firefighter’s hose stream.

In addition to the intervention of fire, these systems can also activate alarm

systems and notify responders.

The disadvantage of using water-based fire sprinkler system in historic buildings

is the risk of water damaging historical assets. Thus use of water mist in the water-

based automatic systems can minimize water damage and extinguish the fires in

historic buildings more effectively.

Studies show that a 6 liter portable water mist extinguisher provide effective

quenching in A and B class fires and its effect can be increased with some additives.

Therefore, portable water mist extinguishing devices may be considered safe to use

in historic buildings with minimal water damage [12].

As a specialized water –based fire protecting system, water mist system use very

small water droplets out of specialized nozzles where 99% of discharged water mist

droplets are 1000 microns or less in diameter size. Water mist extinguishes fire by

cooling, removing oxygen and blocking radiant heat. The sum of surface areas of

very small water droplets provide a greater surface area for effective cooling. Easily

vaporized water particles expand and effectively remove oxygen. Finally, very small

water particles provide a barrier between the fire and the surrounding materials.

Water mist systems are effectively used to protect historical buildings, museums as

well as computer rooms, communication facilities, laboratories, data centers,

tunnels, underground public transportation systems, industrial facilities, archives,

aircraft hangars and cargo areas.

Water mist systems are classified into three categories based on the maximum

working pressure of the system. Low pressure systems have a working pressure of

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less than 12 bar, where medium pressure systems exert 12-34 bar working pressure

on system distribution piping. High pressure systems have an operating pressure

between 34-68 bar. Since this system works with high pressures, the materials used

in the system must be suitable and approved materials. The NFPA 750 standard is

an international standard with rules for the installation of automatic extinguishing

systems using water mist [13].

Water mist systems are also subject to a classification as single-fluid and twin-

fluid systems. In single fluid systems only water is supplied to the nozzles. In twin-

fluid systems, the nozzles are fed by two pipes carrying water and compressed gas,

air or nitrogen. . One of the pipes is supplied with water and the second with

compressed air or nitrogen. The function of air or nitrogen is to further reduce water

droplets size. The benefits of water mist extinguishing systems are listed below (Fig.

6) [14]:

In water mist systems approximately 90% less water is used compared to water-

based fire sprinkler systems, thus water damage is significantly low.

Water mist systems are highly efficient in Class A and B fires.

No direct harm to human health.

It can reduce oxygen in the environment from 21% to 17% in 5 minutes.

The fire area is not necessarily be completely closed.

It has 3-dimensional extinguishing effect.

It can reduce the ambient temperature from 900 C to 50 C in 1 minute.

Use of pure water can eliminate conductivity problems.

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It protects the objects surrounding the seat of fire from radiant heat

effectively.

Fig. 6. Water mist systems, Eksel fire and safety systems Inc [14]

The use of carbon dioxide, halon or clean agents in the fire protection of

unoccupied historic buildings can be preferred. If the buildings are occupied, it is

preferred to use clean agents in fire extinguishing systems.

Clean agents, also called halocarbons, have been developed to replace Halon 1301

extinguishing agent due to environmental concerns. The superior aspects of clean

agents compared to Halon 1301 are environmentally harmless and have no toxic

effects. Clean agents are environmentally safe, harmless to humans, non-conductive

and leave no residue upon evaporation. They are effective in solid, liquid, gas and

electric fires. It is effectively used in historical buildings, libraries and museums,

computer rooms, communication facilities, electronic equipment protection, marine

and aviation sectors. Although it does not pose a threat to human health at low level

exposure, it is stated that it may cause health problems in high concentrations and

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long-term exposures. Clean agents are divided into two categories as halocarbon and

inert gas based agents. Halocarbon-based ones put out the fire by interrupting the

uninhibited chain reaction and removing heat from the reaction zone of the flame.

Clean agents based on inert gas remove oxygen from the protected area. FM200 is

the most widely used halocarbon based clean agent, and Inergen is the most widely

used inert gas-based clean agent [13], Fig. 7 [15].

Fig. 7. FM200 gaseous agent extinguishing systems, Eksel Fire and safety

systems [15]

In addition to the extinguishing and rescue activities at fires in historical buildings,

extra tasks such as the recovering artifacts also arise. Firefighting activities become

more challenging in historical area such as Safranbolu due to restrictions in zoning

by conservation laws, rough terrain, close building layout and narrow streets which

complicate operating large fire trucks. Close building layout leads to the spread of

the fire to the adjacent buildings in a short period of time. In the absence of qualified

fire water infrastructure to provide continuous water supply, there isn’t much option

other than tanker operations which is very difficult to fulfill in narrow streets (Fig.

8-9).

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Fig. 8. Erbil house, rough terrain in Safranbolu (courtesy of architect Yavuz

Erbil, photographed by Nisa Yılmaz)

Fig 9. Arasta, narrow streets/close building layout in Safranbolu, (courtesy of

civil engineer M. Baki Duvan)

Class A foam use makes extinguishing activities much more effective. The use of

foam reduces the surface tension of water and increases its penetration and

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effectiveness. The insulation effect of the Class A foam increases when used in

CAFS (Compressed Air Foam Systems). The use of small amounts of foam has no

negative impact on the environment. However, running into water system of large

amounts of foam should be prevented. Mixing rates of Class A foam concentrate in

building fires ranged from 0.2% to 1%. In the case of historic building fires, the use

of foam may be considered especially for the protection of adjacent buildings and

also for extinguishing the burning building more effectively (Fig. 10), [16]

Compressed Air Foam Systems (CAFS) are called high energy foam production

systems. In these systems, compressed air is injected into the foam solution at the

exit point. It produces turbulent foam produced by compressed air. The use of CAFS

has made foam suppression possible from further distances to the fire. It is especially

used for the protection of the buildings in the fire area in forest fires. It is considered

that it can be used in the protection of adjacent areas in historical buildings where

close building layout exists and in direct attack for effective extinguishing. However,

the CAFS have a higher cost for fire departments [17].

Fig. 10. Class A Foam Application [16]

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There are national and international regulations and standards about fire safety

measures and restoration works in historical buildings. In Turkey the buildings

assessed and registered as historic building are lawfully protected under the

provisions of “Code 2863 Protection of Cultural and Natural Heritage Law”. Also

Article 167/B of “The Regulation about Protection of Buildings from Fire” is related

to fire safety measures in historical buildings. According to Article 167/B;

a. Prior to any installation or restoration in historic buildings, the opinion and

approval of the “Council for the Protection of Cultural and Natural Property” should

be assured.

b. The protection of the historical value is number one priority in all type of

intervention about fire safety. Fire evacuation, detection and suppression system

projects by technical firms have to be prepared considering original physical and

visual characteristics of the historic structure and the opinions of local fire

departments should be seeked.

Section 10 provisions of above mentioned Regulation apply to all fire safety

measures in historic buildings unless otherwise provided in Article 167 / C of the

same regulation. According to Article 167/C;

1. The upper floors of a historic building of which the supporting columns and the

main beams are made of wood, cannot be used as inpatient health service, nursing

home, kindergarten, primary school and student residence.

2. In renovations or repairs within the historical structure, the same or similar

construction materials used in the construction of the original historic structure have

to be used.

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3. In historical buildings of which load bearing columns are made of wood, have

more than one floor, and open to the public, the main load bearing columns must be

must be insulated by restoration as they can resist to fire for at least 90 minutes.

4. In historic buildings fire escape halls are not obligatory provided that the fire

escape stairs are accessible through common spaces such as corridors, halls, and

lounges.

5. If the half of the stairs are enclosed and protected, regardless of the building

height, other unprotected exit stairs can be accepted as fire escape route, the escape

routes are considered as two-direction escape route and spiral stairs are permissible.

6. If the number of users on one floor exceeds 100 persons, the escape doors

should be replaced with a panic arm to open in the direction of the escape or an

officer shall be present during the use of the structure.

7. The electrical cables used in the wooden parts of the historical building must

have a minimum of 60 minutes of fire resistance and must be wired through the steel

pipe. It is imperative that buckets and crates are made of non-combustible material.

8. In wooden structures, flammable or combustible materials cannot be applied on

wood for protection or painting purposes.

9. In historical buildings, flammable, combustible or explosive substances are only

allowed provided that keeping them in a separated fire compartment.

10. Where there is no possibility of alteration or restoration of historical buildings,

the existing staircase can be considered as fire escape [18].

In USA, one of the significant legislations about protecting historic and cultural

heritage is NFPA 914 standard namely “Standard for Protection of Historical

Buildings-No. 914 issued by the National Fire Protection Agency.

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The objective of the NFPA 914 standard is to protect the original characteristics

of historical buildings and to ensure the safety of those residing in these buildings.

In order to achieve this goal, it is necessary to protect the building and historical

materials from the destructive effect of the fire and to protect the life of the people

living there. About life safety fire prevention measures, fire escape capabilities and

maintaining the structural integrity until the evacuation is carried out are crucial

issues [19].

According to NFPA 914, a protection plan should be prepared for the historic

structures placed in UNESCO World Heritage List considering following elements:

Providing administrative supervision on fire risk assessment, fire hazards

reduction and fire emergency planning.

Improved fire prevention measures which reduce combustible material

amount and ignition sources;

Suitable systems, such as structural fire barriers, fire detection and alarm

systems, automatic fire extinguishing systems and smoke evacuation that can limit

and control fire;

Emergency response plans about extinguishing, damage reduction and post-

fire operations considering large scale fires [19].

In NFPA 914 Annex S it is stated that historical areas and structures are important

not only for owners but also for many stakeholders. These stakeholders are as

follows:

1. Fire departments,

2. Residential district where historic buildings are,

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3. Chamber of Commerce,

4. Owners,

5. Tenants,

6. People living in the area,

7. Architects,

8. Officials in charge regarding the protection of historical values,

9. Zoning officers,

10. Insurance companies,

11. Fire safety Engineers,

12. Civil engineers,

13. Fire safety businesses.

In addition to structural measures for the protection of historic buildings from fire,

education, law enforcement, the use of new technologies, official awareness and

public cooperation in historic area are strategic for success at protecting historic and

cultural heritage.

In Chapter 11 of the NFPA 914 standard, the necessary measures and principles

to prevent fires in historic buildings are specified as follows:

Decorative materials intended to be used in special occasions in historic

buildings should be made of non-combustible or fire retardant treated material.

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Decorative materials should be at least 90 cm. far from possible sources of

ignition (lamps, radiators, electric heaters).

Hanging materials such as curtains must meet the performance criteria

according to NFPA 701.

Indoor doors should be kept closed during the building is not in use.

The attic space entrances should be closed at all times and storage at this area

should not be allowed.

Flammable materials shouldn’t be allowed in electrical and machinery

rooms.

Use of tools producing open flame (candles, oil lamps, fireplace etc.) must

be subject to inspection and approval.

Hot works producing sparks (welds, etc.) in buildings should only be carried

out after necessary and adequate measures have been taken.

The maintenance and condition of the chimneys must comply with NFPA

211 standard.

The chimneys to which the fireplaces are connected must be internally

coated, have spark stoppers and subject to regular inspection.

There should not be any power cable exposed throughout the building exit

routes.

The electrical wiring, materials and tools must comply with NFPA 70.

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Cables that are left in place but not actively used as a result of restoration or

renewal, should be labeled as “Unused Cable”.

Electrical systems in historical buildings must be protected by short circuit

fault switches.

If necessary, the use of mobile heaters may be prohibited in historical

buildings.

If commercial kitchens are in use, special measures must be taken for fire safety.

3. Fire detection and warning systems

Fire detection and warning system is composed of devices which are designed to

monitor and report fire indications and upon recognition activate notification

appliances to warn residents evacuate the building and others to take necessary

precautions. The fire alarm system can alert the residents by means of alarm sounds

or visually, as well as inform fire department or building management and activate

building systems in case of fire. Examples of building systems to be activated include

controlling elevators, keeping exit doors open on the escape path, smoke control in

the building, pressurization of the elevator shaft and stairwells.

Elapsed time between the start and realization of and reporting a fire is crucial in

terms of survival and fire damage. The fire alarm systems are designed to shorten

this time drastically and to activate the extinguishing systems when necessary.

There are three different types of signals generated by fire alarm control and

annunciator panels as indicated below:

a. Alarm signals; It indicates that there is a fire in the building, and the inhabitants

must leave the building immediately. Alarm signal sounds throughout the facility

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horns, bells or speakers. When the alarm signal is received, residents and first

responders must respond immediately.

b. Trouble signal; A signal that indicates a fault in the integrity of installed fire

alarm systems. Typical trouble signal sounds a constant tone, beep or buzz

accompanied by a visible light on the control or annunciator panel.

c. Supervisory signal: The supervisory signal indicates that other fire alarm

systems and devices operating in connection with the fire alarm system are not in

their normal (ready) status for operation and are similar in this respect to the trouble

signal.

Fire detection and warning systems are installed for ensuring the detection of a

fire as soon as possible to effectively control it and to prevent loss of life and

property. The warning systems operate by detecting one or more signs of the fire

smoke, heat and flame by three different types of detectors. Upon detection, fire

alarm systems activate linked sub-systems (extinguishing system, sirens, lights,

telephone lines etc.) by interpreting the fire alarm received from the detectors. The

main functions of fire detection and warning systems are informing, mobilizing

authorities and activating established automatic systems (Fig.11) [20].

The components of the fire alarm system are as follows:

a. Control Panel; It is considered as the brain of the system. The control panel

provides power to all devices in the system, monitors whether the system circuits

operate trouble-free, activates other existing fire protection and extinguishing

systems when necessary interpreting signals from the manual or automatic detection

devices. The power units are integrated in the control panels.

b. Initiating Devices; These devices sense manual or automatic alarm or

supervisory signals and transmit them to the control panel. Manually activation is

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carried out by a person who first become aware of a fire. Automatic activation takes

place upon detection of the combustion products by these devices. Automatic

initiating devices work with different operating principles such as thermal

sensitivity, detection of combustion products, radiant energy, water movement,

changes in air pressure or detection of signals from automatic extinguishing systems.

Fig. 11. Components of fire detection and warning systems, Beta system

engineering [20]

Most of the automatic alarm initiators are a type of fire detector. The purpose of

these detectors is to warn the residents and fire brigades by early detection of fire.

Automatic detectors are classified according to the fire sign they are designed to

detect. The four classes of fire detectors are;

1. Heat detectors,

2. Smoke detectors,

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3. Flame detectors

4. Gas detectors.

3.1. Heat detectors

Heat detectors operate either by detecting a predetermined fixed temperature or

specified rate of temperature change. They react slower than smoke detectors.

Because smoke can be detected without enough heat in the environment. However,

heat detectors are more reliable than smoke detectors and may be the ideal choice

for environments with difficult environmental conditions.

3.2. Smoke detectors

Smoke detectors operate by detecting smoke particles emanating from a fire.

Generally, smoke detectors activate sooner than the heat detectors in same fire

environment. This is why smoke detectors are life-saving devices.

Smoke detectors vary according to their working principles. The ionization smoke

detectors detect the fire using two electrically charged plates and a radioactive

material. When the smoke, as a fire product, enters the detector chamber, it activates

the alarm by reducing the amount of current between the plates (Fig. 12) [21].

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Fig. 12. Principle of operation of an ionization smoke detector, Mavili

electronics [21]

Smoke detectors operating on photoelectric basis work according to the smoke’s

effects as preventing or reflecting light in detector chamber (Fig.13) [22].

Fig.13. Operation principle of photoelectric smoke detectors, Mavili electronics

[22]

Air sampling smoke detectors sucks air from the protected environment and send

it to a chamber for evaluation to detect any fire sign. The alarm is activated if a fire

product is detected at predetermined levels. Smoke detectors are also installed in

ventilation ducts, especially in commercial enterprises, to activate building systems

associated with smoke control in case of fire.

3.3. Flame defectors

Flame detectors, also called radiant energy detectors, are devices for detecting the

visible and invisible light spectrum due to flames, embers and sparks. Flame

detectors are used in places where very fast and sensitive fire detection is important,

the level of danger is very high and remote detection of small fires is extremely

important. Among the examples of places flame detectors used are museums,

arsenals, textile factories, wood processing plants, aircraft hangars, oil processing

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facilities, storage and loading facilities, printing and dyeing facilities. Flame

detectors are identified by the part of the light spectrum they are designed to detect:

Ultraviolet (UV) detectors, infrared (IR) detectors or (UV/IR), (IR/IR) detectors.

3.4. Gas detectors

Gas detectors are used to protect high-risk areas by detecting certain or various

gases, toxic gases and vapors associated with hydrocarbons. They are used in open

sea oil and gas wells, petrochemical plants and gas turbines.

Fire detectors are classified according to hazard classes and scale as follows;

1. Point type detectors: Detectors that control a limited area.

2. Line type detectors: They provide protection along a straight line.

3. Air sampling type detectors; Detectors which take air samples from the

protected area and send it to another device to detect fire products.

Notification Appliances; Components of a fire alarm system, that produce audible

or visual warnings to ensure immediate evacuation or displacement of the residents,

as a result of the interpretation of signals sent after the fire is detected. These are

devices such as cymbals, whistles, speakers, sirens, electronic flashes and lamps.

The sound and light intensities of the warning notification appliances must be at

required levels by relevant laws and regulations [13].

4. Portable fire extinguishers

Portable extinguishers containing suitable extinguishing agents for the fire can be

used effectively in order to intervene in the incipient stage of a fire or where water

wouldn’t be effective. However, it should be kept in mind that wrong use of portable

extinguishers by untrained persons, and using an extinguisher with the wrong type

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of suppression agent can result in ineffective suppression, increase the severity of

the fire, delay first response of fire department and endanger the life of extinguisher

users and occupants. The portable extinguishers only contain a certain amount of

extinguishing agent. In the initial stages of fires, one or more portable extinguishers

can be used to extinguish the fire or prevent the fire spread. Fires can be prevented

in the initial phase if people are trained about the use of portable extinguishers.

One of the most important points about the use of portable extinguishers devices

is the amount and type of flammable material. According to the fire load and type

the right size and type of portable extinguisher can be selected. Portable fire

extinguishers are classified according to the classes of fires. Fire classes may vary

from country to country. For example, in the “Regulation on Fire Protection of

Buildings” in Turkey, classifies fires in four groups where Class A represents

ordinary combustibles, Class B flammable liquids, Class C flammable gases and

Class D flammable metal fires. In the US system, class B represents flammable liquid

and gas fires, class C live electric fires and class K represents oil fires in commercial

kitchens. As a result, mobile extinguishing devices are classified and labeled in

parallel with the fire classifications adopted in the laws and regulations of that

country. Users can easily understand what type of extinguisher they are about to use

and where to use them from the labels.

The rating of mobile extinguishing devices is also important. The rating is

considered about solid, liquid and gas fires. The rating is a coding that expresses the

extent to which a fire can be extinguished with a mobile extinguishing device. For

example, it is understood that 1 cubic feet of wood can be extinguished with a mobile

extinguishing device rated 1-A in the USA.

5. Types of fire extinguishers

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Portable fire extinguishers are classified into three categories according to their

working principles.

1. Pump extinguishers,

2. Stored Pressure Extinguishers,

3. Cartridge Pressure Extinguishers.

Pump extinguishers usually contain water. The devices are manually pressurized

by the user with a pump. Different models are used especially in forest fires.

In stored pressure extinguishers, the extinguishing agent and the pressurizing gas

are contained in the same tank. Air or nitrogen gas is generally used for

pressurization. There is an indication of whether the device has sufficient pressure.

Water, antifreeze, foam, dry or wet chemical, dry powder or halon are used as an

extinguishing agent in pressurized devices.

At cartridge pressure extinguishers, the gas used for pressure is stored in a separate

cartridge and not in the tank. When it is desired to use these devices, the cartridge

should be opened and the gas introduced into the tank. The maintenance and filling

of these devices is easier and more practical.

5.1. Extinguishing agents used in portable fire extinguishers

Commonly water, foam, carbon dioxide, dry chemical, wet chemical, dry powder,

halon and other clean gases are used as extinguishing agents in Mobile Extinguishing

Devices.

Water is a substance that can absorb the most heat from the fire environment

compared to other extinguishing agents. Although it is effective in Class A fires, it

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is not very effective in other classes and may pose some dangers if used in special

circumstances (live electrical fires and water reactive metal fires).

Foam can be used in Class A fires but is more effective in flammable liquid fires.

The nozzles of the portable extinguishing devices containing foam are special and

have the ability to absorb the air and form a foam. AFFF (Aqueous Film Forming

Foam) and FFFP (Film Forming Flor protein) foam concentrates are used in portable

extinguishers [13], (Fig.14) [23].

Fig.14. Portable fire extinguisher containing foam, Hedef fire and occupational

safety Inc. [23]

Carbon dioxide is an effective extinguisher in flammable liquid and gas fires but

is not very effective in Class A fires. It is in liquid form under high pressure in the

device. When applied, it is effective by reducing the oxygen level around the fire

and cooling. It should be used with caution because it may cause oxygen depletion

in confined spaces. These devices do not have tank pressure indicators. The weight

of the device shows whether it is full or not (Fig.15) [24].

Fig.15. Portable fire extinguisher containing carbon dioxide, Hedef fire and

occupational safety Inc. [24]

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Dry chemical powder is small solid particles that are propelled by a pressurized

gas. When applied, it prevents the chain reaction by reducing the oxygen level by

covering the burning material. It is not harmful or toxic to health. It does not react

with flammable liquids or gases and does not transmit electricity. When applied, it

limits visibility and may cause respiratory problems especially in confined spaces. It

leaves corrosive residue on the materials it is applied on and therefore damages

electronic devices. Dry chemical powders are divided into three basic classes. They

are sodium bicarbonate based powders, potassium based powders and multipurpose

powders. Sodium bicarbonate based chemical powders are used effectively in

flammable liquid, gas and electric fires. In case of intervention in commercial

kitchen fires, it cannot meet the required standards. It is produced in white and blue

colors in order to be separated from other powders. Potassium bicarbonate,

potassium chloride and urea-based potassium bicarbonate are more effective in fire

extinguishing. Produced in purple color. It is effective in flammable liquid, gas and

electric fires. Ammonium phosphate is an extinguishing agent which can be used for

many purposes. It effectively extinguishes solid, liquid and gas fires. It is produced

in yellow color [13], (Fig.16) [25].

Fig.16. Dry chemical portable fire extinguisher, Hedef fire and occupational

safety Inc. [25]

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Wet chemical extinguishing agent is used in commercial kitchen fires. Wet

chemicals are extinguishing agents containing potassium bicarbonate, potassium

acetate and potassium citrate in aqueous solution. When applied, it reacts with the

oils used in cooking and forms a foam blanket on the surface and extinguishes the

fire. The water in the solution helps the chemical substance to maintain its covering

properties by cooling.

Metal fires cannot be extinguished with water, because water reacts with these

metals to produce oxygen gas and intensifies the fire. Thus specific dry powder is

used for each metal fires. Metal fire extinguishing powder is generally applied by

means of shovels, not by spraying with portable extinguishing devices.

Although Halon is a more effective extinguishing agent than carbon dioxide, its

use is gradually decreasing due to environmental concerns. Halon gas does not leave

residue and is not conductive, but it is a substance that is toxic to some extent and

has negative effects on human health. However, Halon 1211 and 1301 are still in use

in fire extinguishment. In addition to Halon, new generation extinguishing agents

have been developed. These are called clean gases. They are not harmful to the

environment and are almost as effective as Halon. Clean gases are either halocarbon

or inert gas based extinguishing gases. Halocarbon based extinguishing agents

include hydrochlorofluorocarbons or hydrofluorocarbons. The inert gas-based

extinguishing agents contain argon, carbon dioxide and nitrogen in certain

proportions. Clean gases do not leave residues, are harmless to the environment and

do not conduct electricity [13].

5.2. Operating portable fire extinguishers

Operating portable fire extinguishers can be taught to everyone with a simple and

short training. However, in its operation there are very important points need to be

considered. First of all, since extinguishing devices contain a limited amount of

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extinguishing agent, their extinguishing ability is limited. For this reason, they can

only be effective in extinguishing fires in the initial phase. The use of more than one

extinguishing device at the same time is more effective than the individual use of the

devices. Another important point is that the fire response activity at the initial stage

should not delay the notification of the fire to the fire department. Failed and long-

lasting intervention efforts may delay the arrival of the fire brigade and lead to worse

results. Although it is important to select the appropriate mobile extinguishing device

according to the class of fire, this problem is often eliminated by means of multi-

purpose extinguishing agents. Users should be careful not to interfere and threat fire

escape routes by their actions. Users must be aware of the results of portable fire

extinguisher use in confined space. The use of the mobile extinguishing device

should not endanger the lives of other people in the fire compartment. Large fires

cannot be extinguished by portable extinguishers.

In the operating of portable extinguishers, after choosing the correct type, the

appropriate mode of action is as follows;

Pull the pin of the extinguisher,

Aim the nozzle,

Squeeze the handle,

Sweep the base of the fire.

Cartridge pressure extinguishers’ operation is slightly different than others. The

device does not activate by pulling the pin. To do this, the trigger that release the gas

into the cylinder must be activated. In operating fire extinguishers, the nozzle is

directed to the nearest fire point. The user must act in a way as keeping a continuous

escape route behind him/her. The user must keep a suitable distance between him/her

and the fire. The effective intervention distance is about 6 meters for water and foam

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extinguishers, 4.5-6 meters for dry chemical extinguishers and 3-4.5 meters for

carbon dioxide extinguishers. While operating carbon dioxide extinguishers, the

hose should be hold from designed handle. Otherwise, carbon dioxide may freeze

skin. Short blasts shouldn’t be repeated too many because it may result emptying the

extinguisher without extinguishing the fire. Appropriate angles and methods should

be used to apply the foam to cover the combustible material in the use of foam

extinguishers. When the user alone, if the fire couldn’t be extinguished with the first

portable extinguisher, notification of the fire department mustn’t be postponed

searching for new extinguishers [4].

The type and minimum number of portable extinguishing devices to be kept in

buildings are listed in Turkish laws and regulations according to the current and

possible conditions and risks in those places. Parallel to the classification of existing

fire risks, the types of extinguishing devices aredecided. In places such as hospitals

and kindergartens, aqueous and clean gas portable extinguishing devices should be

preferred.

For buildings classified as “Low Fire Hazard”, a 6 kg dry chemical extinguisher

or equivalent device is required for each 500 m2 area. The maximum distance to

reach the closest portable extinguishing device should be 25 meters. The height from

the ground of 4-12 kg. weighed portable extinguishers mustn’t exceed 90 cm.

The quality of mobile extinguishing equipment must be in compliance with the

relevant Turkish standards. Maintenance and control standards are explained

(Turkish Standards) TS ISO 11602-2. According to this standard, portable

extinguishers should be checked at least once a year and extinguishing agents should

be cleaned, refilled and hydrostatically tested once every four years [18].

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CHAPTER 6

EVACUATION

1.What is evacuation?

Throughout human history; When, where and in what form, fires which are not

known exactly, have caused a lot of life and property loss. Fire and property losses

experienced in fires directed institutions and organizations to make important studies

in this regard, a number of studies have been done to prevent the loss of life occurred

in fires. Fire evacuation comes at the beginning of these studies.

Fig.1. Evacuation sign

Fire evacuation; It is a fire escape action that starts with the assertion that the

security officer considers it necessary and concurrent with the intervention, and this

action plays a very important role in saving human life. Therefore, the best way to

evacuate is of great importance in terms of human life.

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Fig.2. A Historic building blaze

Today, a number of factors, such as intensive urbanization and building heights,

increase the importance of performing evacuation in a timely and coordinated way.

Preparing fire evacuation plans in buildings, taking evacuation measures in

buildings, making buildings suitable for evacuation, considering disabled individuals

in evacuation process, assigning evacuation teams and periodic training of these

persons, also performing fire and evacuation drills in buildings periodically, periodic

control of routes and elimination of deficiencies, etc. operations are important factors

for safe evacuation.

2. Evacuation methods

In order to better understand the evacuation process, we need to know the

evacuation methods first. There are 3 kinds of methods in fire evacuation. These

methods include:

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Fig.3. Evacuation methods

2.1. Vertical evacuation

Vertical evacuation is a method in which stairs are used to exit the building during

fire. In order for people to easily find the emergency exit points during the fire, the

exit passages such as corridors and stairs are marked with ın Exit nok signs in a way

that is easy to see. These signs are of great importance during evacuation. For this

reason, it is an important factor in terms of human life. It is of great importance that

the doors in the fire stairways are suitable for evacuation and that these doors are

never locked. In particular, opening these doors outward, the door handles are not

affected by the fire and should be able to use these arms easily. Moreover, the

arrangement of fire ladder widths depending on the number of people living or

working in the building is very important for evacuation.

2.2. Horizontal evacuation

Horizontal discharge is a method of evacuation, which moves away from the

dangerous area and moves to a safer place on the same floor. This type of evacuation

Evacuation Methods

Vertical Evacuation

Horizontal Evacuation

Stay in Place

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is a method used when the person cannot use the exit stairs to go outside and should

stay on a certain floor until the help comes. In this method, the person moves to a

safe distance from the dangerous area and waits at this point until arrival. The areas

where people can safely wait for horizontal evacuation should be determined in

advance and the measures necessary for access to these areas should be taken

beforehand. These areas should be selected in areas where people are not affected by

fire.

2.3. Stay in place

It is a method used when the person cannot use one of the horizontal and vertical

evacuation methods and cannot reach any place. In the event that a person cannot

move anywhere during a fire, he / she should wait in a place with an external window

and close the door if possible. If the person is able to communicate by telephone, he

/ she should call the fire department and tell him / her whereabouts. If it is not

possible to call, it should indicate the location by waving his hand with a visible rag

or other object from the outer window.

3. Evacuation plan

Fire evacuation is an action that starts with the fire safety supervisor deemed

necessary, and it is not known when this action will start. Therefore, we should

always be prepared for fire evacuation. One of the most important of these

preparations is the preparation of a fire evacuation plan. In order to ensure a safe

evacuation process in the event of a fire, a good fire evacuation plan must be made.

A good evacuation plan is the most important factor in the safe evacuation of the

building during the fire. The following considerations should be taken into account

when preparing a good evacuation plan.

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a. The current floor plan of the building to be evacuated is provided and it should

be determined how many people are on the plan and in which sections.

b. The exit points and directions on the buildings and floors and stairs and

emergency elevators should be shown on the plan.

c. Care should be taken to ensure that the evacuation directions are carried away

from places that are dangerous to human life.

d. In the evacuation plan, safe spots should be identified where people can safely

wait in the case of horizontal evacuation.

e. It should be calculated how many people will use the evacuation directions and

a reasonable balance should be sought between the evacuation directions and the

direction of exit.

f. Care should be taken to ensure that the discharge directions do not overlap.

g. In evacuation plans, the evacuation direction of the persons should be

determined in advance and announced to the personnel.

h. At least one collection area is determined in a safe and easily accessible place

outside the building.

i. For the evacuation of vehicles in buildings with a parking lot underneath it must

be included in this plan.

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Fig.4. A Sample evacuation plan for buildings

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After the evacuation plan has been prepared, an evacuation plan exercise is an

important factor to test the adequacy of the evacuation plan and determine the

deficiencies. Therefore, the practice of making evacuation plan;

- Whether the alarm is properly delivered,

- Evacuation times in the evacuation directions shown in the evacuation plan,

- The agglomeration situation of each evacuation direction,

- Access to the meeting point,

- Coordination between evacuation officers, tested.

Fig.5. A Sample evacuation practice from school building

After the evacuation exercise, defective and deficient directions are determined

and announced to the personnel and a record is prepared for the deficiencies and

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errors determined. This report is forwarded to the relevant authorities; These

missing and defective directions determined during evacuation drill are eliminated.

Fig.6. Fig.5. A sample evacuation practice from top the roof

Fig.7. A sample evacuation practice via fire ladder

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4. Establishment of the evacuation team

Evacuation of the fire evacuation in buildings must be determined in order to be

able to coordinate the evacuation. Today, fire evacuation teams are established in

buildings, but most of the time, the necessary care is not taken in the establishment

of the team. However, the role of the evacuation team is very important in fire

evacuation. Fire evacuation team should be trained and equipped to evacuate. It is

also important that the evacuation team is physically strong and cold-blooded.

The evacuation team consists of:

Fig.8. The evacuation team

1. Floor evacuation officer; According to the number of personnel on the floor,

enough personnel are assigned to leave the building securely on the floor, the number

of personnel working on the floor and the polling at the end of the evacuation are

transferred to the relevant personnel. Evacuation officers should know the issue of

evacuation very well. In addition, it is important to evacuate the person selected as

the person responsible for the evacuation of the floor. Because the hierarchical

structure is an important factor in taking the instructions given at the time of release

Evacuation Team

Floor Evacuation Officer

Floor Control Responsible

Persons with disabilities are responsible for

discharging

Convening District Officer

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seriously. The lack of authority and authority of the evacuation floor officers may

cause the instructions given at the time of the evacuation not to be taken seriously.

2. Floor control responsible; do final checks after the evacuation of the evacuation

floors and is responsible for confirming that smoothly completed. After completion

of evacuation on the floors, he checks that no one is left on the floor he is responsible

for. In particular, if there are people with disabilities on the floor, they check the

parts of these people. Times to be responsible for the work of the floor plan showing

the locations of persons with disabilities in the floors would further facilitate the

making of this plan is very important in terms of disability discharge and control.

3. Persons with disabilities are responsible for discharging; Persons with

disabilities are responsible for the evacuation of these persons. Persons with

disabilities are completely vulnerable during the evacuation. Therefore, they need

help with evacuation. Disabled individual evacuation officer helps them to evacuate

disabled individuals on the floor they are responsible for during evacuation. If the

number of persons with disabilities is high in the floors, enough evacuation officer

should be identified. In such a case, the den Responsible Friend en method will be

one of the best methods to use. On the floors where people with disabilities are more

than the people with disabilities, the group of responsible persons may be formed

under the leadership of the responsible person.

4. Convening District Officer; Personnel responsible for the security and

inspection of personnel in the gathering area after the evacuation. The person in

charge of the gathering area shall check the number of people in the gathering area

after the evacuation. For these checks, people working in the building must have

names lists. The members of the gathering area should update these lists periodically.

This list is important to check whether there are people in the building during the

fire. The representative of the gathering area should check whether there are any

injuries among the people who were collected in the area after the evacuation or if

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they need help. The area responsible for the assembly area should take the necessary

measures to ensure that persons do not leave the assembly area until the fire danger

has passed.

The competencies of the personnel assigned to fire evacuation should be evaluated

by conducting at least 2 exercises each year. As a result of the evaluation, the

personnel considered to be inadequate are replaced and replaced by other personnel.

5. Fire evacuation considerations

To ensure safe and trouble-free fire evacuation, the following must be observed:

a. All doors located at the exit points should be opened from the inside to the

outside and with panic arms, these doors should never be locked. Sliding or revolving

doors must not be used as emergency exit doors.

b. In order to prevent fire and explosions in the floors, the points to close the

electricity and natural gas systems should be determined.

c. Items of importance in buildings must be labeled according to their severity and

should be evacuated in order of priority.

d. Fire evacuation of buildings should be ensured that the direction signs and signs

are visible to everyone and illuminated in such a way that they can be seen in the

dark.

e. In case of fire evacuation, those who require special attention should be

identified and assigned for evacuation.

f. Persons in charge of fire evacuation should be selected from among physically

strong and cold-blooded persons, and regular evacuation training should be provided

to them.

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g. Evacuation plans should be placed on the floors so that they can be seen easily

by everyone and regular trainings should be given to the people involved in the

evacuation plan.

h. Fire evacuation drills should be done and deficiencies should be eliminated.

6. Things to consider at the time of evacuation

Fire evacuation is very important in terms of person safety and there are some

important rules for safe evacuation. Compliance with these rules will ensure that the

evacuation is done in a safe manner, saving human life. The most important issues

to be considered in fire evacuation are as follows:

a. Evacuation alarm is an important factor at the beginning of evacuation.

Therefore, fire alarms should be taken seriously and all activities should be stopped

and immediate evacuation should be started. Every second that will be lost in the

evacuation process carries a significant risk for human life.

b. The evacuation should be evacuated by acting according to the instructions

given by the building evacuation officers to ensure that the evacuation can be carried

out safely, without the occurrence of panic events and coordination.

c. Individuals with disabilities cannot move on their own and need help with

evacuation. If there are people in need of help with fire evacuation and if you are

helping them do not endanger your life safety, those who are in danger should be

helped.

d. Life safety is more important than goods. Do not return for personal items

during evacuation. Because every second you lose in evacuation will endanger your

safety.

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e. Sources such as electricity and natural gas are important factors in the

development of fire. Closing the valves of these resources plays a very important

role in preventing the growth of the fire. Therefore, during the fire, electrical

switches and natural gas valves etc. should be closed. If you do not compromise your

safety, switch off the electrical switches and the natural gas valves.

f. During the evacuation there may be a need for a number of benefits and this can

be vital to others. For this reason, emergency evacuation personnel should be assisted

in general evacuation.

g. During the evacuation, the elevators are very dangerous for life safety. In the

event that the elevator does not work for any reason, there is almost no chance of

getting rid of the people in the elevator. Therefore, no lift should be used for

evacuation unless it is part of the Emergency Evacuation Plan.

h. Evacuation areas are areas planned to be protected from fire hazard. During

evacuation, these evacuation areas should be visited and this area should be waited

until a fire hazard is reached.

i. In evacuation areas, it should be checked by the people in charge of the

evacuation area and it should be checked whether there are any persons inside the

building.

7. Considerations after evacuation

After the evacuation, the building should not be returned to the building because

of the possibility of danger in the building. The building must be entered after the

controls have been made and approved by the authorized person. If there is a

potential danger in the building, the building should be closed to prevent people from

entering.

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Fig.9. The burned building

Fig.10. The burned building

8. Evacuation of people with disabilities

It is estimated by the World Health Organization that more than one billion people

in the world have various obstacles, and this estimate is equivalent to 15% of the

world's population (World Disability Report, 2011).

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The European Disability Strategy (2010-2020) focuses on the elimination of

barriers. The Commission identified eight principal areas for action: Accessibility,

Participation, Equality, Employment, Education and training, Social protection,

Health and External Action. The main activities for each area were identified and the

overall objective at EU level was highlighted within the framework.

One of the rights guaranteed by the United Nations Convention on the Rights of

Persons with Disabilities under the heading “Risk situations and humanitarian

emergencies is as follows:

ARTICLE 11: States Parties shall take all necessary measures to fulfill their

obligations under international law, including humanitarian law and international

human rights law, to ensure the protection and security of persons with disabilities

in cases of armed conflict, humanitarian emergencies and natural disasters.

The fact that people with disabilities are fully vulnerable to fire causes them to be

affected more and more lives are lost in fire disaster. For this reason, it is necessary

to act more sensitive in evacuation of disabled individuals and to develop effective

strategies for evacuation.

Fig.11. Classification of people with disabilities

People with disabilities

Mentally handicapped

Physically Handicapped

Visually ImpairedAuditory

handicapped

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People with disabilities;

a. Mentally handicapped

b. Physically Handicapped

c. Visually Impaired

d. Auditory handicapped

As divided into four main groups. Disability affects people's normal lives and

makes them dependent on other people in their daily lives. As disability affects their

daily lives negatively, any danger such as fire immediately risks their lives more than

normal people. It is a known fact that the evacuation of the building will become

more difficult if there is a fire in the building where there is a disabled person.

Disability of persons with disabilities at the time of fire changes according to

disability status. The evacuation of visually impaired individuals differs according

to each other. During the evacuation, a visually impaired person can be assisted by

an audible warning system, and this warning system cannot be said to assist a hearing

impaired person. For this reason, different methods and tools should be used in the

evacuation of disabled individuals depending on the disability situation.

8.1. Evacuation of the mentally handicapped

Mental disability is the state of being behind the normal in mental functions and

lack of behaviour. Although mentally disabled individuals are behind the normal in

mental functions, they are aware of a fire and react according to the mental disability

situation since there is no problem in their senses of sensation and smell. Individuals

with mild mental disabilities can protect themselves from the fire, but those who are

advanced can only be discharged from the fire with the help of a companion.

8.2. Discharge of physically disabled persons

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Physical disability; muscles, skeletal and joint disorders, due to illness and

incompetence, people with limited mobility. It is important to have an evacuation

elevator for the evacuation of persons with physical disabilities in tall buildings.

However, these evacuation elevators must be resistant to fire and smoke and have to

take their energy from an independent line (emergency energy system etc.). Because

the disabled evacuation elevators should not be affected by the power failure during

the fire. In buildings, fire stairs must be suitable for the evacuation of persons with

physical disabilities. Individuals with physical disabilities should be able to use the

fire escape stairs in a comfortable manner. In cases where physically disabled

individuals work, they should be assigned as substitute and subordinates.

Accompanying persons should provide priority to the evacuation of persons with

physical disabilities at the time of evacuation. If persons with physical disabilities

are able to use their hands, natural gas valves and electrical switches should be within

their reach.

8.3. Evacuation of the visually impaired

Visually impaired individuals are those who have lost their vision. It is almost

impossible for these individuals to be successful on their own in the evacuation

process. It is the most accurate movement that the visually impaired individuals will

shout loudly during the fire, inform their place and reach out to the ground and wait

for help. The presence of warning buttons in the places where the visually impaired

individuals are located is important in terms of understanding the situation of these

people during the fire and expecting help. The signal from the warning button must

be seen in the building where the fire officer is located or in an emergency control

room. In this way, people who see the warning light will go to the place where the

visually impaired person will be released. However, the use of responsible friends in

evacuation of visually impaired individuals will be more effective and successful.

For this reason, the allocation of companions as a noble and substitute for the visually

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impaired is very important in their evacuation during any fire. In addition, the use of

vehicles (light warning devices, radio, telephone, etc.) to facilitate communication

between the visually impaired and the accompanying persons will facilitate the

evacuation.

8.4. Evacuation of the hearing impaired

Hearing impaired individuals are those who cannot use their hearing senses

adequately. Hearing impaired individuals have the ability to see and act, so they can

act on their own and protect themselves from fire evacuation. During a fire first

smell, then smoke and then flame is noticed. Therefore, hearing-impaired individuals

may be aware of the fire. However, it is important in terms of evacuation of these

people as soon as possible during the fire. For this reason, light warning systems for

fire should be installed and equipped with early warning automatic detection systems

in the environments where hearing impaired individuals work or live.

The most commonly used methods for evacuation of disabled individuals are as

follows:

a. Responsible friends: The responsible friend method is the safest method for

people with disabilities who cannot move on their own and who need a companion

at the evacuation. Today, many businesses use this method. Visually impaired

people, people with extreme mental disabilities and individuals with physical

disabilities who cannot move on their own, require accompanying persons in fire

evacuation. The evacuation of these people should be done with responsible friends.

In the method of responsible friends, at least one principal and 1 substitute friend are

assigned to the disabled persons according to their disability. The number of friends

responsible for disability may increase. It is important to be sensitive in choosing a

responsible friend. For example, people who are responsible friends should be

educated, cool and able to intervene immediately. Because people who are educated

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and cold-blooded are more likely to motivate the disabled person during the

evacuation and ensure that the disabled person does not panic. In addition, it is

important to choose the responsible friends according to the persons to be evacuated.

For example, the physical strength of the responsible friends to be assigned to the

evacuation of physically disabled individuals will facilitate the evacuation process.

b. Disabled evacuation lifts method: Disabled evacuation elevators are specially

equipped elevators which can be safely used for evacuation during fire. Such

elevators are protected against fire, heat, smoke, water damage and power failure.

There are also fire-resistant and smoke-resistant doors. These elevators should be

used primarily for people with physical disabilities who cannot walk. The fire

evacuation ladders are safer for people with visual, hearing and mental disabilities

as they can use the fire escape stairs.

c. Disabled asylum areas method: Disabled asylum areas are one of the most

commonly used fire safety measures in large buildings with disabled people. In this

method, disabled individuals are taken to asylum areas and then taken from there.

Areas of disability are areas made of fire-resistant materials. The doors of these areas

are made to prevent the passing of both fire and smoke. In addition, these areas have

connections with the evacuation route.

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CHAPTER 7

COOPERATION WITH EMERGENCY ORGANIZATIONS

1. Introduction

1.1. Chapter composition

In this Chapter the various of emergency management agencies in Denmark will

be presented. The first part of the chapter is focusing on, how the individual agencies

are organized and structured. This part of the chapter will also provide information

on, how the individual organization interact and cooperate with other agencies.

The second part of the chapter will provide information on, how the Emergency

Management Centre is structured, and how a caller will be transferred to the relevant

emergency agency.

1.1.2. Learning outcomes

The Goal of this chapter is to provide an overall understanding of the complexity

represented in the mentioned organizations by them self, and to insure a transparency

of how the system works, when multiple organizations and key persons from

different authorities are working together to manage an emergency or incident.

1.2. General information

The chapter is built on the Danish Guidelines for Emergency Management

published in March 2018. Danish title: Retningslinjer for Indsatsledelse Marts 2018

[1].

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This publication is reviewed and reprinted with the newest information when et

make sense due to new knowledge, research and need. This way the line of

publications insures that the operative personal, as well as the management, has the

newest, and most updated information on how to resolve an emergency at any scale.

1.3. The Combined force of the emergency agencies

Incident management is necessary when an emergency occur, and people or

property are in jeopardy. To handle these situations, different guidelines and

principles are to make the cooperation optimal. One thing important to agree on, is

how to define the area of the incident.

To define this, the guidelines are flexible, in meaning, to fit either emergency

agency, but still describe similar situations.

The guideline uses tree primary terms: Incident Area, Damage Area and Danger

Area.

The Incident Area is the hole area where the emergency agencies are operating

during an incident.

The Damage Area is the concrete area ore location, where the emergency is

specific located.

The Danger Area is the specific area where harm can still come to persons

operating in this area.

With these terms, the emergency agencies have these following principles to

insure best opportunity for a cooperation and a flow of information and good

communication.

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Principles

Sector responsibility principle

This Principle implies that the authority or organization who is responsible for an

area under normal conditions, also is responsible for the preventive, preparatory and

remedial emergency preparedness for extraordinary events.

The principle of equality

This Principle operates with the concept of equality correlating between the

incident and the one or several emergency organizations handling the incident. The

Goal of the principle is to insure the balance between the incident and the resources

the organizations allocate.

The subsidiarity principle

Suggests that an incident or any emergency task is handled and solved, as close

to the citizen as possible, in an organizational understanding, to keep the complexity

and the relevant organizational level as low as possible. [2]

Action principle

This principle is to insure, that in situations with either unclear or incomplete

information, it is appropriate to set the emergency level a little higher. At the same

time, a quick downscaling of the emergency level, should be possible, not to waste

resources.

The principle of cooperation

Is about insuring that the government and other key persons has the responsibility

to corporate and coordinate with other authorities and organizations.

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The above principles are based on the authorities' duty to act in situations where

one Emergency response is required, including the ability to deviate from standard

procedures to ensure sufficient vigor and progress in the effort.

The response management has the competence and the obligation to deviate from

standard procedures if special circumstances make it necessary. If necessary, it is

important that this is communicated to all emergency responders at all relevant

levels.

The emergency response actors also follow several common principles on

effective and prioritized use of resources, timely reactions, etc. Each authority is also

responsible for coordinating with the rest of the emergency preparedness authorities,

etc., in relation to incidents that affect broadly, and incidents, which are more

specific to their area. The coordination obligation applies to both relation to superior,

secondary and subordinate authorities and others.

Handling larger or more complex events requires consideration of how an

authority relates from the moment it is acknowledged to have occurred or is likely

to occur that requires senior management and an active effort by the authority. This

means that the authorities must have taken a position on the basics in advance

conditions such as management, division of responsibilities, notification routines,

crisis communication, coordination, right of disposal for major unexpected

expenses, cooperation agreements etc. At the same time, authorities and other

emergency actors must make clear to what extent they is expected to be included in

cross-cutting crisis management forums (at local / regional or at national level) and

how they ensure their capacity is present. The authorities' crisis management

organization must reflect the risks that society faces.

2. Police

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2.1. Responsibility and organization

The National Police Chief has the overall responsibility for performing the

police's tasks throughout the country under the responsibility of the Minister of

Justice. The national police function as the superior

board of the Danish police, while the daily police work is basically taken care of

police districts. Denmark is divided into 12 police districts, each headed by a police

director.

2.1.1. Strategic level

The Police law (the Law on Police Activities) contains the general provisions on

police duties. It is clear from this, among other things, that it is the police's task to

prevent and prevent the danger of disturbing public peace and order, as well as the

danger to individuals and public security, and that it is the task of the police to

prevent criminal offenses and terminate criminal activity and investigate and pursue

offenses.

2.1.2. The police districts

The chief of police coordinates the overall effort on major injuries. The

coordinating management means that the police must ensure that all functions inside

and outside the incident are coordinated in such a way that the overall effort takes

place as efficiently as possible. In addition, the police's tasks are to ensure that the

other emergency personnel can work undisturbed. At the same time, the police carry

out the police investigation focus area.

The coordinating management comes after the police decision in case of incidents,

requiring action by several authorities, and it is going from a possible planning and

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preparation phase through the intervention phase until the function ends with

reduced emergency preparedness when the actual recovery and reconstruction phase

occurs.

2.1.3. Police efforts

2.1.3.1. Coordination of the overall effort

Incident commander police is responsible for ensuring that the overall effort is

coordinated according to the Chief of Police's overall priorities and decisions.

In case of major incidents - or after a concrete assessment - a police officer is sent

the right educational competencies for the site as Incident commander police. Until

Incident commander police arrives at the action area, the best qualified policeman

works the place as the police leader.

Exceptionally and in the case of minor incidents, it is the best qualified policeman

in first car on the spot that acts as the police leader.

In connection with major events, Incident commander police creates a command

post (KST) in the focus area from which the overall effort in the area of action is

coordinated.

Incident commander police is responsible for coordinating the overall efforts in

the field of intervention.

Prepare and initiate any evacuation in collaboration with the Incident

commander from the fire department,

Consider the need for division of the effort area in case of multiple injury

sites,

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Assess - in cooperation with Incident commander from the fire department -

whether an area can be threatened (new danger area if the wind turns),

Determine and secure roads and ambulance routes within the area of

intervention,

Establish a possible helicopter landing site,

Designate KST leader and radio / logman,

Determine times for meeting / contact with Incident commander from the fire

department, Incident commander of the prehospital units and other relevant

managers,

Delegate the managerial functions in case of major incidents at the catchment

area, collection site, etc.

Make necessary guarding and shutdown (inner and outer), including securing

Possibly. valuables,

Submit situation reports to the command station (KSN),

Provide assistance for all actors,

Coordinate access for the press in the area of intervention,

Consider the need for the establishment of an evacuation and relatives centre

(EPC) in cooperation with the municipal crisis staff (via Incident commander from

the fire department), the region's health preparedness or KSN,

Ensure the necessary documentation, eg. in the form of photo / video

recordings and

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Coordinate logistical measures in the form of catering and toilet facilities for

deployed personnel.

3. Fire & Rescue

3.1. Tasks

The primary objective for the local fire and rescue service, is to provide

emergency management, whenever injury occurs on people, property or the

enjoinment, when an accident or catastrophe occurs. With this, also during terror

and war.

The tasks of the municipal rescue services. As mentioned, the municipal

emergency preparedness must be able to make a effort against injuries to persons,

property and the environment through accidents and disasters, including acts of

terror and war.

The municipal emergency preparedness must thus be able to be deployed against

accidents such as e.g. fires and explosion accidents, crash accidents, train accidents,

aircraft accidents, ship accidents at quays, natural disasters and accidents that can

cause spills and spread in the environment of hazardous substances (CBRNE events)

on land, in lakes, in streams and in ports. The municipal emergency preparedness

must also be able to be deployed in connection with release of jammed at traffic

accidents. Furthermore, the municipal rescue services must be able to receive,

accommodate and nursing evacuated and other distressed.

Rescue tasks in lakes, marshes, streams and harbours are also part of the tasks for

it municipal emergency preparedness. The Emergency Response Act does not

require that the municipal rescue preparedness must be able to solve rescue tasks

that entail the creation of a municipal diving preparedness. However, each municipal

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council may decide to establish such a diving preparedness, which will then be

covered by them requirements for diving work.

3.1.1. Technical management of the incident

The incident manager will be responsible for insuring the operation. Is the incident

manager not on scene a team leader with sufficient education will be managing the

incident. It will be the team leader’s responsibility to advice and request an incident

manager, when and if, it is necessary.

If the complexity or the scale of the emergency is at a level, where the one fire

brigade, is not possible to handle the emergency, it falls to the incident manager to

request assistance from additional fire and rescue services, or from the DEMA, the

Danish Emergency Management Agency, with will be described later in this chapter.

4. Public health agency (EMS/EMT etc.)

4.1. In general

The health care system includes the hospital emergency services, the pre-hospital

effort, the drug preparedness and the preparedness in the primary health sector.

Preparedness on the hospitals and pre-hospital work belong to the regions. Both

regions and municipalities have tasks in connection with preparedness in the primary

health sector and drug preparedness. Psychosocial efforts (social assistance, crisis

support and crisis therapy) and preparedness for efforts in connection with CBRNE

events are professional sub-elements in the health care system.

The National Board of Health is the sector responsible for the health care and is

one board of the Ministry of Health and the Elderly Ministry. At major extraordinary

events The National Board of Health also handles the national coordination of the

entire health service's efforts and decides on the overall handling of the incident. The

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National Board of Health advises and advises regions and municipalities on planning

health care. The National Board of Health can also advise on health care in a concrete

situation and eg. lay down rules for specific handling of infectious diseases.

The pre-hospital effort is the health professional's efforts towards acutely ill,

injured and giving birth before arriving at a hospital. This effort aims to Save lives,

improve health prospects, reduce pain and other symptoms, shorten the overall

disease course and provide care and create security.

4.2. Regional Emergency Medical Services

The region's main tasks in connection with emergency response efforts are to:

Ensure an unambiguous approach to health care through the region's

Emergency Medical Coordination Centre (AMK),

Activate the rest of the health preparedness, including the pre-hospital

effort, the hospital emergency and the region's crisis staff,

Alert Incident commander from the prehospital department,

Dispatch ambulances, emergency vehicles, emergency vehicles, emergency

doctor helicopter and other health professionals and equipment,

Handle triage, treatment and visitation,

Be able to receive a large number of sick or injured patients on the regions

hospitals

Inform and coordinate with neighbouring regions and municipalities in the

region;

Expand the capacity of the hospitals, possibly. by extraordinary printing of

patients

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Activate the psychosocial efforts (crisis support and crisis therapy

preparedness).

AMK is responsible for the operational management and coordination of the

overall health professional efforts in the region. The region (often represented by

AMK) is a permanent member of the local emergency services (LBS) and can, after

a concrete assessment, be included in both strategic and operational level.

Incident commander from the prehospital department is in charge of the overall

pre-hospital effort in the area of intervention and is part of the interdisciplinary

interventional management together with Incident commander from the Police

department and Incident commander from the fire department. Incident commander

from the prehospital department also collaborates with the doctor from the Danish

Agency for Patient Safety if this is called for the intervention area.

5. DEMA

Fig.1. DEMA logo

5.1. The regional emergency Service (DEMA) [3]

The Danish Emergency Management Agency (DEMA) is by law to assist the

municipality Fire & Rescue Service whenever an emergency unfolds to be at a larger

scale then expected, takes more time than expected or requires special materials. [4]

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DEMA does not only assist the local Fire & Rescue Services. DEMA also provide

assistance to a number of government branches like the department of health, The

Treasury, The Immigration Office, Danish Veterinary and Food Administration and

more.

DEMA is located throughout the country in various positions, making it possible

to reach almost every part of the country, with support forces, within an hour. The

centres are manned and will send off the first group in the first five minutes after

receiving the alarm.

Fig.2. DEMA facilities in Denmark [3]

DEMA houses to expert branches in emergency handling of chemical and nuclear

incidents. Whit this DEMA also have the capability of handling decontamination of

other branches.

In case of a large-scale emergency DEMA has a special USAR team (Urban

Search and Rescue) to handle rescue of people in these emergencies

6. Incident task management

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6.1. Emergency call centre

The Emergency call centre in Denmark, is parted in to three centres located in the

proximity of the Capital, where the Fire and Rescue Service mans the Centre. The

other two Centres are manned by police. After receiving the alarm call, the caller is

transferred to the branch relevant to their emergency. This is either Fire & Rescue,

Ambulance service, or Police.

When calling 1-1-2 the answer will usually be followed by these four questions.

What have happened?

Do you require Police, Ambulance or Fire & Rescue?

What number are you calling from?

What municipality are you calling from?

These questions will help the Emergency Call Centre transferring you to the

correct Dispatch Centre [5].

Fig. 3. Danish emergency call centre [6]

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6.1.1. Dispatch center (Police / Fire & Rescue / AMK)

The Dispatch center is where the call is managed, and from where the response is

dispatched. This is where the Dispatcher has an overview of, witch forces are

available where, and can support the teams on the task, if it is supplying additional

information to the ambulance in route, updates to police about the whereabouts of a

perpetrator fleeing a crime scene or organizing and calling in additional manpower

on a fire emergency.

Fig. 4. Dispatch central [7]

The Dispatch Centers receiving the emergency caller from the Emergency Call

Centre, only have the task of handling the one of the emergency branches. Which

underlines the importance of good communication and cooperation in between the

operators, and teams at the emergency.

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6.2. Summary

The system is already cooperating in a way that insures that larger incidents

will be handled by multiple agencies. As Police often will be presented at a

scene where fire & rescue or ambulance service is working on larger incidents.

The different emergency agencies have a structure allowing easy

cooperation and an interpretation on an emergency, using an aligned

vocabulary to insure cross-agency understanding.

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Fig. 5. Action area at everyday events

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Fig. 6. Incident area at major events

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CHAPTER 8

LAWS, REGULATIONS AND STANDARDS ABOUT

PROTECTING CULTURAL AND HISTORICAL SITES

1. Introduction

Europe’s and Turkey cultural heritage, both tangible and intangible, are our

common wealth – our inheritance from previous generations of

Europeans/Turks and our legacy for those to come. It is an irreplaceable

repository of knowledge and a valuable resource for economic growth,

employment and social cohesion. It enriches the individual lives of hundreds

of millions of people, is a source of inspiration for thinkers and artists, and a

driver for our cultural and creative industries. Our cultural heritage and the way

we preserve and valorize it is a major factor in defining Europe and Turkey's

place in the world and its attractiveness as a place to live, work, and visit.

Cultural heritage teach us about the history that happened before we were

born and promotes the respect for those who lived in different times and

different societies. Cultural heritage enriches the individual lives of citizens, is

a driving force for the cultural and creative sectors, and plays a role in creating

and enhancing Europe's and Turkey’s social capital. For France is known for

the Eiffel tower, for Italy the Historic Centre of Siena, Turkey for the Sultan

Ahmet or Ayasofya Mosques, Ephesus, Divriği Great Mosque and Hospital

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and Safranbolu and etc. Historical structures bring character and certain charm

to the neighborhood that people live in.

Historical buildings reflect the state of the art at the time of their

construction. Materials were used that are often viewed critically today with

regard to fire safety. The biggest challenge is to ensure optimal fire protection

of the building structure and the interior (stucco, ceiling and wall paintings,

paneling, furniture and chandeliers) as well as the historical artifacts inside a

building, without affecting their aesthetic value and historical integrity. Fire

safety in all buildings is a critical topic, but fire protection in historical

buildings is also of great cultural importance. Fire and the consequential

damage can result in monetary losses that run into the tens of millions of Euros

and the loss of irreplaceable historical artifacts. Restoring these damaged

buildings and items can be very costly and sometimes impossible.

Along with, protecting these cultures requires a joint effort and these cultures

are accepts as an inheritance of all mankind with universal value (Because these

heritages carry to next generations via people and their cultures). In order to

advertising these cultural values and creating social consciousness,

“Convention Concerning the Protection of the World Culture and Natural

Heritage” was accepted by UNESCO at 16 November 1972.

Natural formations, monuments and sites gain the world heritage status. In

addition, they should be have an international important. Gain of this status

require to some processing. First of all, this process starts with application to

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UNESCO by member state. This Process ends that after examined by

International Council on Monuments and Sites (ICOMOS) and International

Union for Conservation of Nature (IUCN). But, final judgement gives by

World Heritage Committee.

As of today at UNESCO’s list, there are 1092 cultural and natural assets that

have a characteristic 845 cultural, 209 natural, 38 mixed (cultural / natural).

These cultures and naturals assets have increasing after “World Heritage

Committee” meetings day by day [1]. So there are many laws and regulations

about protecting cultural and historical sites and these regulations are

recommended by the European Union or their countries.

Generally, objectives, aims and means of UNESCO as following [2].

preserves 1073 World Heritage sites in 167 countries

coordinates Tsunami early warning systems all over the globe

leads global efforts to reach quality education for all

led the reconstruction of the Mausoleums in Timbuktu

launched the SESAME world-class research laboratory in the Middle East

stands up for freedom of expression and condemns the killing of journalists

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published General Histories of Humanity, Africa, Asia, Islamic Culture, the

Caribbean…

195 Member States, 11 Associate Members, 11 000 Associated Schools…

177 State Parties to the Intangible Heritage Convention

builds Youth networks across 9 Mediterranean countries

designated sites represent 10 million km2, equivalent to the size of China

2. Ethical principles

Complementary to the 2003 Convention for the Safeguarding of the

Intangible Cultural Heritage, the Operational Directives for the Implementation

of the Convention and national legislative frameworks, these Ethical Principles

are intended to serve as basis for the development of specific codes of ethics

and tools adapted to local and sectoral conditions [3].

Communities, groups and, where applicable, individuals should have the

primary role in safeguarding their own intangible cultural heritage.

The right of communities, groups and, where applicable, individuals to

continue the practices, representations, expressions, knowledge and skills

necessary to ensure the viability of the intangible cultural heritage should be

recognized and respected.

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Mutual respect as well as a respect for and mutual appreciation of intangible

cultural heritage, should prevail in interactions between States and between

communities, groups and, where applicable, individuals.

All interactions with the communities, groups and, where applicable,

individuals who create, safeguard, maintain and transmit intangible cultural

heritage should be characterized by transparent collaboration, dialogue,

negotiation and consultation, and contingent upon their free, prior, sustained

and informed consent.

Access of communities, groups and individuals to the instruments, objects,

artefacts, cultural and natural spaces and places of memory whose existence is

necessary for expressing the intangible cultural heritage should be ensured,

including in situations of armed conflict. Customary practices governing access

to intangible cultural heritage should be fully respected, even where these may

limit broader public access.

Each community, group or individual should assess the value of its own

intangible cultural heritage and this intangible cultural heritage should not be

subject to external judgements of value or worth.

The communities, groups and individuals who create intangible cultural

heritage should benefit from the protection of the moral and material interests

resulting from such heritage, and particularly from its use, research,

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documentation, promotion or adaptation by members of the communities or

others.

The dynamic and living nature of intangible cultural heritage should be

continuously respected. Authenticity and exclusivity should not constitute

concerns and obstacles in the safeguarding of intangible cultural heritage.

Communities, groups, local, national and transnational organizations and

individuals should carefully assess the direct and indirect, short-term and long-

term, potential and definitive impact of any action that may affect the viability

of intangible cultural heritage or the communities who practice it.

Communities, groups and, where applicable, individuals should play a

significant role in determining what constitutes threats to their intangible

cultural heritage including the decontextualization, commodification and

misrepresentation of it and in deciding how to prevent and mitigate such

threats.

Cultural diversity and the identities of communities, groups and individuals

should be fully respected. In the respect of values recognized by communities,

groups and individuals and sensitivity to cultural norms, specific attention to

gender equality, youth involvement and respect for ethnic identities should be

included in the design and implementation of safeguarding measures.

The safeguarding of intangible cultural heritage is of general interest to

humanity and should therefore be undertaken through cooperation among

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bilateral, sub regional, regional and international parties; nevertheless,

communities, groups and, where applicable, individuals should never be

alienated from their own intangible cultural heritage.

3. Instructions and covenants (treaties)

3.1. Construction Products Regulation for Fire Safety in Buildings (Electric

Cables) (CPR)

3.1.1. Aim

CPR is the regulation that establishes a common language in the European

market related to performance declarations of all power, control and

communication cables used in constructions and CE marking standards in EU

countries.

Fig. 1. CPR burn rate classification [4]

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The aim of the CPR is to establish the procedures and principles for the

presentation of the building materials to the market and the establishment of

the rules for the affixing of the CE marking to the performance declarations

and the basic characteristics of building materials and to establish a reliable

source of information on the performances of building materials.

CPR deals with the reaction of the cables to fire and their fire resistances,

and it brings forth rules. These rules are explained in the safety document in

case of fire.

Fig. 2. CE Marking of cables [5]

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3.1.2. Scope

CPR brings different obligations to manufacturers, regulatory and

supervisory agencies, as well as project firms, contractors, engineers or

architects.

to establish the rules of performance statements related to the basic

characteristics of building materials.

to establish the rules of affixing CE marking to materials.

to determine the procedures and principles regarding placing on the market

of building materials,

to provide a reliable information source on the performance of building

materials.

Fig. 3. Classifications of cable under CPR [6].

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3.2. European Commission Application Statute dated 2 May 2014 and (EU)

447/2014.

3.2.1. Aim

According to the Article 13 of this Regulation, contracts and its annexes

made by the beneficiary of IPA II cannot benefit from the financing under

Regulation No 231/2014 by EU unless the relevant financing agreement has

been concluded.

3.2.2. Scope

The following expenditures are not eligible for financing under Regulation

(EC) No 231/2014: the purchase of land and existing premises, except in cases

where the financing decision is legitimate due to nature of the action.

4. Directives

4.1. EU Construction products directive – 89/106/EEC

4.1.1. Aim

The directive is now replaced by Regulation (EU) No 305/2011. The

directive was replaced in order to simplify and clarify the existing framework,

and improve the transparency and the effectiveness of the existing measures.

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Fig. 4. EU Construction products directive [7]

4.1.2. Scope

It sought to ensure the free movement of all construction products within the

European Union by harmonizing national laws with respect to the essential

requirements applicable to these products in terms of health and safety.

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An additional objective of the directive was to "standardize the

manufacturing of construction products and guarantee the unlimited use of

these products within the EU.

4.1.3. Field of implementation

The directive was used as Construction Products Regulation. With the

conformity to this EU regulation, building products were entitled to freely

move within the European Union with CE logo. The European Union Building

Materials Directive was replaced by the Building Material Regulation in April

2011.

5. Standards

5.1. EN 5075

The EN 50575 standard specifies the requirements for fire response

performance of the "power, control and communication" cables used in

buildings and infrastructures and tests related to these requirements and criteria

for conformity assessments. It requires the declaration of fire performance and

CE marking of the cables used in the construction.

EN 50575 Standard specifies reaction to fire performance requirements, test

and assessment methods for electric cables used for the supply of electricity

and for control and communication purposes, which are intended for use in

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construction works and subject to performance requirements on reaction to

fire.

5.2. EN 50399

The EN 50399 standard describes in detail the test methods, mechanisms,

calibration of the mechanisms, the application of the tests and the reporting of

the results to ensure that the fire response performances can be measured so

that the cables within the scope of CPR can be classified according to European

Classifications.

5.3. NFPA 909

NFPA 914 (Code for Fire Protection of Historic Structures) and NFPA 909

(Code of the Protection of Cultural Resource Properties-Museums, Libraries

and Place of Worship) are the most important fire codes that compile the results

according to past experience.

NFPA 909 is a guideline that sets out the minimum requirements for the

preservation of historical and cultural structures, such as museums, libraries,

places of worship. NFPA 909 allows building users and owners to apply their

own needs and wishes to a building or part of a building depending on the use

of the building. NFPA 909 also allows owners not to comply with NFPA 909

provisions in cultural properties and historic buildings in specified conditions.

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5.4. EN 13501-6

Fire classification of construction products and building elements.

Classification using data obtained from reaction to fire tests on electric cables.

5.5. EN 60332-1-2

Test methods on electric and optical fiber cables under fire conditions. Part

1-2: Test for vertical flame propagation for a single insulated wire or cable.

Procedure for 1 kW premixed flame.

5.6. EN 61034-2

Measurement of smoke density of electric cables burning under defined

conditions.

5.7. EN 60754-2

Tests on gases evolved during combustion of materials from cables.

Determination of acidity (by pH measurement) and conductivity.

5.8. EN 13501

The aim of this European Standard is to define a harmonized procedure for

the classification of roofs/roof coverings exposed to external fire.

For the purposes of this European Standard, the terms and definitions given

in EN ISO 13943:2000, and the roof material and apply [8].

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5.8.1. Roof

Covering and sealing system, including any insulating layers or vapour

barriers normally provided together with their supporting elements including

attachment (glued, mechanically fastened etc.), and roof lights or other closures

for roof apertures that are intended to provide a weatherproof surface.

5.8.2. Material

Basic single substance or uniformly dispersed mixture of substances (e.g.

metal, stone, wood, bitumen, concrete, mineral wool).

6. Agreements and conventions

6.1. Convention for the protection of the architectural heritage of Europe

(3.10.1985)

The adoption of the Convention was both a consecration and a new

beginning - a consecration because it marked twenty years of European co-

operation on architectural heritage and a new beginning because this was the

first time that an international treaty had included the principles of integrated

conservation.

The main purpose of the Convention is to reinforce and promote policies for

the conservation and enhancement of Europe's heritage. It also affirms the need

for European solidarity with regard to heritage conservation and is designed to

foster practical co-operation among the Parties. It establishes the principles of

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"European co-ordination of conservation policies" including consultations

regarding the thrust of the policies to be implemented.

6.2. Europe 2020 strategy

The Europe 2020 strategy is the EU's agenda for growth and jobs for the

current decade. It emphasizes smart, sustainable and inclusive growth as a way

to overcome the structural weaknesses in Europe's economy, improve its

competitiveness and productivity and underpin a sustainable social market

economy. Innovation was at the heart of the 2020 Strategy, as Europe's

competitiveness and capacity to create new jobs relied on innovation in

products and services.

Innovation is accepted as the best tool to overcome main social and

economic challenges as climate change and energy efficiency. The 2020

strategy has launched the European Innovation Partnerships (EIP). EIP is

designed to mobilize social actors within the framework of the innovation cycle

and various sectors. In this context, it is aimed to provide innovative solutions.

6.3. European environmental policy

Environmental policy for European Union is one of the most important

theme that should be carried to next generation. Environmental policy, for more

environmental protection has been considered by EU.

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The main objectives of the European Environmental Policy are laid down in

Article 174 of the EC Treaty as follows:

Protecting the environment, improving the quality of the environment,

Protecting human health,

Rational use of natural resources,

Taking related measures at international level.

As of today there are about 300 or more legislative acts which have been

divided into ten extensive parts.

These parts are:

Horizontal (general) legislation

Air quality

Waste management

Water quality

Nature protection

Industrial pollution

Chemicals and GMOs

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Climate change

Noise

Civil protection

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CHAPTER 9

NEW TECHNOLOGIES

1.Introduction

Faster, smarter technology means better fire safety technology. The basics

of fire safety, from stocking the right extinguisher to knowing fire classes,

remain the same, but technological advances build on the basics, making

firefighting quicker, easier, and more effective.

There are some truly amazing technologies being produced to fight fires in

the 21st century. These advances make the most of sound waves, video, and

detection technology to keep us all safer when fire strikes.

2.Sound wave fire extinguisher

Two engineering students at George Mason University harnessed sound to

put out fires. Their chemical-free, water-free extinguisher uses sound waves to

separate burning fuel from oxygen. Fire dies out without oxygen, so using the

soundwave extinguisher on a small fire snuffs it out.

Researchers previously patented this idea but this is the first sound wave

extinguisher to work reliably.

The sound wave extinguisher provides non-destructive fire safety

technology, which is ideal for home use. At the moment, the technology is only

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suitable for small fires since it does not contain a coolant. This means larger

fires put out with soundwaves could reignite on hot surfaces. Researchers

suggest that pairing this technology with drones could help in fighting large

fires.

Fig.1. Sound wave fire extinguisher

3.Water mist systems

Water mist fire safety technology improves on typical sprinkler systems, and

is considered to be a major part of the future of firefighting. Water simply

works, and it’s the most common agent used to fight fires today.

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Instead of large droplets of water, water mist systems send out a fine mist

that smothers a fire. Since the droplets are smaller, the mist systems create more

of them. The larger surface area of droplets converts water to steam faster. The

steam absorbs more heat from the flame, lowering the temperature of the fire,

suffocating the fire faster than regular old water.

Mist systems also significantly decrease water damage. Even dry chemical

systems are more likely to damage buildings and equipment when used. Water

mist systems can be installed locally (for one area) or can cover an entire room.

Mist can potentially fight electrical fires, making mist systems more versatile

than typical sprinkler-type suppression systems.

Fig.2. Water mist systems

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4. Early suppression fast response fire sprinkler systems (ESFR)

In-rack sprinkler systems are a standard fire suppression solution used in

warehouses with high-piled inventory. While effective, in-rack systems pose

some problems. One pallet load mistake and pipes can burst, setting off the

sprinklers and damaging stored items. When racks need to be rearranged, in-

rack systems require expensive pipe reconfiguration. How are ESFR systems

superior?

Fig.3. Early suppression fast response fire sprinkler systems (ESFR)

ESFR systems are ceiling-mounted, featuring high-pressure heads capable

of producing a high volume of water – we’re talking about 100 gallons of water

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per minute. Unlike a conventional sprinkler system made to control a fire,

ESFR fire safety technology suppresses the fire (shrinks it back to the point of

origin). These systems require large amounts of water and are hooked up to fire

pumps.

5.Integrated voice evacuation and messaging system

Not all fire safety technologies are built to fight fires: some protect the

people a fire can hurt. An integrated voice evacuation and messaging

system alerts occupants with pre-recorded messages when a fire breaks

out. Fike’s concept of “distributed intelligence” gives voice instructions to

building occupants, customized to their particular location, in relation to the

fire, and how to escape it. Fire evacuation plans and other safety information

play over speakers so occupants can respond appropriately.

Fig.4. Integrated voice evacuation and messaging system

The system responds in a fraction of a second. It can be programmed so

specific alerts, either instructions or tones, play during fires in certain parts of

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a building. Should a part of the building be compromised during an emergency,

built in redundancies allow the technology to keep working. The scalability of

this system make it a fit for small offices up to campuses with many buildings.

6.Fire behavior simulation software

Fire behavior simulation is a fire control software that is largely used in

wildlands to detect how the flames will develop and how the fire will spread.

For example, in wildlands, the system works by understanding the interaction

of materials like leaves, twigs, needles and more with the weather and other

topographic elements. A fire increases with the presence of heat, oxygen and

any fuel in the environment. To suppress this fire, there is a need of using fire

suppressing systems separately.

Fig.5. Fire behavior simulation software

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7.Personalized vocal smoke alarm

The vocal smoke alarm detects the smoke or heat in a place and then alerts

the people around. One uses their voice and records a message that the alarm

plays when there is a fire. For example, a parent might record the direction to

escape the house during a fire for their kids. When the alarm detects danger, it

will play the recording and hence, help kids escape the room or the premises.

One cannot ignore the repercussions of fire. Having pre-safety is always

beneficial. Using these advanced fire detectors, fire control systems, and fire

behavior systems will help in creating better safety measures. Get the best

quality products along with the installation process by contacting a supplier of

fire protection systems.

Fig.6. Personalized vocal smoke alarm

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8.Wireless internet connected smoke detector

These detectors are capable to detect smoke and also carbon monoxide.

When they detect any smoke, they ring an alarm alerting you and also notifying

you about the location where the fire has taken place. With the help of the

internet, you can connect the detectors to your smartphone and get alerts about

the fire when you are not present at the location.

Fig. 7. Wireless smoke detector

9.Wireless heat detector

The wireless heat detectors use rate-of-rise and fixed temperature sensors to

detect heat. The heat-sensitive detectors are triggered within a minute when

there is a significant rise in the temperature. These devices are used in places

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like the kitchen, garage, laundry room, and other places where smoke detectors

can’t be placed.

10.Beam detectors

The beam detector uses a beam of light extended in the premises. These light

beams help detect any smoke produced in the premises. The beam detectors are

generally of two basic types:

End to End Beam Detectors

Reflective Beam Detectors

Based on these two types, there are multiple variations of beam detectors

available in the market.

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REFERENCES

CHAPTER 2

[1] https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=Wnx3wVMlZTU, Stroud

International, (Date of Accesses: 26. 2. 2019)

[2] CFPA-E Guideline No 30:2013 F Managing Fire Protection of Historic

Buildings, (Date of Accesses: 26. 2. 2019)

[3] NFPA 909 Code for the Protection of Cultural Resource Properties –

Museums, Libraries, and Places of Worship, Edition 2017, (Date of

Accesses: 26. 2. 2019)

CHAPTER 3

[1] CFPA-E no. 30:2013 F Managing Fire Protection of Historic Buildings,

http://cfpa-e.eu/wp-content/plugins/pdfjs-viewer

shortcode/pdfjs/web/viewer.php?file=http://cfpa-e.eu/wp-

content/uploads/2015/05/CFPA_E_Guideline_No_13_2015_F.pdf&downl

oad=false&print=false&openfile=false

[2] NFPA 909: Code of Practice for the Protection of Cultural Resource

Properties - Museums, Libraries, and Places of Worship,

https://www.nfpa.org/codes-and-standards/all-codes-and-standards/list-of-

codes-and-standards/detail?code=909

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[3] NFPA 914: Code for Fire Protection of Historic Structures,

https://www.nfpa.org/codes-and-standards/all-codes-and-standards/list-of-

codes-and-standards/detail?code=914

CHAPTER 4

Chapter “2.0 basic fire theory” by Christensen C. Mattson Magnus Title: “Fire

process” s. 8- 10

Chapter “2.1,1 The fire triangle” Web 1 https://www.firerescue1.com/fire-

products/apparatus-accessories/articles/1206070-What-is-a-fire-triangle/

Chapter “2.1.2 combustible fire materiel” by Brogaard Kjeld. Hejdenberg

Flemming. Christiansen Per. Clausen John. Title: “student manual” S. 3-5.

Chapter “3.0 Fire behavior”. by Christensen C. Mattson Magnus Title: “Fire

process” s. 25- 27

Chapter “3.1 Early fire process” by Christensen c. Mattson Magnus Title: “Fire

process” s. 33

Chapter “3.1.2 initial fire” by Christensen c. Mattson Magnus Title: “Fire

process” s. 34

Chapter “3.1.3. Example of a fire process in a room”. by Christensen C.

Mattson Magnus Title: “Fire process” s. 28-32

166

CHAPTER 5

[1] Marrion, C. E. (2016). More effectively addressing

fire/disaster challenges to protect our cultural heritage. Journal of Cultural

Heritage, 20, 746-749.

[2] Gezer, H. (2013). ‘Geleneksel Safranbolu Evlerinin

Sürdürülebilirlik Açısından Değerlendirilmesi’. İstanbul Ticaret

Üniversitesi Fen Bilimleri Dergisi, 12 (23), 13-31.

[3] Çolak, S., Çolakoğlu, G., & As, N. (2002). Ağaç

malzemenin yanması ve yangında diğer yapı elemanlarıyla

karşılaştırılması. İstanbul Üniversitesi Orman Fakültesi Dergisi, 52 (1), 15-

26.

[4] Learning, D. C. (2004). Firefighter’s handbook: essentials

of firefighting and emergency response. Delmar Publishers, Clifton Park,

Ny.

[5] Kılıç, A. (2013), ‘Galatasaray Üniversitesi Yangını

(İbrahim Tevfik Efendi Sahil Sarayı Yangını)’, Yangın ve Güvenlik Dergisi,

Sayı:156:8-10.

[6] Lewis, C. (2008). Are house fires changing? Australian

Journal of Emergency Management, The, 23(1), 44.

167

[7] Norman, J., (2005), Fire Officer’s Handbook of Tactics,

Penwell, Oklahoma, USA.

[8] Safranbolu Belediyesi Yangın İstatistikleri.

[9] Kılıç, A., (2017), Baca Yangınları, Yangın ve Güvenlik

Dergisi, Sayı 194, s. 8-10.

[10] Kılıç A., (2007), Teknik Makaleler, ‘Yangın

Yönetmeliği-2007 Elektrik Tesisatı ve Sistemleri’,

http://www.yangin.org/dosyalar/elektrik_tesisati_yangin_sistemleri.pdf,

Accesses of Date:14.12.2018

[11] Eraybat, G. F. P. (2017). Tarihi yapılarda pasif yangın

önlemlerinin artırılmasına yönelik bir yöntem önerisi (Doctoral dissertation,

Selçuk Üniversitesi Fen Bilimleri Enstitüsü).

[12] Xiaomeng, Z., Biao, Z., & Xiang, J. (2010). Study of fire-

extinguishing performance of portable water-mist fire extinguisher in

historical buildings. Journal of Cultural Heritage, 11(4), 392-397.

[13] Jones, Jr.,A.M. (2008), Fire Protection Systems, Delmar

Cengage Learning, USA, 2008.

[14] Eksel Yangın ve Güvenlik Sistemleri,

[http://www.ekselyangin.com/su-sisi-sondurme-sistemleri.html], Accesses

of Date: 07.02.2019.

168

[15] Eksel Yangın ve Güvenlik Sistemleri,

[http://www.ekselyangin.com/fm-200-gazli-sondurme-sistemleri.html],

Accesses of Date: 07.02.2019.

[16] All Hazards Contemplations,

[http://allhazardscontemplations.blogspot.com/2010/01/what-kind-of-

foam-are-you.html], Accesses of Date: 15.01.2019

[17] (Pumping Apparatus Driver Operator Handbook, (2006),

Second Edition, IFSTA, OK/USA.)

[18] Binaların Yangından Korunması Hakkında Yönetmelik,

(2007),

http://www.mevzuat.gov.tr/Metin.Aspx?MevzuatKod=3.5.200712937&Me

vzuatIliski=0, Accesses of Date: 05.02.2019.

[19] NFPA 914, ‘Code For Protection of Historic Structures’,

2019 Edition. https://www.nfpa.org/codes-and-standards/all-codes-and-

standards/list-of-codes-and-standards/detail?code=914, Accesses of Date:

07.02.2019.

[20] Beta Sistem Mühendislik, (2019), https://www.beta-

sistem.com/yangin-algilama-ve-erken-uyari-sistemleri.php, Accesses of

Date: 04.02.2017.

169

[21] Mavili Elektronik Ticaret ve Sanayi A.Ş., (2019),

https://www.mavili.com.tr/blog/12-duman-dedektoru-cesitleri-ve-calisma-

prensipleri/1176-duman-dedektoru-cesitleri-ve-calisma-prensipleri.html,

Accesses of Date: 04.02.2019.

[22] Mavili Elektronik Ticaret ve Sanayi A.Ş., (2019),

https://www.mavili.com.tr/duman-dedektoru/1176-

duman-dedektoru-cesitleri-ve-calisma-prensipleri.html, Accesses of Date:

04.02.2019.

[23] Hedef Yangın ve İş Güvenlik, (2019),

http://www.hedefyanginsondurme.com/Urun-

BiyolojikKopukluPortatifSonduruculer-39, Accesses of Date: 06.02.2019.

[24] Hedef Yangın ve İş Güvenlik, (2019),

http://www.hedefyanginsondurme.com/Urun-

KarbondioksitliCO2PortatifSonduruculer-38, Accesses of Date:

06.02.2019.

[25] Hedef Yangın ve İş Güvenlik, (2019),

http://www.hedefyanginsondurme.com/Urun-

KuruKimyeviTozluPortatifSonduruculer-37, Accesses of Date: 06.02.2019.

CHAPTER 7

170

[1] DEMA, 2 february 2019. [Online]. Available:

https://brs.dk/beredskab/idk/indsatsledelse_og_taktik/Pages/Indsatsledelse

og-taktik.aspx.

[2] DEMA, "§12," in Beredskabsloven, direktionssekretariatet, Ed., Birkerød,

DEMA, 2009, p. 10.

[3] Danish Emergency Management Agency, "Emergency management in

Denmark," Find Danish Emergency Management Agency, [Online].

Available: https://brs.dk/eng/Pages/dema.aspx. [Accessed 12 march 2019].

[4] DEMA, "Det statslige beredskab," in Beredskabsloven , Birkerød, DEMA,

2009, pp. §4-§8.

[5] Fakta om alarmcentraler i DK," apropos kommunikation, [Online].

Available: http://www.foerstehjaelp.dk/de-tre-alarmcentraler-i-danmark/.

[Accessed 12 march 2019].

[6] Hovedstadens Beredskab, "Hvornår ringer du 112?," Alarm- og

vagtcentralen, [Online]. Available: https://hbr.dk/beredskabet/hvornaar-

ringer-du-1-1-2/alarm-og-vagtcentralen/. [Accessed 2019 march 12].

[7] minby.dk, "Seneste nyheder fra København," minby.dk, [Online].

Available: https://minby.dk/. [Accessed 12 march 2019].

171

CHAPTER 8

[1] UNESCO. World Heritage List. http://whc.unesco.org/en/list (Date of

access: August 30, 2018).

[2] UNESCO. UNESCO in Brief. https://en.unesco.org/about-us/introducing-

unesco (Date of access: March 11, 2018).

[3] UNESCO. Ethics and Intangible Cultural Heritage.

https://ich.unesco.org/en/ethics-and-ich-00866 (Date of access: March 11, 2018).

[4] Construction Products Regulation (CPR) White Paper.

https://www.corning.com/media/emea/coc/documents/Resources/LAN-

1893-A4-BEN.pdf (Date of Accesses: October 03, 2018).

[5] Construction Products Regulation (CPR) White Paper

https://www.corning.com/media/emea/coc/documents/Resources/LAN-

1893-A4-BEN.pdf (Date of Accesses: September 11, 2018).

[6] Construction Products Regulation (CPR) White Paper

https://www.corning.com/media/emea/coc/documents/Resources/LAN-

1893-A4-BEN.pdf (Date of Accesses: September 11, 2018).

[7] European Commission. Construction Products.

https://ec.europa.eu/growth/single-market/european-standards/harmonised-

standards/construction-products_en (Accesses of Date: November 01,

2018).

172

[8] NSAI Standards. Fire classification of construction products and building

elements - Part 5: Classification using data from external fire exposure to

roofs tests. https://infostore.saiglobal.com/preview/is/en/2006/i.s.en13501-

5-2005%2Ba1-2009.pdf?sku=680107 (Accesses of Date: September 01,

2018).

CHAPTER 9

[1] Hertzberg, T., Hiltz, J., A., Van der Wal, R. and Rahm, M. (2015). New

Technologies for Fire Suppression on Board Naval Craft (FiST) Final

Report. Defence Research and Development Canada Scientific Report

DRDC-RDDC-2015-R224 September. Date of Accesses: 03 October, 2018.

[2] http://www.strikefirstusa.com/2016/08/7-remarkable-new-fire-safety-

technologies/. Date of Accesses: 03 October, 2018.

[3] http://ultrasurefire.co.uk/news/exciting-advances-in-fire-protection-

technology. Date of Accesses: 03 October, 2018.

[4] http://www.strikefirstusa.com/2016/08/7-remarkable-new-fire-safety-

technologies/. Date of Accesses: 03 October, 2018.

[5] https://rotaflow.ca/technological-advancements-in-fire-protection-

industry/. Date of Accesses: 03 October, 2018.

[6] https://interestingengineering.com/technological-advances-take-

firefighting-next-level. Date of Accesses: 03 October, 2018.

173

[7] https://www.orrprotection.com/mcfp/blog/bid/157996/Emerging-Fire-

Protection-Technologies-to-Watch. Date of Accesses: 03 October, 2018.

174

EXERCISES QUESTIONS

CHAPTER 2

1. Which interest groups shall be included in the process of providing the

desired level of fire safety in historic buildings?

a) The owner

b) Local or national authority

c) Fire brigade

d) Community, interested in preservation of historic buildings

e) All of the above

2. Why is recommended that fire brigade is familiar with the proper

management approach of the historic building?

a) Thay shall run the property by themselves.

b) They have to know everything.

c) There is a need for firefighters to be familiar with the proper management

approach, so the communication with an owner or property manager is easier,

and, at the end, the intervention can be more effective.

3. Who should do the fire risk assessment of the historic building?

175

a) Any contractor can do the fire risk assessment of the historic building.

b) Owner of the building shall do the fire risk assessment of the historic

building, even if he/she is not familiar with fire safety and related topics.

He/she has to do it by himself/herself.

c) A team of fire protection consultants and restoration experts shall do the

fire risk assessment of the historic building , because thay can provide

acceptable solutions and save money; especially in larger, more complicated,

more important buildings.

4. What is a Fire Safety Logbook?

a) A Fire Safety Logbook or similar document, according to national rules,

is a record of important events of the fire safety management system, a “diary”

of the building, kept by in-house personnel, if possible.

b) Fire Safety Logbook is a national law on fire prevention.

c) Fire Safety Logbook is a Facebook profile.

5. What shall be recorded in a Fire Safety Logbook?

a) Meeting with important persons shall be recorded in a Fire Safety

Logbook.

176

b) Fire training sessions, fire drills, visits by service personnel of fire

protection equipment, insurance company visits, etc. shall be recorded in Fire

Safety Logbook.

c) Medals and other rewards shall be kept in a Fire Safety Logbook.

6. What is a Damage Limitation Plan?

a) The Damage Limitation Plan is a list of tasks, which shall be carried out

when fire starts and help of the fire brigade is needed.

b) The Damage Limitation Plan is a financial plan of the management.

c) I don't know.

7. Why shall conservation specialists be involved in the preparation of a

Damage Limitation Plan?

a) Conservation specialists define a system of categorisation of artefacts, so

that clear priorities can be established for priorities of object removal.

b) Conservation specialists need not to be involved in the preparation of a

Damage Limitation Plan.

c) Conservation specialists are the first to respond in the fire, so they should

be involved in everything.

177

8. Are there any artefacts that can be left in a historic building during the

fire, according to Damage Limitation Plan? More than one answer is possible.

a) Every artefacts have to be carried out of the building in fire.

b) Unclassified artefacts can be left in place, accordning to Damage

Limitation Plan.

c) High priority must be given to life safety, so artefacts shall be left in a

building on fire in life threatening circumstances.

9. How do firefighters know, which artefacts are important and which are

not, so thay can be carried out of the building in case of fire?

a) Artefacts shall be properly marked, so firefighters know which ones

should be carried out.

b) Firefighters shall be educated about the historic value of artefacts in

general.

c) People in the building will take firefighters to important artefacts.

10. How often shall fire safety training of staff of the museum or similar

institution in the historic building be carried out?

a) Trainings of staff of the museum or similar institution in the historic

building shall be carried out at least once per month.

178

b) Training of staff shall be performed on regular basis, according to the plan

and their duties defined in Fire Safety Handbook.

c) There is no need for fire safety training of the staff.

CHAPTER 3

1. The proactive approach enables to achieve the best cost-effective solutions

of safety issues.

a) True

b) False

2. What should be the first step when defining fire prevention measures in

historic building?

a) Seeking approval by authority having jurisdiction

b) Risk assessment

3. Which are basic fire prevention measures, which are relevant to most

historic buildings?

a) Good housekeeping

b) Limited use for children

179

4. Plenums, void and similar spaces shall not be used as storage area unless

…

a) there is not enough room anywhere else.

b) firefighters allow to use these spaces for storage area.

c) protected with automatic detection or fire suppression systems.

d) somebody stands there for the whole time.

5. What do employees have to know about fire safety?

a) How to act in case of fire, how to help visitors and other users which are

not familiar with the premises.

b) How to cook on low heat.

c) Where to smoke in the building.

6. How often shall chimneys, which are not in use, be checked?

a) All chimneys shall be checked twice per month.

b) Chimneys which are not is use need not to be checked at all.

c) Chimneys which are not in use shall be checked occasionally.

7. How might the fire spread to adjacent rooms, when doors are closed?

180

a) There is little possibility for a fire to spread if doors are closed.

b) Fire can spread through walls very fast, even in buildings, made of bricks

and stone.

c) Fire can easily spread to adjacent rooms via ventilation system, ducts of

electrical cables, voids in the construction of the building, etc.

8. What is important for the effective intervention of firefighters in a historic

building?

a) Access should be arranged for firefighters and their vehicles.

b) There shall be no electrical appliances in the building.

c) Users of the building should know that firefighters are important.

9. What can be done to prevent arson in a historic building?

a) Security alarm systems can lower the risk of arson.

b) Nothing can be done.

c) Installation of sprinkler systems is the only way to prevent an arson.

10. Is it possible to prepare ourselves to unexpected natural disasters?

a) Disaster plan shall be prepared, describing duties of employees.

181

b) No, nothing can be done.

c) Heritage buildings are insured, so we need to do nothing.

CHAPTER 4

1. What will you do if you discover a fire in a room? (Please mark the

appropriate option or options);

a) Leave the door open, and run for help

b) Leave the door open because it let the smoke out

c) Close the door to the room with fire and call for help

2. What is the most important factor to spread a fire in a building? (Please

mark the appropriate option or options).

a) A lot of materials that can burn

b) Flames from the fire

c) Open doors so the smoke can spread through the building

d) Old doors

3. Do everyone know how to use Extinguishing Agents (Please mark the

appropriate option).

182

a) Yes

b) No

4. Which Extinguishing Agent is correct to use on an electrical fire? (Please

mark the appropriate option).

a) Class A

b) Class B

c) Class D

5.Can everyone participated in a fire course? (Please mark the appropriate

option).

a) Yes

b) No

6.Do you have a fire alarm system in your building? (Please mark the

appropriate option).

a) Yes

b) No

7.On what kind of fire would you use a water extinguisher? (Please mark the

appropriate option).

183

a) Class K fires in cooking oils and greases

b) Class A fires are fires in ordinary combustibles such as wood, paper, cloth,

trash, and plastics.

c) Class C fires involving energized electrical equipment such as motors,

transformers, and appliances.

8.How does a fire develop in a room? (Please mark the appropriate option).

a) It develops according to speed, intensity and direction

b) It develops according to heat, and smoke

9.What type of flames are there? (Please mark the appropriate option).

a) Diffusion flames and premixed flames

b) Hot flames and cold flames

10.What defines the fire triangle? (Please mark the appropriate option).

a) Oxygen and wind

b) Oxygen, fuel and heat

11. Flammable substances occurs in which 3 modes? (Please mark the

appropriate option).

184

a) Gases and heat

b) Fixed substances.

c) Gases and liquids

12.How does a Carbon Dioxide fire extinguisher extinguish fire? (Please

mark the appropriate option).

a) By taking away the oxygen element of the fire triangle and also be

removing the heat with a very cold discharge.

b) By taking away the material element of the fire triangle and also be

removing the heat with a very cold discharge.

13.Is it correct that a very large proportion of fires are caused by electricity.

(Please mark the appropriate option).

a) Yes

b) No

14.What is an Initial fire? (Please mark the appropriate option).

a) A fire in a room, which starts the fire

b) A fire which is dangerous

185

15. Are all buildings inspected by a fire department? (Please mark the

appropriate option or options).

a) Yes

b) No

16. Does ventilation spread a fire (Please mark the appropriate option or

options).

a) Yes

b) No

17.What is a flashover? (Please mark the appropriate option or options).

a) The flashover is a stage in the fire process that represent the transition

from the early fire to the fully developed fire in a room.

b) The flashover is the phase where the fire Is over

18. Is a class V a fire Extinguishing agent (Please mark the appropriate

option or options).

a) Yes

b) No

186

19. Can everyone use a fire Extinguishing agent? (Please mark the

appropriate option or options).

a) Yes

b) No

20. Are hot gases dangerous in a closed room (Please mark the appropriate

option or options).

a) Yes

b) No

CHAPTER 5

1. What type of elements increase the risk of fire in historical buildings? Give

three examples.

Restoration works.

Nonexistent or non-operational fire warning and protection systems.

Non-compartmentalization against fire spread.

2. How do fast groving roof/attic fires usually impact wooden historic

buildings?

Cause collapse.

187

3. What is the reason for fast vertical fire spread in historic buildings in

Safranbolu?

Open stairwells,

Voids in walls

4. What is the ideal source of continuous water supply in fire suppression

activities?

Hydrants

5. What measures have to be taken in order to prevent chimney fires in

historic buildings?

Chimney walls have to be fire resistant and thermally insulated,

The fuel used has to be compliant with the heating device,

Chimney service and maintenance has to be done periodically by qualified

personnel.

6. What makes fire department’s fire suppression activities more difficult in

Safranbolu?

Narrow streets,

Heavy traffic,

188

Close building layout,

Inadequate underground water network.

Slope terrain.

7. Which Turkish Regulation contain provisions about fire prevention

measures and restoration/renovation rules in historic buildings?

The Regulation on the Protection of Buildings against Fire

8. According to the “The Regulation on the Protection of Buildings against

Fire” which regulations should all type of electrical wiring and installations in

historic buildings be in accordance with?

Regulation on Indoor Electrical Installations,

Regulation on Grounding at Electrical Installations,

Regulation on Electrical Heavy Load ınstallation.

9. What is the goal of passive fire safety measures in buildings?

To prevent fires or to delay fire advancement.

10. In automatic fire extinguishing systems what type of extinguishing

agents can be used?

Water (foam),

189

Wet chemical,

Dry chemical,

Carbon dioxide,

Halon,

Clean agents.

11. What are the advantages of water-based automatic fire sprinkler systems

protecting buildings?

The system is always ready to operate without human interaction.

The system applies water to a fire well before the fire brigade arrives.

It prevents the spread of fire and resignations.

Water damage is much less than a firefighter’s hose stream.

In addition to the intervention of fire, these systems can also activate alarm

systems and notify responders.

12. What is the advantage of using water mist instead of water in automatic

fire sprinkler systems in historic buildings?

Considerably less water damage.

190

13. Can carbon dioxide used as suppression agent in occupied areas in

automatic fire suppression systems? Why?

No, because of low oxygen levels.

14. What are the advantages of clean agents use in automatic fire suppression

systems?

Environmentally harmless,

Have no toxic effects,

Electrically non-conductive,

Leave no residue upon evaporation.

15. What are the most commonly used clean agents in automatic fire

suppression systems?

FM200,

Inergen.

16. How does Class A foam increase the effectiveness of suppression

activities?

Reduces surface tension of water,

Increases water’s penetration capability.

191

17. What are the advantages of using CAFS in suppression activities?

CAFS use allows Class A foam application from further distances to the fire.

It decrease water use.

It is a well suited system to protect adjacent houses to the fire.

18. According to Article 167/B of the “Regulation about Protection of

Buildings from Fire” what is the competent authority to approve any restoration

and renovation Project in historic buildings in Turkey?

Council for the Protection of Cultural and Natural Property

19. What are the components of a fire alarm and warning system?

Control Panel,

Initiating Devices

Notification Appliances

20. What are the steps for using a portable fire extinguisher?

Pull the pin of the extinguisher,

Aim the nozzle,

Squeeze the handle,

192

Sweep the base of the fire.

CHAPTER 6

1. Which one of the below is not evacuation method?

a) Vertical Evacuation

b) Horizontal Evacuation

c) Stay in place

d) Stay calm

2. Who one of the below is not one of the evacuation team?

a) Floor Evacuation Officer

b) Flight Control Responsible

c) Floor Control Responsible

d) Persons with disabilities are responsible for discharging

3. Which number should you call during a fire?

a) 109

b) 116

193

c) 112

d) 107

4. Which of the following is not included in the evacuation plan?

a) Evacuation route

b) Floor plan

c) Assembly point

d) City plan

5. To ensure safe and trouble-free fire evacuation, all doors located at the

exit points should be opened from the inside to the outside.

a) True

b) False

6. No lift should be used for evacuation unless it is part of the Emergency

Evacuation Plan.

a) True

b) False

194

CHAPTER 7

1. Which three primary terms do the guideline use

a) Incident area, Crime scene and safe Zone

b) Incident area, Damage area, and Danger area

2. How many principles are there?

a) 6

b) 5

3. The principle of cooperation is about insuring that the government and

other key persons has the responsibility to cooperate and coordinate

a) True

b) False

4. Who has the overall responsibility for performing the police´s task in the

country?

a) National Police chief

b) Police director

5. How many police districts are there in Denmark?

195

a) 9

a) 12

6. Is it true that it is a policeman who is responsible to insure that the overall

effort is coordinated according to the Chief of Police priorities and decisions?

a) True

b) False

7. Primary objective for the local fire and rescue service is to provide

emergency management?

a) True

b) False

8. What is the subsidiarity principle?

a) A principle that says that an incident must be handle and solved as close

to the citizen as possible

b) A principle that says that an incident must be handle and solved as far

from the citizen as possible

9. Is it true or false that the This Principle implies that the authority or

organization who is responsible for an area under normal conditions, also is

196

responsible for the preventive, preparatory and remedial emergency

preparedness for extraordinary events?

a) True

b) False

10. What is the incident commander responsible for?

a) The technical management of the effort at an injury site

b) The effort to contact the Police

11. What is DEMA?

a) Danish earth management

b) The Danish Emergency Management Agency

12. Who is responsible for assessing people at the injury site which can be

contaminated?

a) Police

b) Fire Department

13. Who has the overall responsibility at an injury site?

a) Police

197

b) Fire Department

14. In major events what does incident commander police established?

a) A command post

b) A network

15. Is it true or false that the incident commander doesn’t have to come to

the injury site on a major incident?

a) True

b) False

16. The emergency call center in Denmark is parted in three centers?

a) True

b) False

17. What are you calling to get hold off the emergency call center in

Denmark?

a) 911

b) 112

18. What is a dispatch center?

198

a) Where the firemen are

b) Where the call is managed

19. What is the Incident commander of the prehospital responsible for?

a) In charge of the Prehospital effort on a injury site

b) In charge of the hospital

20. Who does the incident commander from the prehospital sector

collaborate with?

a) Doctor from the Danish Agency for patient Safety

b) DEMA

CHAPTER 8

1. Cultural heritage enriches the individual lives of citizens.

a) True

b) False

2. Natural formations, monuments and sites can’t be gain the world heritage

status after assessments by joint forums like UNESCO.

a) True

199

b) False

3. Generally, objectives, aims and means of UNESCO.

a) Preserves (World Heritage Sites)

b) Coordinates (coordination between foundations)

c) Leads (global efforts to better quality education)

4. The acronym of United Nations Educational, Scientific and Cultural

Organization is

a) ILO

b) CEDAW

c) UNESCO

d) UNICEF

5. CPR deals with the reaction of the cables to fire and their fire resistances

and it bring forth rules.

a) True

b) False

6. What is the main purpose of the NFPA 909 standard?

200

a) It is a guideline for the tourists.

b) It is a guideline that sets out the minimum requirements for the

preservation of historical and cultural structures.

c) It is a guideline about public policy generally.

7. EN 13501 is

a) a standard for extinguishers.

b) an internal paving material.

c) a harmonized procedure for the classification of roofs/roof coverings

exposed to external fire.

8. EN 60754-2 standard is used for tests on gases evolved during combustion

of materials from cables.

a) True

b) False

9. The main purpose of convention for the Protection of the Architectural

Heritage of Europe is

a) to reinforce and promote policies for the conservation and enhancement

of Europe's heritage

201

b) to organize for all material used at the buildings.

c) to an explain how used of the internal and/or external materials.

d) All of them

10. The main objectives of the European Environmental Policy are

a) Protecting the environment, improving the quality of the environment

b) Protecting human health

c) Rational use of natural resources

d) Taking related measures at international level

e) All of them

202

ANSWERS

C

HA

PT

ER

2

1. a

2. c

3. c

4. a

5. b

6. a

7. a

8. b-c

9. a

10. b

203

C

HA

PT

ER

3

1. a

2. b

3. a

4. c

5. a

6. c

7. c

8. a

9. a

10. a

204

C

HA

PT

ER

4

1. c

2. c

3. b

4. b

5. a

6. a-b

7. b

8. a

9. a

10. b

205

11. b

12. a

13. a

14. a

15. b

16. a

17. a

18. b

19. a

20. a

206

C

HA

PT

ER

5

1.

- Restoration works.

- Non-existent or non-operational fire warning and protection

systems.

- Non-compartmentalization against fire spread.

2. - Cause collapse.

3.

- Open stairwells,

- Voids in walls

4. - Hydrants

5.

- Chimney walls have to be fire resistant and thermally insulated,

- The fuel used has to be compliant with the heating device,

- Chimney service and maintenance has to be done periodically

by qualified personnel.

6.

- Narrow streets,

- Heavy traffic,

- Close building layout,

- Inadequate underground water network.

- Slope terrain.

7. - The Regulation on the Protection of Buildings against Fire

8.

- Regulation on Indoor Electrical Installations,

- Regulation on Grounding at Electrical Installations,

- Regulation on Electrical Heavy Load ınstallation.

9. - To prevent fires or to delay fire advancement.

207

10.

- Water (foam),

- Wet chemical,

- Dry chemical,

- Carbon dioxide,

- Halon

- Clean agents.

11.

- The system is always ready to operate without human

interaction.

- The system applies water to a fire well before the fire brigade

arrives.

- It prevents the spread of fire and reignition.

- Water damage is much less than a firefighter’s hose stream.

- In addition to the intervention of fire, these systems can also

activate alarm systems and notify responders.

12. - Considerably less water damage.

13. - No, because of low oxygen levels.

14.

- Environmentally harmless,

- Have no toxic effects,

- Electrically non-conductive,

- Leave no residue upon evaporation.

15.

- FM200,

- Inergen.

16.

- Reduces surface tension of water,

- Increases water’s penetration capability.

208

17.

- CAFS use allows Class A foam application from further

distances to the fire.

- It decreases water use.

- It is a well suited system to protect adjacent houses to the fire.

18. - Council for the Protection of Cultural and Natural Property

19.

- Control Panel,

- Initiating Devices,

- Notification Appliances.

20.

- Pull the pin of the extinguisher,

- Aim the nozzle,

- Squeeze the handle,

- Sweep the base of the fire.

CH

AP

TE

R 6

1. d

2. b

3. c

4. d

5. a

209

6. a C

HA

PT

ER

7

1. b

2. b

3. a

4. a

5. b

6. b

7. a

8. a

9. a

210

10. a

11. b

12. b

13. a

14. a

15. b

16. a

17. b

18. b

19. a

211

20. a C

HA

PT

ER

8

1. a

2. b

3. a-b-c

4. c

5. a

6. b

7. c

8. a

9. a

212

10. e

213

THE PROJECT MEETING PHOTOS

214

215

216

217

ACTIVITIES

218

POŽAR Journal, Slovenia

219

220

Yangın Mühendisliği Yangın Güvenliği ve Teknolojileri Dergisi, Turkey

(Fire Engineering Fire Safety and Technologies Journal, Turkey)

221

ekuo news from Italy