fire service features

Fire Service Featuresof Buildings and Fire Protection Systems

www.osha.gov

OSHA 3256-07N 2006

Employers are responsible for providing a safe andhealthful workplace for their employees. OSHA’srole is to assure the safety and health of America’sworkers by setting and enforcing standards; provid-ing training, outreach, and education; establishingpartnerships; and encouraging continual improve-ment in workplace safety and health.

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Fire Service Featuresof Buildings and Fire Protection Systems

Occupational Safety and Health Administration

U.S. Department of Labor

OSHA 3256-07N

2006

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Acknowledgments

Numerous individuals assisted in the development ofthis document. OSHA wishes to express its deepestappreciation to the following individuals for their sig-nificant contributions to this manual.

Edwin G. Foulke, Jr.Assistant Secretary

The following persons provided a courtesy technicalreview:David M. Banwarth, P.E.

David M. Banwarth Associates, LLC (DMBA)Samuel S. Dannaway, P.E.,

President and Chief Fire Protection Engineer, S.S. Dannaway and Associates, Inc.Former Volunteer Firefighter, Prince Georges County, MD.

Ivan J. Humberson, P.E.Fire Marshal, City of Gaithersburg, MD.Former Volunteer Firefighter, Prince Georges and Frederick Counties, MD.

Greg Jakubowski, P.E., CSPSenior Program Safety Specialist, Merck & Co., Inc.Penn. State Fire InstructorCaptain, Lingohocken Fire Company, Bucks County, PA.

Chris Jelenewicz, P.E. Engineering Program Manager, Society of Fire Protection EngineersPast Chief, Chillum-Adelphi Volunteer Fire Dept., MD.

Michael J. Klemenz, P.E.Davis-Ulmer Sprinkler Company, Inc.Past Deputy Chief, Liverpool, N.Y. Fire Department

James LathropVice President, Koffel Associates, Inc.Deputy Chief, Niantic, CT Fire Department

Eric. N. Mayl, P.E.Fire Protection Engineer, Koffel Associates, Inc.Captain (Ret.) D.C. Fire Department

Jim TidwellNational Director, Fire Service Activities International Code CouncilExecutive Deputy Chief (Ret.), Fort Worth Fire Department, TX.

The following persons contributed photographs ordiagrams for this manual:David Banwarth, P.E., Banwarth & AssociatesJeff Cisney, P.E., General Services AdministrationGlen Ellman, Freelance PhotographerMichael Eversole, U.S. Secret ServiceJohn Guyton, Prince Georges County Fire

Department, MD (retired)

Neal Hobbs, Montgomery County Fire and Rescue, MD.Ivan J. Humberson, P.E., Fire Marshal, City of

Gaithersburg, MD.Bryan Iannacone, College Park Volunteer Fire

Department, MD. Michael J. Klemenz, P.E., Davis-Ulmer Sprinkler

Company, Inc.Vito Maggiolo, Freelance PhotographerNational Fire Protection AssociationN.J. Department of Community Affairs, Division of

Fire SafetyRockville, MD Fire Marshal’s OfficeRick SchartelMichael Schwartzberg, Freelance PhotographerMarty Smith, Alarm Tech SolutionsTempe, AZ Fire DepartmentAnthony Turiello, Rescue Air Systems, Inc.Queens Printer of Acts of Parliament, U.K.Craig Willms, College Park Volunteer Fire Department,

MD.Jeff Woodard, College Park Volunteer Fire

Department, MD.

The following persons contributed their professionalexpertise and assistance:Anthony Catroppo, Alarm Tech SolutionsMike Eversole, U.S. Secret ServiceBeth Forbes, Washington Suburban Sanitary

CommissionNicholas S. Havrilla, Jr., University of MarylandHeather Heath, N.Y. Empire Chapter, Society of Fire

Protection EngineersMark Lentocha, Chesapeake Chapter, Society of Fire

Protection EngineersDallas Lipp, Montgomery County Fire and Rescue, MD.Jeffery P. McBride, P.E., EBL Engineers, LLCMary McCormack, Fire Department Safety Officer’s

AssociationKevin McNamara, College Park Volunteer Fire

Department, MD.Tommy Nguyen, College Park Volunteer Fire

Department, MD.Michael Ramey, Operations Manager, Alarm Tech

SolutionsKevin Riley, Phoenix Fire Department, AZ.Thomas W. ShandTom Slane, College Park Volunteer Fire Department,

MD.Scott Stookey, Phoenix Fire Department, AZ.Anthony Turiello, Rescue Air Systems, Inc.Steve Welsh, Fire Protection Engineer

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ContentsChapter 1Introduction

PURPOSE 5SCOPE 5A FIRE SERVICE PRIMER 6FIRE SERVICE CHALLENGES 8MANUAL ORGANIZATION AND USE 9TERMINOLOGY 9GLOSSARY OF ACRONYMS AND TERMS 10

Chapter 2Building and Site Design

GENERAL 11FIRE APPARATUS ACCESS 11PREMISES IDENTIFICATION 16FIRE HYDRANTS 18FIREFIGHTER ACCESS 21HAZARDS TO THE FIRE SERVICE 26

Chapter 3Sprinkler Systems

GENERAL 28ZONING 28WATER SUPPLY CONTROL VALVES 29FIRE PUMPS 31PARTIAL SPRINKLER SYSTEMS 32

Chapter 4Standpipe Systems

GENERAL 33FIRE HOSE CONNECTIONS 34DESIGN PRESSURE 37PRESSURE REGULATING DEVICES 38STANDPIPE ISOLATION VALVES 39OTHER DESIGN ISSUES 40

Chapter 5Fire Department Connections

GENERAL 41QUANTITY 42INLETS 43LOCATION 44POSITION 46MARKING 47TEMPORARY CONNECTIONS 49

Chapter 6Fire Alarm and Communication Systems

GENERAL 50ZONING AND ANNUNCIATION 51GRAPHIC DISPLAYS 53FIRE DEPARTMENT NOTIFICATION 55VOICE ALARM SYSTEMS 56FIRE DEPARTMENT COMMUNICATIONS

SYSTEMS 57FIRE COMMAND CENTERS 58

Chapter 7Other Systems

FIREFIGHTER EMERGENCY POWER SYSTEMS 59

FIREFIGHTER BREATHING AIR SYSTEMS 60FIREFIGHTER RADIO SIGNAL

RETRANSMISSION SYSTEMS 61SMOKE CONTROL SYSTEMS 63

AppendixSources of Referenced Standards

and Information 64

OSHA Assistance 65

OSHA Regional Offices 67

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This manual provides a general overview of a particular topic related to OSHA standards concerningfire and emergency protection. The manual is advisory in nature and informational in content. It isnot a standard or a regulation, and it neither creates new legal obligations nor alters existing obliga-tions created by OSHA standards or the Occupational Safety and Health Act.

Employers are required to comply with hazard-specific safety and health standards as issued andenforced either by the Occupational Safety and Health Administration (OSHA) or by an OSHA-approved State Plan. In addition, Section 5(a)(1) of the Occupational Safety and Health Act, theGeneral Duty Clause, requires employers to provide their employees with a workplace free from recognized hazards likely to cause death or serious physical harm. Employers can be cited for violating the General Duty Clause if there is such a recognized hazard, and they do not take reason-able steps to prevent or abate the hazard. However, the failure to implement any of the recommen-dations in this manual is not, in itself, a violation of the General Duty Clause. Citations can only bebased on standards, regulations, and the General Duty Clause.

This manual does not supersede or substitute for any local or state laws, codes, ordinances, regula-tions, or amendments thereto. This manual shall only be used as a nonbinding supplement to ajurisdiction’s requirements.

Chapter 1Introduction

PURPOSEThe purpose of this manual is to increase thesafety of building occupants and emergencyresponders by streamlining fire service interactionwith building features and fire protection systems.The information in this manual will assist designersof buildings and fire protection systems to betterunderstand the needs of the fire service when theyare called upon to operate in or near the built envi-ronment (figure 1.1). To put this another way, archi-tects and engineers create workplaces for firefight-ers. Designs can be tailored to better meet opera-tional needs, thereby reducing the time it takes tomitigate an incident.

The guidance in this manual is expected todecrease the injuries to responding and operatingfire service personnel. When an incident can bemitigated faster, there is less time for the hazardoussituation to grow in proportion. With less potentialexposure, employees occupying buildings will beafforded greater protection from fire incidents.Employee occupants as well as fire service employ-ees will realize the benefits of this manual in termsof safe working conditions as intended by theOccupational Safety and Health Act of 1970.

The codes and standards governing buildingsand fire protection systems are well understood bydesigners. However, many portions of these codesand standards allow design variations or containonly general performance language. The resultingflexibility permits the selection of different designoptions. Some of these options may facilitate fireservice operations better than others.

The particular needs and requirements of thefire service are typically not known thoroughly bypersons not associated with these operations. Thismanual discusses how the fire service interacts withdifferent building features and it suggests methodsfor streamlining such interaction. To provide themost effective protection, fire service personnelshould be considered as users of building featuresand fire protection systems. While far less frequentthan mechanical events or other failures, fire cancause greater destruction in terms of property loss,disruption of operations, injury, and death.

Designers routinely consider the needs andcomfort of building occupants when arranging abuilding’s layout and systems. Within the frame-work of codes and standards, design options may

be exercised to benefit a particular owner, tenant,or user. For example, a building code would typical-ly dictate the minimum number of lavatories andwater fountains. However, the location, distribution,and types of such facilities are left to the designerin consultation with the client.

The application of fire protection features inbuildings is similar. For instance, a fire code mayrequire the installation of a fire department connec-tion for a sprinkler system or an annunciator for afire alarm system. However, there may be little orno guidance as to the location, position, features,or marking of such devices. This manual providesthis type of guidance to designers. However, specif-ic local requirements or preferences may differ.Input should always be obtained from local codeofficials and the fire service organization, the“client” in this case.

SCOPEThis manual is to be used voluntarily, as a compan-ion to mandatory and advisory provisions in buildingcodes, life safety codes, fire codes, safety regula-tions, and installation standards for fire protectionsystems. The material contained in this documentfocuses on ways that building and fire protectionsystem designers can contribute to the efficiency offire suppression operations.

This material is applicable to all fire serviceorganizations, including fire brigades and firedepartments. Many of the considerations in the fol-lowing chapters will also help during responses forother emergencies, such as hazardous materialsreleases, emergency medical care, non-fire rescues,and terrorist events.

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(Fig. 1.1) Commercial building fire at night with multiple exposures.

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Users of this manual must understand its limita-tions. It is directed to designers of buildings andfire protection systems to help them build on exist-ing codes and standards to assist the fire service.For example, the topic of emergency radio commu-nications can be extensive; however, its treatmenthere is limited to the equipment in buildings thatcan support radio communications. Likewise, thereare entire standards and books written about sprin-kler, standpipe, and fire alarm design. However,this manual covers only portions of those systemswith which the fire service interacts and suggestsdesign details that will help streamline or supportfire service operations.

A FIRE SERVICE PRIMERThis section will give those outside the fire servicea basic understanding of how the fire service oper-ates during an emergency. It will also familiarizethem with the varying capabilities and organiza-tions involved in fire fighting.

Fire service organizations can be classified ascareer, volunteer, or a combination of both. Careerstaff members are paid for their work, while volun-teer members are unpaid. Combination organiza-tions have both career and volunteer staff. Careerorganizations typically serve the larger, more urbanor industrial settings, although many smaller citiesor towns will have a full or partial career staff.Volunteer organizations are usually found in moresuburban or rural settings, although some servedensely populated areas and have very high emer-gency response rates.

Another way to categorize fire departments is bywhether fire stations are staffed with personnelready to respond. Most career organizations havepersonnel who remain in the station while on duty.However, “call firefighters” are paid on a per-response or hourly basis and do not remain in theirstation awaiting emergency calls. Most volunteersrespond from home or work when they are alertedto an emergency. On the other hand, there areorganizations that have volunteer personnelstaffing their stations on shifts or even living in thestations.

Another fire service organization is the industrialfire brigade. This is an organized group of employ-ees specifically trained to provide fire suppression,and perhaps related emergency activities, for a spe-cific employer. Members may be dedicated fulltime to emergency operations, or emergencyresponse may be a part-time, collateral duty.

A typical emergency begins with the discoveryand reporting of an incident. The time span of thisphase can vary greatly, and the fire service has nocontrol over this. After the report is received, theinformation is processed and the appropriate unitsare alerted. Those firefighters not staffing the sta-tion (whether volunteer, paid on-call, or collateralduty fire brigade members) must travel to the sta-tion. Firefighters then don their protective equip-ment, board the vehicles, and the response phasebegins. In some organizations or scenarios, mem-bers not staffing the station may go directly to theincident scene.

(Fig. 1.2) A view from above of both a pumper (top) andan aerial apparatus (bottom), in this case a platform typeof aerial.

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The fire service response to a structure firewould normally involve a number of differentunits. Fire department vehicles are called appara-tus; one is sometimes referred to as a “piece” ofapparatus. They come in a wide variety of formsfor specialized uses; however, the basic types arepumper and aerial apparatus (Figure 1.2).

A pumper apparatus normally carries hose, apump, and a small water tank. Together with itspersonnel, this is called an engine company. Theirmain responsibility is to deliver water to the fire.Initially, the engine company may operate using thewater available in their tank; however, any incidentsother than small exterior fires will typically requirethat a continuous water supply be established.This is done via hose lines carrying water from asource of supply (fire hydrant, lake, pond, tempo-rary basin) to the on-board pump, which thenboosts the pressure to hose lines or other devicesattacking the fire.

An aerial apparatus is typically equipped with along aerial ladder or elevating platform on top, anassortment of ground ladders, and many powerand hand tools. Together with its personnel, this isoften called a truck (or ladder) company. They areresponsible for all support functions, includingforcible entry, search, rescue, laddering, and venti-lation. If aerial apparatus is not available, thesetruck company functions must be performed byanother unit.

There is also an apparatus called a “quint. ”Each of these vehicles is equipped as both a

pumper and an aerial apparatus to perform eitherfunction. If provided with adequate staffing, andpositioned properly at an incident, quints can per-form both functions.

Upon arrival at an incident, firefighters musthandle many tasks. Standard operating proceduresshould enable firefighters to quickly assess the situ-ation, and initially arriving units to go into opera-tion (Figure 1.3). Rescuing of occupants is the firstpriority, followed by confining and extinguishingthe fire. In some cases, firefighters must stop thefire before proceeding with rescues.

Incident command begins with the rapid gather-ing of information by the first arriving officer. Thisis called “size-up. ” Incident command expandsas additional units and chief officers arrive.Commanders must base strategies on the limitedinformation available at any given time regardingthe fire, the building, and the occupants. As theyreceive additional information, commanders shouldrevise their strategies. As needed, they can call foradditional resources. Units from another jurisdic-tion or district that respond are referred to as“mutual aid” units.

As the fire incident is brought under control, salvage, overhaul, and investigation activities takeplace. These activities, although dangerous andimportant, are less time-sensitive. As a result, theyare less of a consideration for building and fire pro-tection system designers.

(Fig. 1.3) During initialoperation at this struc-ture, the first arrivingengine crew is alreadyusing a fire lane, a fire hydrant, the firedepartment connection,and the key box.Interior operation willsoon involve the alarm system, stairways,standpipe system, andother building features.


FIRE SERVICE CHALLENGESFire service operations take place in stressful, time-sensitive environments (Figure 1.4). Delayingoperations, even slightly, especially during the criti-cal initial phase when the first arriving resourcesare committed, can adversely affect subsequentoperations and the outcome. Delays caused bypoorly located fire hydrants, confusing alarm infor-mation, ineffective communication systems, orinaccessible valves will have a ripple effect on theother portions of the operation. During thesedelays, the fire will be growing exponentially.

Members of the fire service perform their func-tions during all times of the day or night, in anyweather conditions, and frequently in unfamiliarenvironments. Their work environment is danger-ous, mentally stressful, and physically exhaust-ing. Decisions must often be made without anideal amount of information, due to the manyunknowns on the fireground (such as what is onfire, how much is burning, where the fire is spread-ing, and where the occupants are located).

These factors stack the deck against the safetyof firefighters. Even simplifying the firefighters’ jobin small ways will increase the level of safety forthem, and thereby for building occupants. Designfeatures that save time or personnel can make agreat difference. Any feature that provides addi-tional information regarding the fire, the build-ing, or the occupants, as well as any method tospeed the delivery of this information also helps.

Pre-incident plans (often called “preplans”) aredocuments prepared by fire departments to assistin emergency operations in specific facilities. Theyshould contain the location of, and informationabout, the fire protection features discussed in thismanual. Preplans are usually prepared and main-tained by the unit that normally responds first, or is“first due,” to a particular facility. One couldargue that some of the considerations in this manu-al are not necessary if the fire department preparesthorough preplans. However, the best pre-incidentplanning cannot overcome situations where thefirst due unit is committed on another response,out of position, or out of service. Nor can it foreseechanges in personnel. It is simply unrealistic tocount on all responding personnel to be aware ofthe pre-incident plan.

Pre-incident planning makes sense but it willalways have limitations. Fire departments and fire-fighters that are more familiar with features of

buildings in their response area are better preparedto deal with fires and other emergencies. Designerscan assist in pre-incident planning by providingcopies of building and system plans (paper or elec-tronic) to the fire service after first seeking permis-sion from the building owner.

National Fire Protection Association (NFPA) sta-tistics show a steady decline of fire-related deathsin the U.S. during the 1990s. During that samedecade, however, the number of firefighter fatalitieshas remained relatively steady. The National FallenFirefighters Foundation has developed a list ofsafety initiatives to reduce firefighter line-of-dutydeaths and is playing a lead role in their implemen-tation.

MANUAL ORGANIZATION AND USEEach chapter of this manual includes a narrativedescribing the specific building feature and how the fire department interacts with it. Boxes, entitled“Considerations, ” highlight specific items that adesigner should consider for each topic. Photosand diagrams illustrate both good and bad exam-ples of concepts and recommendations.

(Fig. 1.4) Firefighters arriving at a high-rise fire. During this operation, firefighters will interact with most of the features discussed in this manual. To successfully mitigate an incidentof this nature, firefighters must make many decisions rapidly,and carry out various operations simultaneously. Time saveddue to design with the fire service in mind will translate intoincreased firefighter and occupant safety.

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Although this manual contains generic consider-ations, designers should seek and follow the adviceof the fire service organization serving each projectthey work on. In some cases, the fire departmentwill have statutory authority to take part in the planreview, permit process, and inspections of thesefacilities or to approve some features of the build-ing or site. In any case, it is wise to also include thefire service at an early stage in the design process,when changes are easier and less costly.

There are many ways for the fire protectioncommunity to disseminate or incorporate the infor-mation in this manual. Simply handing it out todesigners is a great start. Developing a handoutbased on this document that is specific to a particu-lar jurisdiction is another good strategy. The rec-ommendations can also serve as a basis for localcode amendments which carry the force of law.

Many of the recommendations in this manualcost nothing to implement. They simply providedirection in cases where the model codes or con-sensus standards allow options. Designers canimplement these recommendations directly, in con-sultation with the fire department. Other recom-mendations in this manual may carry costs,depending on the particular codes adopted in agiven jurisdiction. In such cases, those who wouldbe affected by these costs should be consulted.

Codes and standards typically include a clausethat permits the code official to allow alternatives tostrict compliance, as long as the prescribed level ofsafety is not diminished. In some cases, a higherlevel of safety for firefighters can be achievedthrough this process. For example, a voluntaryradio repeater system may provide more protection(and may also be less costly to install) than a code-required firefighter communication system.Equivalent alternatives should be documentedalong with justification.

This manual may also serve as a resource forthose interested in improving codes and standardsfor building or fire protection system design.While current codes in the U.S. provide for fire-fighter safety, much more remains to be accom-plished. For instance, building codes in the U.K.have specific fire service provisions, such as dedi-cated, protected fire stairs and elevators. Stream-lining and simplifying fire service operations shouldbe considered an integral part of the overall firesafety framework for the built environment.

TERMINOLOGYThe terminology used in this manual is as genericas possible, just as it is in the standards of theNational Fire Protection Association and theInternational Code Council. Many variations interms will be encountered in different areas of theU.S. or in other countries. For example, this manualuses the term “aerial apparatus” to describe a fireservice vehicle with a long, aerial ladder. Yet, in thiscountry alone, other terms used to describe thesame vehicle include: “truck, ” “ladder, ” “aerial, ”“ladder truck, ” “tower, ” or “tower ladder. ” Or,in some cases, the same terms could be used todescribe a particular aerial fire apparatus.Similarly, in some areas the term “truck” refersonly to aerial apparatus, while in other areas thisterm could also include pumper apparatus.

In another example of potentially confusing terminology, fire apparatus drivers in some areasof the country are referred to as “engineers.”Consider the situation of an architect speaking to afire officer in an area where this terminology isused. You can easily see how the fire officer coulduse the term “engineer” to mean a driver, whilethe architect interprets the term as a buildingdesign engineer.

The editions of the codes and standards refer-enced in this manual are not included. The infor-mation and requirements referenced in this manualare from the latest editions available during themanual's development in 2004. Subsequent revi-sions to these codes and standards may change thesections or the requirements referenced. The edi-tions adopted by local or state laws in a given juris-diction may vary.


AHJ (Authority Having Jurisdiction): the entitylegally designated to enforce a code or standard.

Apparatus: fire service vehicle.

Apparatus, aerial: apparatus that carries laddersand tools.

Apparatus, pumper: apparatus that carries hose,a pump, and a water tank.

Apparatus, quint: apparatus that contains aerialand pumper equipment.

Code Official: a fire code official, building codeofficial, or authority having jurisdiction.

Code Official, Building: person legally designatedto enforce a building code.

Code Official, Fire: person legally designated toenforce a fire code.

Engine company: pumper apparatus and personnel.

First due unit: engine company or truck compa-ny designated to respond first to an incident at agiven location.

Hose lay, straight (or forward): an engine com-pany evolution (task) to lay hose from a watersource to an incident scene or another unit.

Hose lay, reverse: an engine company evolution(task) to lay hose from an incident scene oranother unit to a water source.

Hose line, preconnected: a hose of fixed lengthwith a nozzle attached and connected to a dis-charge outlet on a pumper.

IBC: International Building Code.

IFC: International Fire Code.

Ladder company: aerial apparatus and personnel.

NFPA: National Fire Protection Association.

NFPA 1: Uniform Fire Code.

NFPA 101: Life Safety Code.

NFPA 241: Standard for SafeguardingConstruction, Alteration, and DemolitionOperations.

NFPA 1141: Standard for Fire Protection inPlanned Building Groups.

NFPA 5000: Building Construction and SafetyCode.

Pre-incident plan: document containing informa-tion on a specific facility to facilitate emergencyoperations.

Truck company: aerial apparatus and personnel.

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GLOSSARY OF ACRONYMS AND TERMS

Chapter 2Building and Site Design

GENERALThe faster the fire service can respond, enter,locate the incident, and safely operate in a build-ing, the sooner they can mitigate an incident in asafe manner for themselves as well as occupants.This chapter contains guidance on this topic forboth building site layout and interior design fea-tures. Those preparing design documents such assite plans, civil plans, foundation plans, and archi-tectural layouts would typically use this informa-tion. Building designers desiring to locate fire pro-tection systems features should consult the appro-priate chapters of this manual for further guidance.

FIRE APPARATUS ACCESSProperly positioning fire apparatus can be critical ata fire scene. In particular, placing aerial apparatus iscritical for positioning of the aerial ladder or elevat-ing platform, which is mounted on top of thesevehicles (Figure 2.1). Pumper apparatus also needto get close enough to the building to facilitate hoseline use. The location of other specialized appara-tus, or small vehicles, such as chief’s cars or ambu-lances, should only be of particular concern to thedesigner of unusual facilities. For instance, a sportsarena may need to be designed for entry of ambu-lances but not fire apparatus.

Many structures are situated on public streetsthat provide fire fighting access. Others, which areset back from public streets, have private fire appa-ratus access lanes or “fire lanes, ” for short. Theseenable fire apparatus to approach the building andoperate effectively (Figure 2.2). Fire lanes can bededicated to fire service use, or can serve ordinaryvehicular traffic as well.

There are many considerations for both publicroads and fire lanes: clear width, clear height,length, turn radius, arrangement, distance from thebuilding, and paving materials. In all cases, themost stringent practicable dimensions should beconsidered for design, since future apparatus pur-chases or mutual aid apparatus from other jurisdic-tions may exceed the specifications required in agiven jurisdiction at any given time.

Extent of Access

Minimum building access for fire apparatus is afunction of the access road reaching to within a cer-tain distance of all portions of the building’s first

(Fig. 2.1) Good aerial apparatus access at an apartmentfire. This fire lane is wide enough to allow passing evenwhen aerial outriggers are extended, and it is located aproper distance from the building to facilitate aerial operations.

(Fig. 2.2) Fire lane dimensions, reprinted with permissionfrom NFPA 2003 Uniform Fire Code Handbook, © 2003,National Fire Protection Association, Quincy, MA.

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floor exterior walls. This limit in NFPA 1 and the IFCis 150 feet for buildings without a complete sprin-kler system. For fully sprinklered buildings, NFPA 1permits this distance to be increased to 450 feet;the IFC leaves this decision up to the discretion ofthe code official. Further, NFPA 1 requires that theroad extend to within 50 feet of an exterior doorproviding interior access.

The distance from the building to a road or firelane is sometimes referred to as “setback dis-tance. ” NFPA 1141 has additional guidelines foraccess locations versus building location, with vari-ations depending upon building size, height,sprinkler protection, and separation from otherbuildings.

Perimeter Access

The options available for attacking a fire increase asmore of a building’s perimeter becomes accessibleto fire apparatus (Figure 2.3). A concept, knownas “frontage increase, ” appears in the IBC andNFPA 5000. If a structure has more than a certainpercentage of its perimeter accessible to fireapparatus, these codes allow the maximum sizeof the building to be increased. Ideally, the fullperimeter would be accessible.

During renovations, designers should use partic-ular caution to ensure that the perimeter accesscontinues to meet the NFPA requirements of fire

(Fig. 2.3) A combinationof two public roads andtwo private fire lanes pro-vides full perimeteraccess to this building.

and building codes. The original building site mayhave been based on a frontage increase. Changingthe amount of perimeter access can result in non-compliant building size.

Number of Fire Lanes

A single access route is a basic requirement in bothNFPA 1 and the IFC. However, both codes allow thecode official or AHJ to require additional accessroutes due to various factors that could inhibitaccess (such as terrain, climate, or vehicle conges-tion). NFPA 1141 requires two access routes forbuildings over two stories or 30 feet in height.Multiple fire lanes should be as far removed fromone another as practicable.

Turnarounds

Long, dead-end fire lanes or roads should provide a means for fire apparatus to turn around. BothNFPA 1 and the IFC require turnaround space fordead-ends that are more than 150 feet long. Thereare a number of configurations that facilitate turn-ing maneuvers. These include, “T-turn, ” “Y-turn, ”and round cul-de-sac style arrangements (Figures2.4 and 2.5 for NFPA diagrams). NFPA 1141requires a 120-foot turnaround at the end of dead-ends more than 300 feet long. Turnaround dia-grams also can be found in Appendix D of the IFC.

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Clear Width

The basic clear width requirement for apparatusaccess in the IFC and NFPA 1 is 20 feet. NFPA 1141calls for one-way fire lanes that are 16 feet wide;however, this applies to roads that do not abutbuildings. A clear width of 20 feet will allow mostaerial apparatus to extend the outriggers necessaryto support the aerial ladder or elevating platformwhile in operation (Figures 1.2 and 2.1). However,some recently manufactured aerial apparatus require 24 feet of clear width for outrigger extension.

Lanes wide enough for apparatus to pass oneanother will facilitate developing and expandingoperations. NFPA 1141 contains a 24-foot clearwidth requirement for two-way fire lanes. Appen-dix D of the IBC calls for a 26-foot clear width at firehydrant locations, extending for a distance of 20feet in both directions, as well as a 26-foot width inthe vicinity of buildings that are 30 feet or more inheight (for aerial operations). NFPA 1141 also con-tains guidance on access in parking lots.

Rolled or rounded curbs adjacent to properlydesigned sidewalks can effectively increase accesswidth. These allow apparatus to easily negotiatecurbs.

Height

The basic requirement for clear height of fire lanesin the IFC, NFPA 1 and NFPA 1141 is 13 feet 6 inch-es. Some modern aerial apparatus may require 14feet of clearance. Potential for accumulation of snow and ice should be factored into heightrequirements. The NFPA 1 handbook recommendsat least 14 feet in colder climates. Newer aerialapparatus may also require additional height.Finally, avoid overhead wires or other obstructionswhen determining fire lane locations.

(Fig. 2.4) Fire apparatus “Y-” and “T-turnarounds.”Reprinted with permission from NFPA 2003 Uniform FireCode Handbook, © 2003, National Fire ProtectionAssociation, Quincy, MA.

(Fig. 2.5) Fire apparatus cul-de-sac turnaround. Reprinted with permission from NFPA 2003 Uniform FireCode Handbook, © 2003, National Fire ProtectionAssociation, Quincy, MA.


Building Proximity

In areas with aerial apparatus that may respond toan emergency, the road or fire lane should be posi-tioned at a distance from the building that willaccommodate aerial ladder operation. Access tooclose or too far from the building will limit aerialladder use. Where a fire lane is parallel to a build-ing that is more than 30 feet high, Appendix D ofthe IFC calls for the near edge of the lane to bebetween 15 and 30 feet away from the building.

Turn Radius

The IFC and NFPA 1 leave turn radius requirementsto the code official and AHJ. However, NFPA 1141requires a minimum inside turn radius of 25 feetand a minimum outside radius for turns of 50 feet.The cul-de-sac depicted in Figure 2.5 shows aneffective inside turn radius of 40 feet. Further, NFPA1141 requires 2-foot curb cuts on either side of afire lane where it connects to a road.

Grade

NFPA 1 sets a maximum grade (slope) of 5 percentfor fire lanes. NFPA 1141 specifies a 10 percent maxi-mum, as well as a 0.5 percent minimum to preventpooling of water. However, some manufacturershave lower limits for specific apparatus. When aerialapparatus is set up for operation, the vehicle bodymust be leveled with the outriggers. The least gradepossible would allow for the most rapid setup.

Loads

All access roads or lanes should be built to with-stand the loads presented by modern, heavy fireapparatus as well as potential weather conditions.Paved surfaces, bridges, and other elevated sur-faces (such as piers or boardwalks) should bedesigned to handle the weight of all apparatus thatmay use them. The IFC Appendix D has a loaddesign requirement of 75,000 pounds. U.S.Department of Transportation standards dictaterequirements for both load and frequency. The IFCreferences the Standard Specification for HighwayBridges from the American Association of StateHighway Transportation Officials (AASHTO).

Materials

All-weather paved access is the best surface. Somejurisdictions permit the use of paver blocks or sub-surface construction for fire lanes (Figure 2.6).These permit an area to be partially or fully land-scaped, while being strong enough to allow fireapparatus to negotiate the area. However, thesematerials do have inherent limitations. Unless theirperimeter is clearly marked, it is easy to drive offthe edge. Also, in regions subject to snow accumu-lation, areas with paver blocks and subsurface con-struction cannot be plowed effectively (Figure 2.7).

(Fig. 2.7) The same paver block access lane as shown inFigure 2.6, but covered with snow. Access is blocked by amound of snow plowed from the adjacent parking lot.

(Fig. 2.6) Paver blocks were chosen instead of paving forthis access road. The aesthetic benefits are minimal, andthe road cannot be plowed effectively.

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(Fig. 2.9) The delays caused by electronic gates can beminimized by providing the fire department with accesscards or remote access controls.

(Fig. 2.8) Manual gates cause inherent delays becausepersonnel must dismount to unlock them or cut throughchains. However, they can also help keep the fire accesslane clear by preventing vehicle parking.


Gates, Barricades and Security Measures

Security concerns may impact fire service access.Gates (manual, electric, or radio controlled), bol-lards, pop-up barricades, and other perimetercontrols can delay fire service operations. On theother hand, these access control measures canassist in keeping vehicular traffic away from firelanes (Figures 2.8 through 2.10). During the designphase of a project, careful coordination betweenthose responsible for security and fire protectioncan help resolve both concerns. In addition, propergate size, location, and swing can facilitate fire serv-ice access. Wooden bollards are designed with cuts

near their bases to allow access when apparatusbump them and break them. However, this resultsin delays while they are broken and cleared fromthe path of the apparatus, and may also causedamage.

Speed Control Measures

Speed bumps or humps can impact fire apparatusaccess. Due to their suspension, these vehiclesmust come to a nearly complete stop to pass overthese bumps, delaying arrival to a fire scene.Some special speed bump designs allow for fireapparatus to straddle bumps, while passengervehicles cannot do so. Dips should also be avoidedso that long wheel-base vehicles do not hit bot-tom and damage undercarriage components andoverhanging equipment.

Marking

Fire lane signage is important, both for the publicand enforcement officials (Figure 2.8). Examplesinclude signs, curb painting, or curb stenciling. Ajurisdiction’s requirements must be followed exact-ly to ensure that no-parking provisions are legallyenforceable. Speed bumps should be conspicuous-ly painted, and signs indicating their location shouldbe posted in climates subject to accumulation ofsnow and ice. Load limits should be posted con-spicuously on both ends of bridges or elevated sur-faces.

(Fig. 2.10) Pop-up barricades such as these are appear-ing more frequently due to security concerns. Unlesssecurity forces are constantly present to operate them,however, the fire department should be provided with ameans to do so.

PREMISES IDENTIFICATIONThe fire service must be able to rapidly identify andlocate a specific building. Address numbers shouldbe placed on the building facing the street or roadon which the building is addressed. If the buildingentry faces a different street, both the street nameand the number should be on the address sign.

Numbers should be large enough to read fromthe street or road. If this is not possible due to thelocation of the building or due to obstructions,additional signs should be provided (Figure 2.11).The IFC specifies that address numbers be a mini-mum of 4 inches high. Some jurisdictions have ahigher minimum height requirement, especially forcommercial properties. The number should be inArabic numerals rather than spelled out (for exam-ple, “120” instead of “One Hundred Twenty”).

Buildings set back in groups that share commonentrances can make quickly locating a specificbuilding and the shortest route to it difficult. Onsuch sites, additional signs with directional arrowsand/or diagrams of the buildings and access layoutshould be posted (Figures 2.12 and 2.13).

Whenever possible, signs should be illuminated.In areas subject to snow accumulation, signs shouldbe positioned above anticipated accumulations.

See the section Firefighter Access on page 21for signage to assist the fire service in identifyingportions of a building, or interior layouts.

Considerations – Fire Apparatus Access

■ Extent of Access: Within 150 feet of the far-thest exterior point; can be farther in sprin-klered buildings.

■ Perimeter Access: As many sides of the build-ing and as much of the perimeter as possible;take advantage of frontage increases.

■ Number of Fire Lanes: More than one whendictated by code official or AHJ.

■ Turnarounds: Provided for on all dead-endsmore than 150 feet long.

■ Clear Width (excluding parking): Minimum 20feet; preferably, 24 feet to allow passing and26 feet in the vicinity of fire hydrants or pointsof aerial access.

■ Clear Height: Minimum 13 feet 6 inches; high-er where subject to accumulations of snowand ice.

■ Obstructions: Avoid overhead wires and otherobstructions.

■ Proximity to Buildings for Aerial Operations: Ifparallel to buildings more than 30 feet high,locate near edge 15–30 feet away.

■ Turn Radius: Minimum 25 feet inside and 50feet outside.

■ Curb Cut: If provided, extend 2 feet beyond oneach side of intersecting fire lane.

■ Grade (slope): Maximum 5 percent; leastgrade possible for aerial operation areas.

■ Load: Access routes, both on grade and ele-vated, designed for the largest possible appa-ratus load.

■ Materials: Design access routes for all-weatheruse.

■ Security Measures: To minimize delays, specifythat keys, electronic access cards, or remoteaccess controls are provided to the fire depart-ment.

■ Barricades: Use non-destructive gates or postsrather than breakaway bollards.

■ Gate Size: At least 2 feet wider than fire lanes.■ Gate Location: At least 30 feet from public

right-of-way.■ Gate Swing: Away from direction of fire appa-

ratus travel.■ Speed Bumps: Avoid them, or design them for

fire apparatus. ■ Signage: Provide for no-parking areas, and for

load limits.■ Special Apparatus: May require more stringent

criteria than above.

(Fig. 2.11) Supplemental address sign at the entranceserving this building set far back from the road.

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Considerations – Premises Identification

■ Location: Addresses should be on each build-ing.

■ Numeral size: At least 4 inches high for singlefamily homes, and preferably 6 inches high forall other properties; larger if necessary to bevisible from the street.

■ Numerals: Addresses (numbers) should be inArabic numerals.

■ Color: Addresses should be in a color that con-trasts with the background.

■ Provide street name with the address numberfor entrances facing other streets.

■ Provide additional address signs at entrancesto the property when the building address isnot legible from the public street.

■ Common entrances: Provide directional or dia-grammatic signs for groups of buildings shar-ing common entrances; include locations offire hydrants, fire department connections,and fire alarm annunciator panels.


(Fig. 2.12) Directional address sign at the entrance of aproperty.

(Fig. 2.13) Diagrammatic sign showing an entire complexof buildings and their address(es). The addition of firehydrant locations (and any other fire protection features)would assist responding firefighters.

FIRE HYDRANTSOptimal positioning, spacing, location, and mark-

ing of fire hydrants can aid the fire service duringemergency operations. Public fire hydrants areoften under the purview of a local water authori-ty, many of whom use American Water WorksAssociation (AWWA) standards for fire flow andother criteria. The building design team is oftenresponsible for hydrants and water supply systemson privately owned property sites. Both the IFCand NFPA 1 include appendices that give criteria forfire flow, and fire hydrant location and distribution.Other criteria can be found in NFPA 24, Standardfor the Installation of Private Fire Service Mains andtheir Appurtenances.

(Fig. 2.14) This hydrant should not have been locatedwhere it is likely to be blocked. Loading docks, by nature,will likely have vehicles parked. This is an example ofbuilding a potential deficiency into a facility. The truckcould prevent use of the large pumper connection orcause the base to be kinked when used. Note the yellowbollards which protect the hydrant from vehicle collision.

(Fig. 2.15) Here is a pumper connectedto a hydrant by its front-mounted suc-tion hose. The pumper end of the hosehas a swivel to facilitate reachinghydrants on either side.

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Features

Typically, hydrants have a large suction hose con-nection (41/2 inches is a common size) called a“pumper outlet” or a “steamer” connection. Plus,they normally have two, 21/2 inch hose connections.Both wet-barrel type hydrants and the dry-barreltypes used in areas subject to freezing have thesefeatures. Dry hydrants (those connected to a staticsource such as a tank, well, or pond) often haveonly a large connection or pumper outlet. Criteriafor dry hydrants can be found in NFPA 1142,Standard for Water Supplies for Suburban andRural Firefighting.

Hose can be connected directly to a fire hydrantonly if the connections match those needed by thearea fire service. This includes type (threaded orquick-connect), thread style and size of connection.If the connections do not match, adapters (if avail-able) will slow response.

Position

Optimal location and positioning of hydrants facili-tates rapid connection of hose lines and devices.Considerations for designers include height, orien-tation, distance from the curb, and distance fromsurrounding obstructions (Figure 2.14). A cleardistance is essential around the hydrant to enablea hydrant wrench to be swung 360 degrees (seeFigure 2.16b) on any operating nut or cap nut. Ifthe nearby obstruction is a plant or bush, considerits potential growth when planning for hydrantplacement.

Spacing

Maximum distance between hydrants differs great-ly, depending on various local standards. IFC andNFPA 1 both include tables within appendices thatenable a designer to find the required fire flow forany given building, and then select the correspond-ing hydrant spacing. Where apparatus may ap-proach from different directions, hydrants shouldbe placed primarily at intersections. If additionalhydrants are needed to comply with local spacingrequirements, they should be spaced along blocksat regular intervals.

Location

Pumpers may utilize hydrants in different ways.If the fire is close enough, a pumper can be posi-tioned at a hydrant and use a large-diameter suc-tion hose (Figure 2.15). Pumpers in urban and sub-urban areas with hydrants are generally equippedwith large-diameter suction hoses connected to anintake on the pumper’s front bumper, rear step, orside. This suction hose may be as short as 15 feet.In many urban areas, however, pumpers carrylonger suction hoses in order to reach hydrants onthe opposite side of a single line of parallel parkedcars.

If a fire is not close to a particular hydrant, apumper may have to lay one or more hose linesbetween the hydrant and the fire. If a pumper laysa supply hose line from a hydrant towards thebuilding with the fire emergency, this is called a“straight” or “forward” hose lay (Figures 2.16a and2.16b). The opposite (laying supply hose from abuilding on fire to a hydrant farther down the


(Fig. 2.16a) Pumper stopping to initiate a forward hose lay from ahydrant.

(Fig. 2.16b) The same pumper com-pleting the straight lay towards thefire scene, and a firefighter preparingto operate the hydrant after the hoseis safely layed out.

(Fig. 2.16c) Pumper performing areverse hose lay from a fire scene(to feed the monitor nozzle shown)towards a hydrant.

street) is called a “reverse lay” (Figure 2.16c).Many fire departments use one or the other ofthese options as their standard procedure.Designers should take this into account whenlocating hydrants. For instance, hydrants at theend of dead-end streets will not facilitate straighthose lays.

Hydrants that are too close to a particular build-ing are less likely to be used due to potential fireexposure or collapse. Locating hydrants at least 40feet away from protected buildings is recommend-ed. If this is not possible, consider locations withblank walls, no windows or doors, and where struc-tural collapse is unlikely (such as building corners).A rule of thumb for collapse zone size is twice thedistance of the building’s height. This is nota consideration in urban areas, where a multitudeof hydrants are available for any given location.

Marking

A number of methods are used to enable firefight-ers to rapidly identify hydrant locations. The colorused for hydrants should contrast as much as pos-sible with the predominating surroundings. Somelocalities place reflective tape around the hydrantbody. Other jurisdictions mount reflectors (usuallyblue) in the roadway in front of each hydrant; how-ever, in cold weather climates these reflectors areoften obstructed by snow.

The best way to identify hydrants in areas sub-ject to snowy weather is a locator pole which is vis-ible above the highest expected snowfall. These are

reflective or contrasting in color, and some have aflag, sign, or reflector mounted on top (Figure 2.17).These poles should be flexible enough to return totheir upright position if someone tampers with them,or rigid enough to prevent this type of tampering.Some jurisdictions or sites go so far as mounting alight (usually red or blue) above the hydrants.

A color coding system may indicate flow capa-bility of hydrants. One such system is contained inNFPA 291, Recommended Practice for Fire FlowTesting and Marking of Hydrants.

During construction or demolition, fire hydrantsmay be out of service. Designers should specifythat inoperative hydrants be covered or markedduring their projects, so that firefighters will notwaste time attempting to use them.

(Fig. 2.17) One example of a hydrant locatorpole with a reflective flag.

Considerations – Fire Hydrants

■ Position: Orient the pumper outlet toward theaccess lane or street.

■ Height: Center of lowest outlet should be 18inches above grade.

■ Location: Within 5 feet of an access lane orstreet; preferably with no intervening parking.

■ Protection: Provide bollards if there is no curbbetween the road surface and the hydrant;locate at least 3 feet from the hydrant.

■ Obstructions: Locate 3 feet from any surround-ing obstructions.

■ Consider fire department approach directionsand hose-laying procedures when locatinghydrants.

■ Avoid locations likely to be blocked, such asloading docks.

■ Position hydrants at least 40 feet from build-ings they serve.

■ Specify a hydrant marking system; in cold cli-mates, use distinctive poles.

■ Where possible, color code hydrants to indi-cate flow.

■ Specify that inoperative hydrants be coveredor marked.

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FIREFIGHTER ACCESSOnce firefighters have arrived and positioned theirapparatus, they must go to work. Some factorsaffecting their efficiency include: the distance andterrain between the apparatus access and the build-ing; how easily they can enter the building; thebuilding’s interior layout and vertical access(stairs/elevators/roof access); and, how quickly fire-fighters can locate fire protection features and utili-ties. The designer can make a positive impact in allof these areas.

Site access

Firefighters must hand carry all equipment beyondthe point where apparatus access ends. Increaseddistance translates into additional time and effort toset up ladders, hose lines, and other equipment. Ifthe area is easy to negotiate by foot, firefighterscan move more quickly. The IFC and NFPA 1 con-tain requirements for access to building openings,such as approved walkways that lead from theapparatus access points to the entry doors.

Fire department pumpers carry hose lines forattacking fires. These are usually smaller in diame-ter than the hose lines used to supply water to thepumper from a water source. Many pumpers haveone or more hose loads of a fixed length connectedinto a pump discharge. These are “pre-connected”hose lines, often called simply “preconnects.” Fire-fighters deploy them rapidly for quick fire attack.However, their useful range is limited by theirlength, which is generally between 100 and 400feet. Designers planning unusual designs for theirbuildings or working with unusual sites shouldcoordinate with the local fire department regardinghose line access unless a standpipe system is pro-vided in the building.

Buildings under construction or renovation posetheir own particular concerns to the fire service.Code provisions can be found in the IFC Chapter14, IBC Chapter 33, NFPA 5000 Chapter 14, andNFPA 241. Designers should consider the accessi-bility of fire department connections, firehydrants, and entry points. Some locations maybe more likely to be obstructed by constructionstorage, truck unloading, cranes, phasing of theconstruction, and security fences. Designers shouldconsider specifying these locations and the locationof temporary and permanent fire protection equip-ment to avoid conflicts (Figures 5.14 and 5.15).

Key Boxes and Entry Doors

If firefighters need to conduct interior fire suppres-sion operations, they must enter the building at oneor more points. The fire service has an array of toolsto force entry into buildings. However, forcing entrytakes extra time and usually damages the building.

Key boxes (also called “access boxes” or “lockboxes”) are small lockable vaults mounted outsidebuilding entrances (Figure 2.18). They are openedwith a master key held by the fire department.Inside the box are the building’s keys. Some juris-dictions require key boxes; others give buildingowners the option of installing them, or risking theneed for firefighters to force entry into their build-ings along with any resulting damage. Code offi-cials enforcing the IFC and NFPA 1 may require keyboxes. When key boxes are optional, designersmay want to educate owners on their benefits.


(Fig. 2.18) Key box adjacent to fire command center.These boxes are often provided at main building entrydoors. Note the fire department connection on the left.

First arriving firefighters will often base theirpoint of entry on which windows have fire or smokeventing from them. In most cases, entrances thatserve any particular window will be readily appar-ent from the outside. If it is not obvious which doorto enter to reach which area, signs or diagramsshould be provided outside each entrance doorindicating portions of the building accessible fromthe corresponding door (Figure 2.19).

In multi-tenant buildings, such as shopping cen-ters and malls, tenants usually have rear exit doorsthat firefighters may access. Often these doors lookalike, making it hard to correlate a given door with aparticular tenant. Labeling rear doors on the outsidewith the tenant’s name, address number and/or suitenumber, using lettering at least six inches high witha 1/2 inch stroke (thickness of lines in each letter) pre-vents this problem (Figure 2.20).

Any door that appears to be functional from theoutside, but is unusable for any reason, shouldhave a sign reading “THIS DOOR BLOCKED. ” Thelettering should be at least six inches high with a 1/2

inch stroke. If these doors are properly marked,firefighters will not waste time trying to gain entrythrough them.

(Fig. 2.19) Apartment locator. This door does not accessapartments whose windows flank it.

(Fig. 2.20) Rear doors of a shopping center labeled forrapid access: utility room, fire protection equipmentroom, and individual tenant space.

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Interior Access

Large, unusual, or complex buildings present achallenge to maneuvering and locating specificareas. Directional signs with room/tenant numbers,and graphic directories of tenant/agency layout canassist the public (Figure 2.21). The same diagramsmay assist firefighters if they include: stairway andelevator identifiers, fire hose valve locations, firealarm control panel location, fire alarm annunciatorlocation, fire pump location and other fire protec-tion features. Diagrams should also contain fea-tures to assist unfamiliar users with orientation,such as road names or a compass point.

Detailed floor plans showing building layout andfire protection systems can assist the fire service.In buildings with fire command centers, a goodlocation for these plans is in this command center.In other buildings, these plans may be locked insidethe fire alarm annunciator panel.

Elevators

The use of elevators during fire incidents is verycontroversial. Elevators are not usually used foroccupant evacuation. One exception is trainedoperators evacuating occupants with special needs.They should, however, be designed for fire serviceuse. The elevator standard widely referenced inbuilding and fire codes is ANSI A17.1, Safety Codefor Elevators and Escalators. It details the twophases of emergency operation.

Phase 1 of elevator emergency operation con-sists of a recall system that automatically sends ele-vators to a “designated” primary level. This occursupon activation of a manual recall switch at thedesignated level or upon activation of smoke detec-tors in the elevator lobbies, hoistways, or machinerooms. If a detector is activated on the designatedprimary level, the elevator cars go to an alternatefloor level. In either case, the elevators are ren-dered unavailable to building occupants. Theyremain at the recall level with doors open, so thefire service can quickly determine that they areclear of occupants and then use them in a manualcontrol mode.

The designated recall level usually is the groundor entry level. This will facilitate rapid fire depart-ment access. For buildings with entrances onmultiple levels, designers should consult the firedepartment about the entrance firefighters intendto use initially. The fire department may also preferto coordinate the designated recall level with thelocation of the fire alarm annunciator, fire controlroom, and/or the fire department connection.

Phase 2 emergency operation permits the fireservice to use the elevators under their manualcontrol. Phase 2 operation overrides all automaticcontrols, including the Phase 1 recall.

Solid-state elevator control equipment operatescorrectly only if maintained within a certain tem-perature range. NFPA 101, NFPA 5000, and theIBC require independent ventilation in machinerooms containing solid-state equipment that con-trols elevators traveling over certain distances.Whenever such elevators receive emergencypower, their corresponding machine room ventila-tion would also receive emergency power. Thesefeatures help maintain at least one elevator opera-tional throughout fire suppression operations.

Currently, ANSI A17.1 requires an automaticpower shutdown feature for elevators that have firesprinklers located in their machine rooms and,under certain conditions, in hoistways. Shutdown

(2.21) Shopping complex diagram with views of theoverall complex as well as the interior tenant diagram of the building in which the diagram is located.


Equipment and Utility Identification

A routine function in any advanced fire suppressionoperation is to control (usually shut down) utilities.Making it easy to locate and identify utilities willspeed firefighters’ progress. Electric, gas, andother fuel controls should be located either in dedi-cated rooms with exterior marked entrances, or atexterior locations away from openings such as win-dows or doors (Figure 2.20).

NFPA 170, Standard for Symbols for Use by theFire Service, contains symbols for marking gas andelectric shut-offs. Air handling equipment shouldalso be prominently marked, especially if locatedout of sight. The fire service may need to quicklyaccess rooms containing the following equipment:water service, control valves, fire pumps, electricservice, switchgear, generators, fans and othermechanical equipment. Lettering for this signageshould be at least six inches high with a 1/2 inchstroke (thickness of lines in each letter), unless thestandard symbols are used.

Marking of fire protection system devices withinbuildings is discussed further in the chapters on firealarm systems, sprinkler systems, standpipe sys-tems, and fire department connections.

occurs upon or prior to the discharge of water, usu-ally when heat detectors mounted next to eachsprinkler head are activated. These heat detec-tors have both a lower temperature rating and ahigher sensitivity (a lower response time index)than the sprinkler. However, to minimize thechance that firefighters will be trapped by a powershutdown, the temperature rating of the heat detec-tor should be as high as feasible. Another shut-down method involves water flow detectors;however, these detectors cannot employ a timedelay, so designers seldom choose this method.Note that in many cases NFPA 13, Standard for theInstallation of Sprinkler Systems, permits sprinklersto be omitted from these areas.

The National Fire Alarm Code, NFPA 72, requiresthat smoke detectors in either the elevator hoistwayor the elevator machine rooms trigger separate anddistinct visible annunciation at both the fire alarmcontrol unit and the fire alarm annunciator. Thisalarm notifies firefighters that the elevators are nolonger safe to use, and it also provides some warn-ing time prior to the shutdown feature that isrequired with sprinkler protection. In addition, ANSIA17.1 requires a warning light in elevator cabs toflash when an elevator problem is imminent.

Stairs

NFPA 1, NFPA 101, NFPA 5000, the IBC, and the IFCall require that identification signage be providedinside stairwells at every level (Figure 2.22). Thesestandards all require stairwell signs in buildingsover a certain height, but the height thresholdsvary. Signage should show the stair identifier, floorlevel, terminus of the top and bottom, roof accessi-

bility, discharge level, and direction to exit dis-charge. On floors that require upward travel toreach the exit, a directional indicator should alsobe provided. It is important that these signs belocated 5 feet above the floor and be visible withthe stair door open or closed. In hotels or otherbuildings with room or suite numbers, the signsshould also include the room or suite numbersmost directly accessed by each stair on every level,(i.e., second floor of stairway 3 has direct access torooms 202 through 256). The latter signage wouldbe extremely important where certain stairwaysprovide no access to some sections of the building.

Buildings more than 3 stories in height abovegrade should have roof access. The IBC and IFCrequire this, except for buildings with steeply-pitched roofs (with a more than 4:12 slope).

As stated above, the IFC, the IBC, NFPA 5000,and NFPA 241 contain special construction/demoli-tion requirements. One stairway should be com-pleted as construction advances. Conversely, asdemolition progresses, one stairway should bemaintained. These standards also address lightingand fire rating of the enclosure.

Stair Capacity

Building and fire codes typically require that stairsaccommodate exiting occupants. Fire service per-sonnel who may use the stairs are not factored intoexit capacity calculations. In situations where occu-pants are still exiting and firefighters are using thesame stairs to enter the building (“counter-flow”),the evacuation may take longer.

Furthermore, in most cases, stairway capacityis designed based on the floor with the highestoccupant load. Typically, stairs are not widened asone travels in the direction of egress unless thestairs converge from both above and below. Thisapproach assumes that people will evacuate in aphased manner, beginning with the floor(s) closestto the fire origin. In an immediate general evacua-tion, or when people from other areas self-evacu-ate, the increased load will slow evacuation.

Both of these bottlenecks will be made worse asthe height of the building increases. Furthermore,total evacuation is becoming more commonplacedue to concerns about terrorism.

(Fig. 2.22) Stairway ID sign.

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An effective solution to the counter-flow issue isa dedicated firefighting stairway. Codes in theUnited Kingdom contain specifications for such fire-fighting stairs, elevators, and intervening lobbies inbuildings of a certain height (Figure 2.23). CurrentU.S. codes do not require dedicated stairways orelevators. The disadvantages of dedicated firefight-ing stairways include: cost, space, and the effortneeded to keep them clear and in operating order.

A solution to egress delays caused by eithercounter-flow or total evacuation is to provide addi-tional exit capacity by means of additional stairs orwidened stairs. Cost and space are also disadvan-tages of this solution.

(Fig. 2.23) Dedicated firefighting stairway/elevatortower. © Crown Copyright 2000 Queen’s Printer ofActs of Parliament.


Considerations - Firefighter Access

■ Consider firefighter foot access in site design.■ Avoid using areas that are likely to be

obstructed (i.e., shipping and receiving areas).■ Label blocked doors with exterior signage.■ Coordinate temporary construction storage

and loading areas with access points and fireprotection features.

■ Provide key boxes when required; recommendtheir use in other areas.

■ Locate key boxes as recommended by the par-ticular fire department.

■ Include fire protection features on buildingdirectories.

■ Provide signs or diagrams at limited accessentrances.

■ Identify rooms containing utility shutoffs andfire protection equipment.

■ Coordinate elevator recall level with fire serv-ice operating procedures.

■ Design elevator shutdown feature to minimizethe chance of trapping firefighters.

■ Provide identification signs at each level ofevery stairway.

■ Extend stairs up or down with construction ordemolition; consider the need for lighting andrated enclosure.

■ Where total evacuation of a large building islikely, consider additional egress capacity.

■ Where firefighter counter-flow is expected,consider additional egress capacity or dedicat-ed firefighting stairs.

These issues currently remain unresolved in thecode community; however, a designer mayencounter these issues on projects for large, high-security, or high-profile facilities. Further guidanceon the movement of people in buildings can befound in the Society of Fire Protection Engineers’publication, Human Behavior in Fire.

HAZARDS TO THE FIRE SERVICEDuring a fire, any building may become inherentlyunsafe for occupants and fire service personnel.However, some building construction featurespresent unique or unexpected hazards. This sectiondiscusses these hazards.

Lightweight Construction

Trusses are widely used in construction to spanwide areas without the need for vertical supports,reducing both material and construction costs(Figure 2.24). Under ordinary conditions, trusseswork well and building codes have permitted thistype of construction for many years. However,trusses often fail suddenly and totally duringfires. Both wood and metal trusses are made ofinterdependent members which all fail if onemember fails. Adjacent trusses, in their weakenedstate, are then unable to carry the additional loadand these also fail in quick succession. It is impossi-ble for crews operating at a fire to predict the timeor extent of a collapse since they cannot see howmany trusses are affected, which components, andto what extent.

Wood trusses have less mass than solid lumber,which greatly reduces the “extra” wood comparedto solid joists that burn through more slowly andprovide indications to firefighters of an impendingcollapse. The higher surface area-to-volume ratio oftrusses compared to joists allows trusses to burnmore quickly. In addition, the metal gusset platesthat hold wood truss components together may failquickly as fire consumes the wood in which thegusset teeth are shallowly embedded.

Many firefighters have been killed in collapsesattributed to trusses, particularly wooden ones,since the 1970s. Incident commanders and/or safe-ty officers typically consider the presence of trussesin their fireground risk analysis. Marking thesebuildings that include trusses makes this informa-tion immediately available to firefighters. TheState of New Jersey requires this as a directresult of five firefighters losing their lives inHackensack in 1988 (Figure 2.25).

Another component used to maximize construc-tion efficiency is the wooden I-beam. Similar totrusses, I-beams eliminate extra wood, thereby pro-viding less warning prior to failure under fire condi-tions. However, they lack the metal gusset connec-tion plates that appear to be at the root of manywood truss failures.

(Fig. 2.24) Building with wood truss construction. Theadjacent finished building shows no indication from theexterior that wood trusses were used in its construction.

(Fig. 2.25) New Jersey truss building identificationemblems.

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Wherever these lightweight construction tech-niques are used, serious consideration should begiven to providing sprinkler protection throughoutthe building, if not already required. Sprinklerprotection of combustible concealed spaces is animportant feature for firefighter safety.

Further discussion about lightweight construc-tion can be found in “Building Construction for theFire Service, ” published by the NFPA.

Shaftways

Vertical shafts within buildings sometimes haveexterior openings accessible to firefighters. Anysuch doors or windows should be marked “SHAFT-WAY” on the exterior with at least 6 inch high letter-ing (Figure 2.26) as required by the IFC and NFPA 1.This warns firefighters that this would be an unsafeentry point. If properly marked, time will not bewasted attempting entry at these points.

Normally, interior openings to shafts are readilydiscernable. Ordinary elevator doors are not likelyto be mistaken for anything else. However, otherinterior shaft openings that could be mistaken forordinary doors or windows should also have shaft-way marking.

Skylights

Without special precautions, roof-mounted sky-lights obscured by heavy smoke or snow may col-lapse under the weight of a firefighter. Skylightsshould be designed to bear the same weight loadas the roof. The same applies to coverings overunused skylights. If this is not practical, mount bar-riers around skylights to prevent firefighters frominadvertently stepping on them.

Considerations – Hazards to the Fire Service

■ Provide prominent exterior signs on allbuildings with truss construction.

■ Mark all exterior shaftway openings.■ Mark all interior shaftway openings that are

not readily discernable.■ Never design traps or pitfalls into buildings.■ Use design precautions to prevent falls

through skylights.

(Fig. 2.26) Exterior shaftway marking.


Chapter 3Sprinkler Systems

GENERALSprinkler systems provide early fire control or extin-guishment, helping to mitigate the hazards for occu-pants and firefighters alike. Building codes, firecodes, and life safety codes specify when to providesprinkler systems. These may be either locally writ-ten codes or adopted model codes such as the IBC,the IFC, NFPA 1, NFPA 101, or NFPA 5000. In addi-tion, various sections of the OSHA standardsrequire the installation of sprinkler systems.

A widely accepted installation standard for com-mercial system design is NFPA 13, Standard for theInstallation of Sprinkler Systems. Other standardsinclude: NFPA 13D, Standard for the Installation of Sprinkler Systems in One- and Two-FamilyDwellings and Mobile Homes; and NFPA 13R,Standard for the Installation of Sprinkler Systems in Residential Occupancies up to and IncludingFour Stories in Height. Designers may also referto NFPA 13E, Recommended Practice for FireDepartment Operations in Properties Protected bySprinkler and Standpipe Systems, although anygiven fire service organization may follow differentstandard operating procedures.

There is some flexibility in portions of the sys-tem that may impact the fire service. This chapterprovides guidance to designers so they may exer-cise this flexibility to benefit fire department opera-tions. Fire department connections for sprinklersystems are covered in Chapter 5. Standpipe sys-tems (which are often integrated with sprinkler sys-tems) are covered in Chapter 4. Sprinkler designersshould also see Chapter 6 for additional guidanceon fire alarm annunciation, and Chapter 7 for spe-cial coordination considerations about smoke con-trol systems.

ZONINGIt is important for sprinkler designers and fire alarmdesigners to work together, especially in unusualbuildings. The fire alarm system will often have anannunciator to indicate the location of the alarm tothe fire department. Sprinkler piping arrangementwill limit options for fire alarm annunciation ofwater flow signals. Coordination is essential to fur-nish the fire service with clear information on thefire or its location.

Sprinkler designers often think in terms of ceil-ing levels, since sprinkler piping and sprinkler headsusually are at ceilings or roof decks. However,alarm signals are reported in terms of their floorlevel to enable the fire department to respond tothe correct floor during an emergency. Consider thesituation of a building with two levels adjacent to asingle level “high-bay” area. The first floor sprin-kler zone should include both the high bay area andthe lower level of the two-level section becauseeach of these areas shares the same floor.Meanwhile, the upper level of the two-story sectionshould have its own zone, even if the piping it con-tains is on the same level as the high bay area.

In buildings with standpipe systems, sprinklersystems are usually combined with them and fedby a single water supply. Sprinkler systems are fedfrom the bulk feed mains or from vertical standpiperisers. NFPA 13 requires that sprinkler controlsremain independent of standpipe systems. Typi-cally, all sprinklers would be located downstreamfrom a control valve that will not shut off any firehose connections (Figure 3.1). This enables the firedepartment to shut off the sprinklers during therare occasions when a sprinkler pipe fails, or thesprinklers are not controlling the fire. In this man-ner, hose connections remain available for manualfire suppression without losing pressure from thebroken pipe, or the excessive number of activatedsprinklers.

In some situations, when a building does notinclude a standpipe system, NFPA 13 allows firehose connections to be fed from sprinkler systems.In these cases, closing the sprinkler system valvewould shut off the fire hose connections.

In some cases, sprinkler systems are fed fromtwo different standpipes or feed mains, in a “dual-feed” arrangement. Although this provides ahydraulic design advantage, NFPA 13 recommendsagainst it to avoid confusion. If a designer choosesthis arrangement (and the code official permits it),cross-reference signs should be provided at eachvalve. Each of these signs would indicate the loca-tion of the companion valve that feeds the samesystem. No single sprinkler system should be fedfrom three or more points, since the flow from asingle sprinkler may not activate any of the flowswitches.

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WATER SUPPLY CONTROL VALVESFire service personnel often need rapid access tovalves. If a valve is closed during an incident, itmay need to be opened to permit flow of water. If asprinkler valve is open, it may need to be closed toassist in manual suppression efforts.

NFPA 13 requires marking for all water supplycontrol valves including main valves, pump valves,sectional valves, and zone valves. The wording“control valve” by itself does not tell a user thespecific use of the valve or what portion of the sys-tem is downstream of a particular valve. Usingmore descriptive labels such as “12th floor” or“pump bypass” will avoid confusion (Figure 3.1).

If a valve identification is not obvious, an addi-tional diagram should be provided. For instance, ifa floor has multiple zones, each control valve signshould identify the corresponding zone, such as“12th floor east” or “zone 7-2.” A diagram of zonesand the boundaries between them should be

mounted adjacent to each valve (Figure 3.2). Thiswill enable firefighters to quickly determine whichvalve controls each specific area.

NFPA 13 requires valves to be accessible foroperation. If valves are located in stairs, they will beprotected and easily accessible during a fire event.

When a water supply control valve must belocated in a room or in a concealed space, a signoutside the door or access panel helps firefightersto quickly locate it (Figure 2.20). If the concealedspace is above a suspended ceiling, the appropri-ate place for the sign is on the fixed ceiling grid,rather than on a removable ceiling tile. In addi-tion, some jurisdictions require exterior signs thatindicate the locations of interior valves (Figure 3.3).

Valve handles are often located high enough tobe out of vandals’ easy reach. However, suchplacement requires a ladder to reach them when

Considerations – Sprinkler Zoning

■ Coordinate pipe arrangement with fire alarmzoning.

■ Keep sprinkler controls independent ofstandpipe systems.

■ Avoid dual feed systems, or provide cross-reference signs.

(Fig. 3.1) Sprinkler zone control station and zone indicator sign.

(Fig. 3.2) Sprinkler zone diagram.


vents (Figure 3.4). Post indicator valves should beat least 40 feet from the buildings they serve. The40 foot distance is called for in NFPA 24.

Designers should require proper notificationwhen their designs require systems, or portions ofsystems, to be temporarily shut off. This would typ-ically occur during system alterations, or phasedinstallations. In these instances, the design docu-ments should require notification of any systemimpairments to the responsible fire service organi-zation and coordination with the fire service aboutany requirements that these impairments may entail.

(Fig. 3.4) Wall control valve next to window. Fire issuingfrom this window could prevent access to the valve.

Considerations – Water Supply Control Valves

■ Label all valves for specific use or area cov-ered.

■ Provide diagrams to show boundariesbetween zones.

■ Locate interior valves in enclosed stairswherever possible.

■ Provide signage for valves that are outsidestairs or in concealed spaces.

■ Provide exterior signs showing the locationof interior valves.

■ Locate exterior post indicator valves 40 feetfrom the building.

■ Locate exterior wall-mounted valves 40 feetfrom openings and within 5 feet of grade.

(Fig. 3.3) Exterior sign show-ing valve location (in this casefor a standpipe system).

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necessary. Although some jurisdictions mayrequire that valves be low enough to reach withouta ladder, all minimum height requirements forobstructions must be followed.

Valves for testing and draining purposes shouldalso be labeled. This will prevent any potentialconfusion.

Exterior valves should be placed in locationsaccessible even during a fire incident. Wall-mount-ed valves should be positioned no higher than 5feet above grade (ground level) and located at least40 feet from openings such as windows, doors, or

FIRE PUMPSFire pumps are used to boost the water pressure insprinkler and standpipe systems and to deliver therequired amount of water (Figure 3.5). This is nec-essary when the system is fed by a non-pressurizedwater tank, or when the water supply feeding thesystem has inadequate pressure. A fire pump maybe driven by an electric motor, diesel engine, orsteam turbine.

NFPA 20, Standard for the Installation ofStationary Pumps for Fire Protection, containsdesign and installation details for fire pump instal-lations. NFPA 20 requires electrical monitoring ofpump controllers for pump running, power failure,or controller trouble. These remote alarm signalsare often incorporated into fire alarm annunciators,so that fire departments may identify the status of agiven fire pump.

A fire pump controller is the enclosure that con-tains controls and status indicators for a fire pump.NFPA 20 requires these devices to be within sightof the fire pump motor or engine. The automatictransfer switch, which is often in a separateenclosure, transfers power to a secondary powersource (when provided). Fire service personnelmay need access to this equipment during thecourse of a fire.

NFPA 20 contains reliability requirements forthe power supply to an electrically driven firepump. For example, power supply lines must beprotected and the circuit must be independent of abuilding’s electric service. The latter featureallows the fire service to shut down building powerwhile the fire pump continues to run. 29 CFRSubpart S must also be followed.

The most desirable location for a fire pump is ina separate building. This affords the most protec-tion from fire, and gives firefighters easy access tothe pump and its controllers. If locating the pumpin a separate building is not possible, a fire-ratedroom with an outside entrance is the next bestoption. NFPA 20 requires pump rooms to be sepa-rated from the rest of the building by 2-hour fire-rated construction in buildings without full sprinklerprotection, and 1-hour construction in fully sprin-klered buildings.

Inside and outside entrances to fire pump roomsshould be labeled with signage. Minimum letteringsize should be six inches high with a 1/2 inch stroke(thickness of lines in each letter).

Considerations – Fire Pumps

■ Remote alarms for pumps should be at thefire alarm annunciator, if provided.

■ Locate pumps in separate buildings if possible.■ If pumps are in the same building, locate in

fire-rated room, preferably with an exteriorentrance.

■ Mark the entrances to pump rooms.■ Observe special electric power supply

requirements.

(Fig. 3.5) Fire pump.


PARTIAL SPRINKLER SYSTEMSNFPA 13 requires installation of sprinklers through-out the building. However, in some situations thecode or standard requiring sprinklers calls for pro-tecting only a portion of the building. In thesecases, exterior signage should indicate the portionof the building covered. A good location for thissign would be at the fire department connection(see the section Marking, page 47).

Residential sprinkler systems installed underNFPA 13D and 13R primarily protect lives ratherthan property. Since property protection is second-ary, large and significant areas may not have sprin-kler protection (unsprinklered). One- and two-familyhouses protected by NFPA 13D systems are readilyrecognized as having this partial, life-safety type ofprotection.

Apartments and condominiums with NFPA 13Rsystems may not be easy to identify. These sys-tems are allowed in buildings four stories or less inheight. However, some buildings that are consid-ered four stories in height by building codes maystill contain additional levels such as lofts, andbasements which may be partially below grade.Several sides of these buildings may have six occu-pied levels above grade and still be considered fourstories in height (Figure 3.6). The large unsprin-klered areas can adversely impact firefighter safetyand consequently the tactics employed. Fire depart-ment ground ladders may not reach the top occu-pied stories, and some apartment units may not bereached by the available access for aerial ladders.Exterior signage near the fire department connec-tion can alert the fire department to this.

(Fig. 3.6) This building has six occupied levels from thisview. However, it is classified as a four-story building bythe code that was in effect during its construction. Assuch, an NFPA 13R residential sprinkler system (with nosprinklers in the combustible attic or in the floor/ceilingassemblies) protects it.

Considerations – Partial Sprinkler Systems

■ NFPA 13 systems: Provide sign near firedepartment connection showing portionprotected.

■ NFPA 13R systems: Provide sign near firedepartment connection indicating the sys-tem only covers life hazard areas.

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Chapter 4Standpipe Systems

GENERALStandpipe systems consist of a fixed piping systemand hose valve connections to preclude the needfor long hose lays within tall or large buildings.Water is fed into these systems either through anautomatic water supply or manually through a firedepartment connection. The system delivers waterto hose connections throughout the building, usual-ly in enclosed or exterior stairs (Figure 4.1). Fire-fighters then extend hose lines from these hoseconnections to conduct interior fire suppressionoperations. Standpipes are, in effect, a critical com-ponent in the supply of water to interior firefightingcrews. Deficiencies can have disastrous conse-quences, such the loss of three firefighters in the1991 Meridian Plaza fire in Philadelphia.

Systems are classified according to usage: firedepartment use (Class I), occupant use (Class II), orcombined fire department and occupant use (ClassIII). The use of Class II and III systems has declinedover the years due to the training and equipmentrequirements associated with them. The majority ofsystems installed today are Class I. Consequently,this chapter will focus on Class I systems.

Building and fire codes specify when designersshould incorporate standpipe systems. This can bea locally written code or an adopted model codesuch as the IBC, the IFC, NFPA 5000, or NFPA 101.Standpipe systems requirements are based onbuilding height or interior travel distances. In addi-tion, standards such as those issued by OSHArequire standpipe systems in certain situations.

The IBC and IFC include water supply require-ments and some design details. The completeinstallation standard for standpipe systems is NFPA14, Standard for the Installation of Standpipe andHose Systems. This standard allows options forhose connections, valving, and other design fea-tures. This chapter illustrates ways that designerscan impliment various options in different situa-tions to assist the fire service.

The considerations in the section, Water SupplyControl Valves, on page 29, regarding valves alsoapply to standpipe systems. Fire department con-nections are covered in Chapter 5 on page 41.


(Fig. 4.1) A dry standpipe in an exterior stair. The FDCinlet is to the right of the building entrance, the riser pipeextends through the left side stair landings, and hoseconnections are at each level, including the roof.

FIRE HOSE CONNECTIONSHose connections in Class I systems are typically21/2 inch threaded outlets. As discussed in the FireHydrant section, it is essential that hose connec-tion type and size match that used by the firedepartment in the jurisdiction where the building islocated.

The primary location for hose connections iswithin enclosed, fire-resistance rated stairs. Fire-fighters set up and begin their attack from withinthe protected stair enclosure. Then the attack mayproceed towards the fire location. If a quick evacua-tion becomes necessary, the hose then functions asa lifeline, leading the firefighters back to the protec-tion of the stairs.

The current preferred location for stairway hoseconnections is at the intermediate stair landingsbetween floors (Figure 4.2). This is because fire-fighters usually stretch hose from below the firefloor for their protection. If the connections are atintermediate landings, the hose line reaches fartherthan it would if the connection were at the mainlanding, a full story below the fire floor. However,both NFPA 14 and the IBC permit connections to belocated at main floor landings, if so desired by agiven jurisdiction.

If hose valves are located on main landings,consider the position of hose connections in rela-tion to the door. The connections should not bebehind the door when it is open. Designersshould position the outlet to permit the hose lineto run out the door without kinking and withoutobstructing travel on the stair.

Fire attack using hose lines from stairway hoseconnections requires stair doors to be proppedopen (Figure 4.3). This prevents the hose frombecoming kinked and restricting water flow; howev-er, it can also allow smoke and heat to enter thestairway. At this point, occupants should eitherhave exited the building, be below the level of thefire, use another stairway, or be sheltered in placeuntil after the incident. But, there is now some con-cern within the fire protection community thatoccupants may be exposed to fire or smoke condi-tions during these firefighting operations. Somereasons for this include: conflicting evacuationinstructions, occupants not following evacuationinstructions, the need for the fire department tooperate from all stairways, or the need for totalbuilding evacuation (especially in response to ter-rorist incidents).

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(Fig. 4.2) Hose connection on intermediate landing asviewed from the main landing where the stair entry dooris located.

(Fig. 4.3) Training session showing a firefighter chockingopen a stair door to initiate a fire attack from a stairwayhose connection.

One resolution to the dilemma of charged hoselines keeping stair doors open is to place hose con-nections just outside the stair door instead of insidethe stair enclosure (Figure 4.4). However, this isnot recommended because such a design forcesthe fire attack to begin without the protection of thestair enclosure and eliminates the lifeline concept.A better solution is to place additional hose valvesjust outside the stair door to give firefighters theoption of connecting hose lines to these or to theconnections within the stair enclosure. The con-nection outside the stair can be 11/2 inches in sizeto facilitate initial fire attack with smaller sizehose lines during occupant evacuation. This shouldsuffice for most fire situations in buildings with acomplete operable sprinkler system. However,some fire departments do not use small sizedhose lines for standpipe operations. In those cases,any additional hose connections would also needto be 21/2 inches in size.

Another approach to maintaining the integrity ofstair enclosures during fire suppression operationsis to place hose connections in a fire-rated vesti-bule between the stairs and the building interior.Although such vestibules require a little moreroom, they can double as refuge areas for individu-als with mobility impairments. If the vestibules areopen to the exterior, any smoke that does migrateinto them will dissipate easily (Figure 4.5).

If the location of stairs precludes hose lines fromreaching the farthest points of a particular floor, thedesigner should include remote (or supplemental)hose connections. NFPA 14 limits travel distance to150 feet in buildings that do not have completesprinkler protection, and to 200 feet in fully sprin-klered buildings. In buildings with a corridor sys-tem feeding multiple rooms, tenants, or agencies,designers should locate remote hose stations with-in the corridor. Often a corridor’s walls, ceilings,doors, and other openings will be rated for fire orsmoke resistance. If so, they provide some degreeof protection for firefighters, although it is usuallyless than that provided by a stairway enclosure.In any case, the least desirable place for remotehose connections is within suites or tenant spaces.


(Fig. 4.4) Hose connection on the corridor side of thestair door.

(Fig. 4.5) Exterior view of open air vestibules betweenthe stair and the interior of a building.

(Fig. 4.6) Stripe on column to identify hose connectionlocation in a parking garage.

(Fig. 4.7) Sign to identify hose connection locationin an exhibit hall.

Remote hose connections outside of stairwellscan often be hard to locate. They should be placedas uniformly as possible on all floors to make themeasier to find. Highly visible signs or other mark-ings can assist firefighters in locating them quickly(Figures 4.6 and 4.9). Often these may be tailoredto décor or occupancy to satisfy architects or interi-or designers (Figures 4.7 and 4.8). NFPA 170,Standard for Symbols for Use by the Fire Service,contains symbols for marking standpipe outlets(hose connections).

Placement of remote hose connections can alsoaffect their accessibility. For instance, in parkinggarages designers should try to locate hose con-nections adjacent to drive aisles. Where they areintermingled with parking spaces, an access pathat least three feet wide delineated with bollardsor a raised, curbed area should be provided topreclude cars from obstructing the connection (Figure 4.9).

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Considerations - Fire Hose Connections

■ Determine if connections are to be on inter-mediate or main stair landings.

■ Investigate feasibility of additional connec-tions just outside stair doors or locating con-nections in vestibules.

■ Locate supplemental hose connections uni-formly in corridors.

■ Use curbed raised access path to connec-tions in parking garages.

■ Mark supplemental connections clearly. ■ Make sure hose threads are compatible.

DESIGN PRESSUREMost new standpipe systems are designed byhydraulic calculations. This ensures that the watersupply, pipe sizes used, and pumps (if needed) willprovide a certain flow and pressure at a specifiednumber of hose connections in the system. Thecurrent NFPA 14 specifies a minimum design pres-sure for Class I systems of 100 pounds per squareinch (psi) at a specific flow rate, which depends onthe number of hose connections per floor. How-ever, it includes an exception that allows designpressures as low as 65 psi, if this will accommodatethe fire suppression tactics.

These minimum pressures are based on certainassumptions about the fire department equipmentand tactics, as well as the fixed fire pump feedingthe standpipe system. The designer should com-pensate if the equipment or tactics vary from theseassumptions in a particular building or jurisdiction.This will ensure the adequacy of fire streams toassure the safety of firefighters conducting interioroperations.

A straight stream nozzle requires at least 50 psito operate. With the friction loss in fire hose added,65 psi at the hose connection will provide 50 psi toa straight stream nozzle with 250 gallons per min-ute (gpm) flowing through 100 feet of 21/2 inch firehose. The same pressures can deliver 95 gpmthrough 100 feet of 13/4 inch hose.

In 1993, NFPA 14 changed the minimum requireddesign pressure from 65 psi to 100 psi at the hoseconnections. At the same time, this standard wasrevised to permit longer distances between hoseconnections and remote areas of a building.Currently, this distance can be up to 150 feet forbuildings without complete sprinkler protection,and up to 200 feet for fully sprinklered buildings.The 100 psi design pressure will permit greaterflows or longer hose lines, but only with the samestraight stream nozzles.

Many fire service organizations begin their attackswith fog or combination nozzles that generallyrequire at least 100 psi to operate. This dramatical-ly increases the pressure requirements at the hoseconnection. If 100 psi is actually available at theconnection, every combination of hose size andlength will result in inadequate nozzle pressure. Itis assumed that firefighters will use fog or combi-nation nozzles early in a fire situation, when onlyone or two hose lines are in operation. It is further


(Fig. 4.9) Bollards and striping to create an access path ina parking garage. Bright signs at the top of column helpto locate the valve.

(Fig. 4.8) Sign to identify hose connection location in a shopping mall.

assumed that the total flow will be less than therated flow of the pump. At these lower flows, out-put pressures will be higher. Finally, it is assumedthat if the fire grows, either straight stream nozzleswill be utilized or the pumpers supplying the firedepartment connections will provide greater pres-sures.

Designers must be aware of this information fora number of reasons. First, designers should onlyuse 65 psi minimum design pressure when a partic-ular fire department so specifies, based on theirequipment and tactics. An example would be if adepartment used only 21/2 inch hose and straightstream nozzles for standpipe operations. Otherdesign conditions such as additional fire hose con-nections to enable shorter hose lines may also fac-tor into the decision.

In all cases where lower pressure is not specifi-cally approved by the fire department, 100 psi basicpressure should be considered the minimum.However, if any of the above assumptions aboutthe fire pump or the fire department equipmentand tactics are invalid in a particular building orjurisdiction, designers should consider providingpressures greater than the basic 100 psi at the hoseconnections to facilitate adequate fire streams.

NFPA 14 imposes a maximum pressure limit of175 psi on standpipe systems for fire departmentuse. Pressures in excess of 175 psi will invokerequirements for pressure reducing devices, whichare covered in the next section, Pressure RegulatingDevices.

PRESSURE REGULATING DEVICESPressure regulating devices (PRDs) restrict systempressures, usually below 175 psi for Class I systems(Figure 4.10). This is considered the maximumsafe operating pressure as well as the maximumworking pressure limit of most fire protection com-ponents. Proper design of PRDs is imperative sothat firefighters have adequate pressure for hosestreams. As a stark example, failure to coordinatesettings on these devices with fire department tac-tics emerged as a key issue in the 1991 MeridianPlaza high-rise fire in Philadelphia, which resultedin the death of three firefighters.

PRDs fall into three categories: pressure reducingvalves (PRVs), pressure control valves, and pressurerestricting devices. Pressure restricting devices donot limit pressure during static (non-flowing) condi-tions, nor do they maintain a constant dischargepressure. These devices incorporate orifice plates,mechanical pressure restrictors, or valve limitingstops. Pressure restricting devices are not used fornew Class I standpipe systems. However, designersmay encounter these when redesigning existingsystems, which would provide the opportunity toimplement some or all of the considerations below.

PRVs and pressure control valves limit both stat-ic and residual (flowing) pressures. However, manyof these valves are factory preset to attain specificoutlet pressures with specific inlet pressures. It isimportant for designers to specify the inlet pressurerange for valves as well as the desired outlet pres-sure, so that they may be designed properly andthen installed on the correct floors. Careful atten-tion during design, installation, acceptance testing,and maintenance ensures that systems with PRDswill function properly.

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Considerations – Design Pressure

■ Use minimum 100 psi outlet pressure unlessspecifically exempted by the fire depart-ment, with justification based on tactics.

■ If fog or combination nozzles are used forstandpipe operations, investigate firedepartment procedures and tactics to checkthe need for pressures over 100 psi (but notexceeding 175 psi).

(Fig. 4.10) Hose connection equipped with a pressureregulating device.

PRVs and pressure control valves have otherdisadvantages. Their failure rate has been high,resulting in the addition of testing requirements toNFPA 14. Secondly, many cannot be adjusted byfirefighters during a fire, or they require specialtools and knowledge. Finally, hose connectionswith these devices cannot be used as backup firedepartment inlet connections, since water can onlyflow through a PRD in one direction.

The most reliable means of limiting pressures instandpipe systems is to design them to precludethe need for pressure regulating devices. In shorterbuildings, careful attention to the design of pumpsand the maximum pressure supplied by incomingwater mains can accomplish this. In taller build-ings, the same concept can be applied to each sep-arate vertical standpipe zone. Pressure fluctuationsin the water supply as well as the full range of firepump capacity are essential considerations in anybuilding.

If the use of PRDs cannot be avoided, certaindesign features will balance their disadvantages.The easier the valves are to adjust in the field, thefaster the fire service can overcome any unforeseensituation. Designers should select valves which canbe easily adjusted and specify that identificationsigns and adjustment instructions be posted ateach valve. The tools required to perform fieldadjustments should be kept in a secure yet accessi-ble location such as the fire command center or a locked cabinet near the fire alarm annunciator.Finally, a supplemental system inlet should be pro-vided at the level of fire department entry. This canbe simply an extra hose connection without a PRDon a riser. NFPA 14 recommends a supplementalinlet, and it is especially important for systems witha single fire department connection.

STANDPIPE ISOLATION VALVESThe considerations in the section, Water SupplyControl Valves, on page 29, apply to standpipe sys-tems as well. This section gives additional guid-ance on valves specific to standpipe systems.

The vertical pipes that feed hose connectionsare called standpipes or risers. If there are multiplerisers, NFPA 14 requires interconnections with sup-ply piping to form a single system, with valves atthe point where each riser is fed by the main bulkpiping coming from the water supply point.Designers should also put valves on the feed linesto remote or supplemental hose connections (seeFire Hose Connections, page 34).

These valves are all called “standpipe isolationvalves.” The ones on vertical risers are called “riserisolation valves. ” They allow the fire departmentto shut off, or isolate, any given riser or feed thatbreaks or otherwise fails. Firefighters may then usethe remaining standpipes.


Considerations - Pressure Regulating Devices

■ Design to preclude the need for PRDs.■ Specify the highest and lowest possible inlet

pressures at each PRD location. ■ Select devices capable of simple emergency

adjustment.■ Post identification signs and adjustment

instructions.■ Provide adjustment tools in a secure, acces-

sible location.■ Provide backup inlet connection at fire

department entry level.

(Fig. 4.11) Isolation valve between the feed main (enter-ing from the lower left) and the vertical riser (on theright). It is located within the stair enclosure for protec-tion. The valve at the top of the photo is a sprinkler zonecontrol valve.

NFPA 14 requires that riser isolation valvesseparately control the feed to each standpipe(Figure 4.11). Sequential valves are not acceptablewhere a single valve in the bulk main canshut off more than one downstream riser. Forrisers in stairways, the riser isolation valves shouldbe within the fire-rated stair enclosure to protectfirefighters who may need to operate them.

Previous editions of NFPA 14 required designersto place the riser isolation valves at the bottom ofthe risers to make them quickly accessible to fire-fighters. Fire departments may still prefer thatthese valves be located on the level that they usefor their primary entry. If the bulk feed main islocated on a different level it could be piped up ordown to the fire department entry level, where theisolation valve would be placed for that particularriser (Figure 4.12).

OTHER DESIGN ISSUESStandpipes should be installed as the constructionof a building progresses. These can be temporaryor permanent. Both the IFC and NFPA 241,Standard for Safeguarding Construction, Alteration,and Demolition Operations, contain requirementsfor standpipes during construction. Design docu-ments should indicate the applicable requirements.A marked, accessible fire department connection(see the section, Marking, page 47) can suffice as awater supply until building construction progress-es to the point at which the water supply systemand fire department pumpers can no longer pro-vide adequate pressure to the system. At this point,a temporary or permanent fire pump also becomesnecessary.

In climates subject to freezing temperatures, itis vital that standpipes in unheated areas be drytype systems. Heat tracing and insulation are inef-fective protection for dry fire protection systemsbecause water is not normally flowing through thepiping.

Large dry systems deserve special considera-tions. As the size of a dry system increases, thetime required to deliver water to the remote hoseconnection increases. This is due to the increasedpipe volume that must be filled. This can be miti-gated by subdividing the system into smaller inde-pendent systems, or zones. The disadvantage isthat fire department inlet connections to dry systemscannot be interconnected (Figure 4.13). See the sec-tion, Marking, page 47, for specific recommenda-tions regarding zone indicator signs or diagrams.

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Considerations - Other Design Issues

■ Specify temporary standpipes during con-struction.

■ Specify installation of the pump when heightexceeds fire department capability.

■ Design to mitigate long fill times for drystandpipe systems.

Considerations - Standpipe Isolation Valves

■ Provide a separate valve on each riser forindependent control.

■ Locate valves for risers in stairs within thestair enclosure.

■ Locate valves on fire department entry level.

(Fig. 4.12) The feed for this standpipewas on a level above the fire departmententry. The supply pipe was fed down (onthe left) to the entry level, where the iso-lation valve was located. Then, the pipewas routed back upwards (on the right) tofeed the standpipe riser. (Fig. 4.13) FDCs for

separate manual drystandpipe systemsin a large parkinggarage.

Chapter 5Fire DepartmentConnections

GENERALA fire department connection (FDC) includes one ormore fire hose inlet connections on a sprinkler sys-tem, standpipe system, or other water-based sup-pression system. The hose inlet connectionsenable the fire department or fire brigade to hookup hose lines from one or more pumpers andfeed water into the system to supplement the con-nected automatic water supply (Figure 5.1). Inmanual dry standpipe systems, FDCs are the onlywater supply.

Requirements for FDCs appear in the followingstandards:

■ NFPA 13, Standard for the Installation ofSprinkler Systems;

■ NFPA 13R, Standard for the Installation ofSprinkler Systems in Residential Occupanciesup to and Including Four Stories in Height;

■ NFPA 14, Standard for the Installation ofStandpipe and Hose Systems;

■ NFPA 15, Standard for WaterSpray Fixed Systems for FireProtection;

■ NFPA 16, Standard for theInstallation of Foam-WaterSprinkler and Foam-WaterSpray Systems; and

■ NFPA 750, Standard on WaterMist Fire Protection Systems.

These standards set minimum criteria for FDCs,such as which systems require them, their arrange-ment, and the pipe sizes they feed. The IBC and IFCalso contain requirements for FDC location andsignage. This chapter will expand upon those criteriaand provide guidance on FDC location, quantity,numbers of inlets, positioning, and marking. Alsoincluded are particular considerations that need tobe taken into account during the building construc-tion phase.

In some cases, FDCs are not required becausethey would be of little or no value. Examplesinclude remote buildings that are inaccessible tothe fire service, large open-sprinkler deluge sys-tems that exceed the pumping capability of the firedepartment, and very small buildings.

Designers should always seek out and followfire department requirements, recommendations,and advice for special circumstances. The soleusers of FDCs are the fire departments that mustconnect to them. Any deficiency related to theFDC can cause delays in fire suppression, andtherefore a decrease in the safety of both fire-fighters and building occupants.


(Fig. 5.1) Charged hose lines connected to a wall-mounted FDC. The proximi-ty of an FDC relative to building exits is discussed in the Location section atpage 44.

QUANTITYThe above standards generally require a single FDCsuch as the one in Figure 5.1. In some cases, anadditional interconnected FDC will be required. Forexample, NFPA 14 requires multiple FDCs inremote locations on high-rise buildings. This codeprovision was added after experience with high-rise fires showed that broken glass and debrisfalling from a fire area can damage hose lines. Asecond remote FDC increases the dependability ofthe water supply.

The following section discusses the number ofinlets provided for each FDC. However, this deci-sion can be related to the quantity of FDCs. If thewater quantity demand of the system is highenough to justify more than two inlets, then thedesigner should specify separate FDCs. This config-uration would facilitate different pumpers feedingdifferent FDCs.

When a building has multiple FDCs, most firedepartments would prefer that they be intercon-nected. This enables the fire department to feedany system from any FDC (Figure 5.2). However,sometimes this is not possible. For example, a man-ual dry standpipe system (with no connected watersupply) cannot be interconnected with an automaticsprinkler system. Sometimes, FDC interconnection isnot preferable, as discussed in the section, OtherDesign Issues, page 40, regarding large dry stand-pipe systems. When FDCs are not interconnected,the designer should consider special signage as dis-cussed in the section, Marking, on page 47.

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Considerations – FDC Quantity

■ Provide the required or appropriate numberof FDCs.

■ When more than two inlets are provided,consider separate FDCs.

■ Separate FDCs should be located remotelyfrom one another.

■ Interconnect separate FDCs to feed all sys-tems where possible.

(Fig. 5.3) A 4-inlet FDC. It would probably be more efficient, and give the fire department more options, tohave placed two, 2-inlet FDCs in different locations onthis building.

(Fig. 5.4) A quick-connect type of FDC.

(Fig. 5.2) Separate sprinkler and standpipe connections(threaded types). To feed both systems, at least one hoseline must be connected to each of the two FDCs.

INLETSMost standards do not specify the number of inletsrequired on each FDC. NFPA 13 does say that a sin-gle inlet is acceptable for FDCs feeding pipe that is3 inches or smaller. However, no requirements areidentified beyond that. Many FDCs have dualinlets; these are often referred to as “siamese” con-nections. One rule of thumb is to provide one inletfor each 250 gallons per minute (gpm) of systemdemand, rounded up to the next highest incrementof 250 gpm. For example, if the system demand is700 gpm, the designer would specify three inlets.Likewise, a system with a demand of 800 gpmwould need four inlets (Figure 5.3).

To permit the connection of hoselines, the inletsize and type (threaded or quick-connect) mustmatch the type used by the particular fire depart-ment. In jurisdictions where the fire service usesthreaded hose couplings, FDCs include one ormore 21/2 inch-size hose inlets (Figure 5.2). Thethread type will usually be NH Type (AmericanNational Fire Hose Connection Screw Thread). Tofacilitate the connection of the externally threaded(male) end of fire hose lines, threaded inletsshould be the swiveling, internally threaded(female) type. The non-threaded connections willusually be 4 or 5 inches in size (Figure 5.4).

NFPA 1963, the Standard for Fire Hose Connect-ions, sets out specific detailed requirements forboth threaded and non-threaded (quick-connect)hose connections.

The inlets are ordinarily required to be providedwith threaded plugs or breakaway-style caps. It isimportant for the designer to specify these to mini-mize the chance of an inlet being obstructed bytrash or debris. If a firefighter notices an inlet


Considerations – FDC Inlets

■ Match type of connection and thread type tothe fire department’s hose.

■ Provide caps or plugs for each inlet.■ Security caps: Obtain permission if optional

and specify that building owners give keysto the fire department.

■ Large capacity systems should have one 21/2

inch inlet for each 250 gpm of systemdemand, unless a large capacity, quick-connect FDC is used.

blocked by debris, connection of hose lines will bedelayed while he or she attempts to clear it. If thedebris cannot be removed, that particular inlet orthe entire FDC may be rendered unusable. Un-noticed debris could block most of the flow to a firehose connection or a significant section of asprinkler system. Even worse, a firefighter could beoperating a hose line inside and suddenly have theblockage clog the nozzle.

Designers may specify lockable inlet caps forsecurity. Designers should obtain permission fromthe fire department to use these caps, unless thedepartment requires their use. In addition,designers should specify that building ownersprovide tools or keys for unlocking these caps tothe fire department.

LOCATIONNFPA standards contain performance languageregarding the accessibility of FDCs and the easewith which hose lines can be connected. How thedesigner meets these requirements can streamlinefire department operations.

The IBC and IFC specifically require that firedepartments approve FDC locations. It is importantfor designers to seek and obtain this approval.

Both NFPA 13 and 14 require that FDCs be onthe “street side” of buildings. The intent is to makethem immediately accessible to approaching fireapparatus. The street side is obvious in urban set-tings where buildings front directly onto the streets.However, for buildings set back from the street, thestreet side may be subject to interpretation. Inthese cases, the designer should consult firedepartment officials about apparatus approachdirection and operational procedures.

Another consideration is the location of FDCs inrelation to nearby fire hydrants or other water sup-ply sources, (such as tanks, ponds, or lakes). Somejurisdictions require FDCs to be within a certain dis-

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(Fig. 5.6) This FDC is mounted too close to a wall. Other obstructions could be fences, pipes, downspouts,vegetation, etc.

(Fig. 5.5) FDC on street side of building. A firefighter isstretching a hose line to an FDC after the pumper hasbeen spotted at a nearby hydrant. Also, close at hand are the main entrance and the key box which the officeris unlocking.

tance of the closest fire hydrant. This allows apumper to hook up directly to a hydrant with itssuction hose and then use a pre-connected hoseline to quickly feed the FDC (Figure 5.5). For exam-ple, if pumpers in a jurisdiction each carry a 150-foot pre-connected 21/2 inch hose line, a maximumdistance of 100 feet will enable firefighters to man-ually stretch this hose to the FDC, regardless of theposition of the pumper at the hydrant. If there aremultiple FDCs, each should meet this distancerequirement from separate hydrants to allow forcompletely redundant operations.

An adequate amount of working room sur-rounding the FDC will enable a firefighter toapproach and connect hose lines. If the inlets arestraight-type (perpendicular to the wall), a clearpath approximately four feet wide would accom-modate the firefighter and the hose lines. If theinlets are angled-type, a clear distance of approxi-mately three feet on each side of the FDC will pre-vent hose lines from kinking (and restricting flow)when they are charged (Figure 5.6).

The designer should consider site conditionsleading to the FDC to make it easier for firefight-ers to stretch hose lines to it. Sidewalks, steps,grassy areas, or low ground cover will not slowdown this process. However, if a firefighter needsto negotiate walls, climb a ladder, maneuver

around a fence or hedgerow, or cut away a bush,the operation will be delayed. Designers shouldconsider the potential growth of nearby bushes orplants.

Locations that are likely to be blocked shouldbe avoided. Loading docks, by their nature, aresubject to temporary storage and vehicular traffic.Another example of a poor location would be infront of a supermarket or department store wherestock or carts may block the FDC at any time(Figure 5.7). This may be a good reason to devi-ate from the “street front” requirement, or tolocate the FDC in a column abutting the road(Figure 2.2). Designers should always keep inmind how the building will be used, not just howa particular item will look on the constructionplans (devoid of people and equipment).

Designers should pay special attention to haz-ardous materials. They should locate FDCs awayfrom fuel tanks, gas meters, or other highly flam-mable or explosive substances or processes(Figures 5.7 and 5.8).

The designer should also consider the locationsof entrances and exits when locating FDCs. Acharged hose line is very rigid and will block anoutward-swinging door, or provide a trip hazard forexiting occupants and entering firefighters (Figure5.1). Avoid locating FDCs with their inlets pointed in


(Fig. 5.7) FDC in the cart area of a supermarket entryway. The FDCis located where merchandise or shopping carts could easily block it,or a fire in the adjacent propane storage area could restrict its use.

(Fig. 5.8) This FDC is located too close to the gas serviceand meter. The breakaway caps make it necessary for afirefighter to swing an axe or other tool to remove thesecaps. This is an accident waiting to happen that could beavoided through careful design coordination.

the direction of doors, so that firefighter access andoccupant egress is not impeded (Figure 5.9).

A freestanding FDC (such as the one shown inFigure 5.11), is an option as long as it is acceptableto the local fire department. Designers may positionthese anywhere on the property. If an FDC is locatedfar from the building it feeds, consider the specialsignage discussed in the section, Marking, page 47.

FDCs subject to vehicle damage should be pro-tected by barricades such as the bollards oftenused near fire hydrants (Figure 2.14). An alterna-tive to protect wall-mounted FDCs is a wall-mounted guard (Figure 5.3).

POSITIONThe Appendix of NFPA 13 recommends that FDCsbe installed so that the centerlines of the inlets arebetween 18 and 48 inches above the adjacentground. This height will make hose line connectionstraightforward. Some jurisdictions may prefer amaximum height of 42 inches, or even 36 inches.

Designers should position FDCs based on thefinal grade, rather than the reverse. If the grade isbuilt up in one area with a mound of soil or mulchto achieve the correct height, this can easily beinadvertently changed later by a landscaper. Or, if aplatform is built to achieve the correct height, a fallhazard is created for firefighters who may be work-ing in the dark and/or in smoky conditions (Figure5.10).

Wall-mounted FDCs should be positioned atleast 40 feet away from windows, doors, or vents.This will minimize the chance that fire, heat, orsmoke will make it difficult to connect hose lines.

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Considerations – FDC Position

■ Meet all requirements or recommendationsfor height above grade.

■ Do not use platforms or other artificialmeans to achieve the correct height.

■ Position at least 40 feet from openings whenpossible.

(Fig. 5.10) A plat-form built up toreach an FDC cre-ates a hazardouscondition. Thisshould not beconsidered asequivalent topositioning theFDC at a properheight abovegrade level.

(Fig. 5.9) An FDC pointed directly across the mainentrance of a restaurant. A connected and charged hoseline would impede both egress and entry.

Considerations – FDC Location

■ Locate on street side of buildings, or on lineof approach, if building is set back.

■ Locate within an easy hose line stretch of ahydrant.

■ Locate where it may be easily reached by afirefighter with a hose line.

■ Provide at least a 4-foot clear path to theFDC.

■ FDCs with angled inlets should have 3 feetof clearance on either side.

■ Avoid locations where the FDC may beblocked by area use, e.g., merchandise, storage, equipment, vehicles, etc.

■ Avoid areas adjacent to hazardous materials.

MARKINGNFPA 13 and NFPA 14 require that a small sign withone-inch raised letters be provided on each FDC toidentify the type of system (such as sprinkler, stand-pipe, or combined). These are frequently cast intothe plate surrounding the inlets with raised letter-ing.

Some jurisdictions require or prefer moreprominent marking. Larger signs can be visible tofirefighters and pumper drivers from farther away.Icons may be provided to indicate whether the con-nection feeds sprinklers, standpipes, or both. Oneexample of standard signage for this type of usecan be found in NFPA 170, Standard for Fire SafetySymbols (Figure 5.11). Prominent signs can helpgreatly where the FDC is on a building set backfrom the street. Some jurisdictions require a lightto help identify the FDC’s location in the dark.

Pump operators are normally trained to supply acertain amount of water pressure to the FDC toaugment the system. For example, standard proce-dure could be to pump sprinkler systems at 125pounds per square inch (psi), and standpipe sys-tems at 150 psi. Firefighters may adjust this to pro-vide additional pressure to a higher elevation in agiven building, or to account for different hose line


(Fig. 5.11) FDC sign with an NFPA 170 symbol for bothsprinkler and standpipe systems.

(Fig. 5.12) A nameplate on an underground transit system facility, showing the depth and maximum horizontal run of standpipe feed piping.

configurations on standpipe systems. When asprinkler system requires 150 psi or more to func-tion properly, NFPA 13 requires that a sign indicatethe required pressure. Such a sign alerts the pumpoperator to this unusual condition.

A designer should consider specifying additionalFDC signage for underground buildings or transitsystem facilities. This is because the visual cuesthat a pump operator typically has on abovegroundbuildings (such as size or height), are absent. Also,smoke or fire venting provides no indication aboutthe subsurface level where the fire is located. Inthese cases, a sign indicating the maximum depthand longest horizontal run of pipe gives a pumpoperator an idea of the pressure he or she mustprovide to reach the most remote areas of thesystem (Figure 5.12).

In some circumstances, an FDC will feed a sys-tem covering only a portion of the building.Signage at the FDC indicating such partial protec-tion alerts responding firefighters to this, so theymay factor it into their risk analysis. Signageshould provide enough detail so that firefightersconnecting the hose lines can identify the properconnection.

There are also situations (discussed in the sec-tions, Other Design Issues, page 40 and, Quantity,page 42) where multiple FDCs on a building are notinterconnected. In these cases, designers shouldconsider the signage to assist the fire departmentin supplying the correct FDC. Diagrammatic signsare visually the most helpful.

FDCs that are far from the buildings they feedalso need special signs. If multiple buildings andthe FDC locations make it unclear which FDC goesto which building, designers should provide appro-priate identification (Figure 5.13).

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Considerations – FDC Marking

■ Mark FDCs prominently when remote fromfire apparatus access.

■ Add signage for systems with a demandpressure over 150 psi.

■ Add signage for underground buildings andfacilities.

■ Mark partial systems (preferably with a dia-grammatic sign).

■ Mark sections of non-interconnected sys-tems (preferably with a diagrammatic sign).

■ Add signage if the corresponding building isnot clearly obvious.

(Fig. 5.13) Address indicator sign to show which building this FDC feeds.

TEMPORARY CONNECTIONSDesigners should consider the location and mark-ing of temporary FDCs for temporary standpipes toassist the fire service. The section, Other DesignIssues, on page 40, discusses temporary standpipesduring construction or demolition.

When specifying the location of a temporaryFDC, the designer should consider using areasaround the construction site perimeter. If the FDC islocated well away from areas likely to be used forstorage, unloading, and heavy equipment such ascranes, it is more likely to be accessible to the fireservice (Figure 5.14).

The designer should also coordinate the tempo-rary FDC location with any planned constructionbarricades. Fire service operations will be delayed ifwalls or fences need to be breached to supply theFDC.

Very prominent signs should mark the locationsof temporary FDCs. During construction, aestheticsare not of great importance. A large, brightly col-ored sign with “FDC” painted in a contrasting colorwill help the fire service locate the FDC rapidlyamid the clutter of a construction site (Figure 5.15).Designers should also specify the removal of thesign when the temporary FDC is removed.


Considerations – Temporary FDCs

■ Coordinate FDC locations with areas likely tobe blocked during construction.

■ Mark FDC location with very large, brightlycolored signs.

(Fig. 5.14) This is a building under construction as viewed from a piece of fire apparatus turning the corner onto the block. Can you see the FDC? It is not labeled,and it is blocked by a vehicle, a trash container, a fence, and construction materials.It is directly above the car’s front bumper.

(Fig. 5.15) A temporary FDC labeled with a large colorfulsign, as well as large letters “FDC” spray-painted on thebuilding.

Chapter 6Fire Alarm andCommunication Systems

GENERALA fire alarm system consists of interconnecteddevices and controls to alert building occupants tofire or dangerous conditions and provide emer-gency responders with information on those condi-tions. Clear and concise information will enableresponders to operate efficiently and safely.

Fire alarm systems monitor alarm-initiatingdevices such as manual pull stations, automaticdetectors, or water flow indicators (Figure 6.1a). If a signal is received, the control componentsprocess it via software programs or relays (Figure6.1b). The system then activates audible and visualevacuation notification devices (Figure 6.1c); sendsa remote signal to the fire service or other authori-ties; displays the location of the alarm; recalls ele-vators; and controls ventilation systems.

Systems can vary widely in complexity. A basic,fundamental system consists of a control panel,initiating devices, and notification devices. On the

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(Fig. 6.1a) Initiating device(smoke detector).

(Fig. 6.1b) Control panel. (Fig. 6.1c) Notification device(horn/strobe).

other end of the spectrum are complex selectivevoice evacuation systems with integrated firedepartment phone communications systems.Detection systems have devices that automatical-ly sense fire or its byproducts. Detection systemsare often integrated into fire alarm systems, andthis chapter covers both.

Building and fire codes often specify require-ments for fire alarms systems. Commonly usedcodes include the IBC, NFPA 5000, and NFPA 101.The National Fire Alarm Code, NFPA 72, is a com-prehensive installation standard. This code, alongwith the fire alarm wiring portion of the NationalElectric Code, NFPA 70, sets the requirements fordesign, installation, and maintenance. In addition,OSHA standards create obligations with respect toemployee alarm systems.

This chapter covers fire service personnel inter-action with fire alarm systems and provides guid-ance for designers to facilitate operational efficien-cy. Elevator control, often interconnected with thefire alarm system, is discussed in the section,Firefighter Access, on page 21. The section, SmokeControl Systems, on page 63, covers these systems.

ZONING AND ANNUNCIATIONAn annunciator panel displays information aboutthe location and type of alarm. This assists the fireservice with their initial response and may helptrack the spread of smoke or heat. A building mayhave multiple annunciators to serve multipleentrances. Or, there may be different annunciatorsfor different users, such as the fire department, thesecurity force, and building management staff.This manual focuses on annunciator features appli-cable to fire service use. Designers should alwaysconsult the fire department on the design and loca-tion of these devices.

The location of an annunciator is critical to itsusefulness. Typically, the best location is at themain entrance where the fire department plans toinitially respond. In some large buildings, it may bebeneficial to have duplicate annunciators at differ-ent locations. For buildings, such as high-rises withfire control rooms, the annunciator is usually locat-ed within these rooms. However, depending on theroom’s accessibility, designers may choose to placean additional annunciator at the main entrance.


(Fig. 6.2) Simple fire alarm control panel with lamps andzone labels for annunciation.

(Fig. 6.3) Control panelwith alphanumericannunciation display.

Each building should have its own annunciator,even if a single fire alarm control system servesmultiple buildings. Fire service operations would bedelayed if it were necessary for one unit to reportto a given building to check the annunciator, thenrelocate (or direct another unit) to investigate origi-nation of the alarm. In large complexes, an addi-tional master annunciator could assist the fireservice in locating the building where an alarmoriginates.

Annunciators display alarm information in dif-ferent ways. Some have lights or LEDs that arelabeled (Figure 6.2). Alphanumeric annunciatorshave a readout-type display that may be pro-grammed to show very specific informationdescribing the alarm signal (Figure 6.3). A printer isyet another means of annunciation. It is usuallyused in conjunction with other devices. In verysimple systems, the control panel serves as theannunciator. In such cases, its location and fea-tures should meet all annunciator requirements.

The annunciator panel may also store buildingplans and diagrams. These are then quickly acces-sible to firefighters. A note outside the panel canindicate that it contains building plans or diagrams.

All annunciators include:■ Floor: the level where the signal originated;■ Zone: the area where the signal originated; and■ Device: the type of alarm or supervisory initi-

ating device. Local fire or building codes may dictate zone

size. The annex of NFPA 72 specifies a maximumzone size of 20,000 square feet and 300 linear feet.The zone limitations in both the IBC and NFPA 5000are 22,500 square feet and 300 linear feet. Zoneboundaries should coincide with fire ratings, smokeratings, or building-use boundaries.

Zone descriptors, whether labels next to lampsor alphanumeric displays, should provide pertinentinformation to fire service personnel. Designersshould assume that users will not be familiar withthe building. Descriptors should be intuitive andrapidly decipherable. As the building, layout, ten-ants, or room names change, building ownersshould update descriptions.

Flow switches or pressure switches indicatewater flow. To direct the fire department to theappropriate area, it is important that the zone indi-cation show the area covered by the sprinkler sys-tem. The location of the switch itself is not impor-tant for fire department response operations.

Alarm devices indicate a situation requiringemergency action and normally activate evacuationsignals.

Examples of Alarm Devices:■ Manual pull station ■ Sprinkler flow■ Smoke detector■ Heat detector■ Kitchen cooking equipment extinguishing

system■ Clean agent system■ Carbon dioxide system■ Halon system

Smoke and heat detectors should be furtheridentified on the annunciator by mounting location:

■ Area (ceiling)■ Underfloor■ Duct■ Air plenum■ Elevator lobby■ Elevator machine room■ Elevator hoistway■ Stair shaft

Supervisory devices indicate abnormal condi-tions. They signal a need for non-emergencyaction, such as repair, and they should not cause anevacuation alarm or notify the fire department.

Examples of Supervisory Devices:■ Valve tamper switch (closed or partially

closed water supply control valve)■ Dry sprinkler high or low air pressure switch■ Pre-action sprinkler low air pressure switch■ Water tank low temperature or low water

level indicator■ Valve room low air temperature indicator

Some devices control certain building features,such as fans, doors, or dampers. They may beshown as “alarm” or “supervisory, ” depending onthe preference of the code official.

Examples of Alarm or Supervisory Devices:■ Duct smoke detectors■ Air plenum smoke detectors■ Underfloor detectors■ Door closure smoke detectors■ Elevator hoistway smoke detectors■ Elevator machine room smoke detectors■ Heat detectors for elevator shutdown■ Stair smoke detectors

Note: Some jurisdictions require devices that aresubject to unwanted alarms (primarily duct or airplenum smoke detectors) be supervisory.

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Status indicators give information aboutwhether the main fire alarm power is on, or theyreport on the condition of devices external to thealarm system.

Examples of Status Indicators:■ Main system power on■ Main system trouble■ Fire pump running■ Fire pump fault,■ Fire pump phase reversal■ Generator run■ Generator fault■ Stair doors unlocked■ Smoke control system in operation

Controls are switches that control features exter-nal to the fire alarm system.

Examples of Control Switches:■ Remote fire pump start■ Remote generator start■ Smoke control manual switches■ Stair unlocking switches

GRAPHIC DISPLAYSIf an annunciator shows any location-related infor-mation that is not obvious, a graphic diagram shouldbe provided. Examples are zone boundaries, roomnames, or room numbers. Diagrams enable fire-fighters to determine where to investigate alarmsoriginating in locations with designations such as“Zone 2 East, ” “Suite 121,” or “Main ElectricRoom.”

The graphic display may be a separate, printeddiagram mounted on the wall adjacent to theannunciator. Or, it may be integrated with theannunciator, in which case it is called a “graphicannunciator. ” Some jurisdictions may requiregraphic annunciators.

The design of the diagram is very important inenabling firefighters to rapidly obtain needed infor-mation. Fire departments may have regulations orpolicies outlining their requirements or preferences.Some code officials require annunciators through-out their jurisdiction to have standardized features.

Orientation of the diagram will be important inaiding firefighters to visually process the informa-tion it contains. The farthest point of the buildingbeyond the annunciator’s location should be at thetop of the diagram.

Designers should begin with the building’soutline in creating diagrams. Zones would beidentified by the boundary lines between them.Likewise, for alarms designated by room, suite, ortenant, these locations should be shown. A “YouAre Here” indicator shows the viewers where theyare in the building.

NFPA 13 permits most sprinkler zones to coveras much as 52,000 square feet. Therefore, multiplealarm zones may cover one sprinkler zone. If thereis one sprinkler zone on a floor and multiple alarmzones, lamp or LED annunciators should reportonly the floor and device type. An alarm fromanother device type will light the appropriate zonelamp. If there are multiple sprinkler zones per floor,and sprinkler and alarm zone boundaries are notcoordinated, separate diagrams can show each.


Considerations – Zoning and Annunciation

■ Provide separate panel for each buildingserved.

■ Locate for rapid fire department access nearthe primary entrance or in the fire commandcenter.

■ Include basic information: Floor, zone,device type (alarm or supervisory).

■ Meet zone size limitations.■ Arrange devices subject to unwanted alarms

as supervisory.■ Indicate area covered by sprinkler systems,

not location of switches.■ Include status indicators for power and

external devices.■ Include control switches for other fire pro-

tection features.

Consistent designations for any floor indicationsused in the building will avoid confusion. For exam-ple, it is imperative that floor designations on thesigns mounted in stairways, elevator cars, and ele-vator lobbies, be consistent with the annunciator sothe firefighters report to the correct floor.

In addition to information about floors, zones,and devices, many features of the building could beshown on the diagram. These include fire protec-tion systems and building components that the firedepartment needs to be aware of (Figure 6.4).

Designers should remember that modificationsto the building or its layout may require changes tothe diagram. An annunciator with inaccurate infor-mation could be worse than no annunciator at all.

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Considerations – Graphic Displays

■ Include graphics to show location-relatedinformation.

■ Include standard features required for thejurisdiction.

■ Coordinate the orientation of the diagramwith its location in the building.

■ Provide separate sprinkler diagrams if zoneboundaries do not coincide with other alarmdevices.

■ Coordinate floor level designations with ele-vators and stairways.

■ Include the following building features:o Building address;o North direction arrow;o Stairs, their identification, and the floors

they serve;o Elevators, their identification, and the

floors they serve;o Elevator machine rooms;o Exterior entrances;o Standpipe locations;o Location of utility controls (electric, gas,

fuel);o Fire alarm control panel;o Fire pump(s);o Fire department connection(s).

(Fig. 6.4) Good diagram, with clearly organized and labeledlamps, as well as building features to assist the fire service.

FIRE DEPARTMENT NOTIFICATIONBuilding or fire codes often require fire alarm sys-tems to automatically alert the responsible firebrigade, fire department, or other emergencyresponse forces. The important consideration forfire department response is reporting the correctlocation. Often an alarm service or off-site locationwill receive the alarm signal and then retransmit itto the fire department and/or fire brigade.

It is crucial that the address reported to the firedepartment match the address where the alarmoriginated. If a building has multiple addresses,the one with the fire alarm annunciator or firecommand center, should be reported. If a buildingincludes separate, independent annunciators,coordinate the remote signal with the correctannunciator location (Figure 6.5).

Larger buildings with multiple sections or multi-ple entrances can be confusing. If possible, remotefire department notification should include informa-tion on the section, wing, or entrance where unitsshould report, so firefighters may investigate analarm originating from the corresponding area. Inaddition, strobe lights at entrances correspondingto the alarm location for on-site notification cangreatly assist the fire department (Figure 6.6).


Considerations - Fire Department Notification

■ Report the correct location/address.■ Report the entrance with the alarm annunci-

ator or fire command center.■ Report the section or wing of the building,

if available.■ Report device type, if possible.

(Fig. 6.5) One of two annunciators in a building with fourwings, which fronts on three different streets.

(Fig. 6.6) Strobes above each tenant entry door indicatethe tenant where an alarm originates in this building,which has multiple tenants with different addressesfronting on two streets.

VOICE ALARM SYSTEMSVoice alarms automatically send a voice evacuationmessage to speakers in selected areas of high-risesor expansive buildings, hospitals, and other build-ings where total evacuation is impractical. A typicalhigh-rise arrangement would provide for the fol-lowing areas to automatically receive a pre-recordedevacuation signal: the floor where the alarm origi-nates and the floors above and below it. Arrivingfirefighters can evacuate additional areas by manu-ally activating one, multiple, or all floors with themanual select switches in the command center.They also can override the pre-recorded messageand broadcast live voice announcements to any orall evacuation zones with a microphone at the com-mand center. Adjacent to each manual selectswitch, visual indicators show which evacuationzones are activated at any given time (Figure 6.7).

Arrangement of evacuation zones depends uponthe design of the building and any evacuation planin place. Each floor is typically one evacuationzone. Areas that are not separated by fire or smokebarriers should not be divided into multiple evacua-tion zones. However, if a floor is divided by fire orsmoke barriers to enable occupants to take refugeon either side, multiple evacuation zones should beprovided. Operators at the command center willonly be able to give different instructions to thoseon either side of the barriers if the zone boundariescoincide with the rated barriers.

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(Fig. 6.7) The grey panel is a voice alarm panel. Thelower window shows the microphone and the manualselect switches for the different evacuation zones.

In addition to normally occupied spaces, mostbuilding and fire codes require speakers in stair-ways and elevator cabs. Each stairway and eachbank of elevators should comprise a single evacua-tion zone. In a building with selective evacuation, itis undesirable to automatically activate the speak-ers in these areas. Also, there are typically nodetectors to warn of fire or smoke within the stair-ways or elevator cabs. Each of these zones typicallyhas “manual-only” selection capability for the oper-ators in the fire command center. If a stairway hasdetectors, the speakers in that particular stairwaycould be configured into a separate, automaticallyactivated evacuation zone. Designers should ensurethat evacuation signals are not heard in areas thatare not to be evacuated.

Floors that are physically open to one anothershould be arranged as a single evacuation zone.This avoids the confusion possible when occupantsin portions of the space hear an evacuation signal,but cannot clearly decipher it. A common exampleof this situation is a series of parking garage levelsconnected by open ramps. The group of intercon-nected levels should be designed as a single evacu-ation zone on the “floor, floor above, and floorbelow” automatic evacuation scenario.

Atriums and other large open spaces spanningmultiple floors also deserve special attention inbuildings with selective evacuation. The arrange-ment depends upon the egress arrangement andthe building’s evacuation plan. The entire atriumshould comprise one evacuation zone. It may bedesirable to activate only the atrium zone uponreceipt of an alarm signal from within the atrium,and not from alarm signals in other areas.Designers should consider the legibility of signalsin areas adjacent to the atrium, so as not to causeoccupant confusion.

FIRE DEPARTMENT COMMUNICATIONS SYSTEMSFire department communications systems are two-way telephone systems typically required in high-rise buildings. The command center contains thecontrol unit with the main handset for use by thefire department commanders (Figure 6.8a). Eitherhandsets or jacks for handsets are then placed inareas of the building for firefighters to communi-cate with the command center (Figure 6.8b). If thesystem uses jacks, a number of portable handsetswith plugs are provided in the command center fordistribution to firefighters.

Designers should plan for handsets or jacks inlocations where firefighters are likely to be operat-ing. NFPA 72 requires only one handset or jack perfloor, one per exit stairway, and one in each firepump room. NFPA 101 requires them on everylevel in each enclosed stairway, each elevator car,and each elevator lobby. The IBC currently requireshandsets or jacks in the same locations as NFPA101 and also in standby power rooms, fire pumprooms, and areas of refuge. These additional jacksor handsets can provide more rapid communica-tions from these critical areas.


Considerations - Voice Alarm Systems

■ Arrange evacuation zone boundaries alongfire or smoke separations.

■ Coordinate the evacuation zones with thebuilding evacuation plan.

■ Place areas or floors open to one another ina single zone.

■ Arrange each bank of elevators into a manu-al-select zone.

■ Arrange each stairway into a separate zone(manual-select type if no initiating deviceswithin stairway).

■ Arrange each atrium on a separate zone,and consider message legibility whenarranging activation of adjacent areas.

(Fig. 6.8a) Fire officerspeaking into the handsetat the control panel for afire department communi-cation system. This panelalso houses the handsetsused by firefighters atremote jacks.

(Fig. 6.8b) A firefighterusing a handset in a re-mote jack located inside a stairway.

5 8


Considerations - Fire Department

Communications Systems

■ Locate control panel in fire command center.■ Locate jacks or handsets in stairs, elevator

cars, elevator lobbies, standby power rooms,fire pump rooms, and areas of refuge.

■ When a fire department is willing to allow itsradio system to substitute, specify a signaltransmission analysis and retransmissiondevices, if required.

Considerations - Fire Command Centers

■ Use a dedicated room unless the local firedepartment permits and sanctions anotherlocation.

■ Include all fire protection control panels andsupporting equipment.

■ Provide visual cross-reference indicators formultiple command centers.

Both the IBC and NFPA 101 contain exceptionsthat allow fire departments to approve their radiosystems as a substitute for two-way telephone sys-tems. For a radio system to be equivalent, theradio signals should be operable in the same areas(the command center and each remote jack orhandset location). To exercise this option, design-ers or building owners should test radio signalsand document of successful results. Signal retrans-mission devices may be necessary; this is dis-cussed further in the section, Firefighter RadioSignal Retransmission Systems, on page 61.

FIRE COMMAND CENTERSBuilding or fire codes typically require high-risebuildings to have a dedicated room or other loca-tion containing fire alarm and related fire protectioncontrol equipment. These are called “FireCommand Centers” in NFPA 72 and in the IBC. Theterm “Central Control Station” is used in NFPA 101and NFPA 5000. Yet another term, “EmergencyCommand Center, ” is used in NFPA 1. Industry alsouses the expression “Fire Control Room.”

Both the IBC and NFPA 72 require the roomcontaining the fire command center to be one-hour fire-rated. These rooms often have exteriorentrances which should be prominently marked(Figure 6.9). NFPA 72 and NFPA 101 permit lobbiesor other approved locations instead of a dedicated,fire-rated room. The IBC requires the room to be atleast 96 square feet, with a minimum dimension of8 feet. NFPA 72 requires at least a three-foot clear-ance in front of all control equipment.

The IBC contains a comprehensive list of equip-ment required in a fire command center. The listsin NFPA 1, NFPA 101 and NFPA 5000 are about halfas long, and all of these items are on the list in theIBC as well. The additional items in the IBC maygreatly assist firefighters in their operations. Theseinclude: a work table, building plans, fire protectionsystem plans, and controls for air handling equip-ment, smoke control systems, and the generator(Figure 6.10).

If a building has multiple fire command centers,visual indicators should show, at a glance, whichfire command center is in control at any given time.

(Fig. 6.9) Fire command center next to main entrance.The sign on the room should be visible to respondingfirefighters.

(Fig. 6.10) Firecommand centerwith fire alarmand communica-tions equipment,a work table, andadequate workspace for the inci-dent commandstaff.

Chapter 7Other Systems

FIREFIGHTER EMERGENCYPOWER SYSTEMSFirefighters regularly use electric power for lights,ventilation fans, or other tools. In large or tall build-ings they must run extensive lengths of electriccable to feed equipment in remote areas of thebuilding. A fixed, emergency power system builtinto the building can substitute for these long cableruns, and save time and effort. This is analogous tostandpipe systems substituting for long hose lays.In fact, one approach is to require an emergencypower system whenever standpipes are required.

Emergency power systems include one or morededicated electric circuits feeding a series of electri-cal receptacles (Figure 7.1). They are wired on anemergency circuit in the building and connected toany backup power sources in the building. In thismanner, the outlets are continuously available forfire department use, even after the main power isshut down.

The designer should find out first if a jurisdictionrequires a firefighter emergency power system andwhat specific criteria must be met. The plug typethe fire department uses for its electrical equipment(Figure 7.2) determines the receptacle type. The

wiring methods and over-current protection mustmeet 29 CFR Subpart S and any other local or statecodes.

Receptacles may be located on every levelinside each enclosed stairway. Some jurisdictionsmay require, or prefer, them to be located outsidethe stairwell. Additional receptacles may be placedto accommodate a maximum length of cable. Or,simply locating one receptacle next to each stand-pipe fire hose connection (Figure 7.1) may providegood distribution.

Mark receptacles so that firefighters can spotthem easily. For example, the designer could speci-fy that each be painted red and labeled “For FireDepartment Use Only. ”


(Fig. 7.1) Firefighter emergency power receptacle next to a standpipe fire hose connection inside of a stairenclosure.

(Fig. 7.2) A weather-resistant receptacle cover opened,showing the twist-lock receptacle.

Considerations - Firefighter Emergency Power

Systems

■ Specify installation when required ordesired.

■ Specify the appropriate circuitry and recep-tacle type.

■ Specify connection to any standby powersources in the building.

■ Provide receptacles in convenient, accessi-ble locations.

■ Mark receptacles appropriately.

FIREFIGHTER BREATHING AIR SYSTEMSFirefighters use self-contained breathing apparatus(SCBA) for interior fire fighting. SCBA air is sup-plied by cylinders (often referred to as “bottles”)that have a limited amount of air. When depleted,these air cylinders need to be refilled or replacedwith full ones. Some fire service organizations havespecialized vehicles that contain systems known as“cascade systems” that refill breathing air cylindersat fire scenes.

A firefighter breathing air system is a system ofpiping within a tall building or a sprawling structurethat enables firefighters to refill their breathingapparatus cylinders at remote interior locations.These systems are essentially air standpipe sys-tems. A few jurisdictions in the U.S. require suchsystems for high-rise buildings, or for long (i.e.,over 300 feet) underground tunnels (both pedestri-an and transportation).

Without such systems, firefighters must carryadditional breathing air cylinders to a staging area,and others must transport cylinders back and forthfrom a supply point outside. Permanently installedbreathing air systems make emergency operationssafer and more efficient by eliminating the need tocarry extra cylinders, reducing the time and person-nel needed for logistical support. However, properfunction is dependent upon careful, thoroughdesign, as well as regular maintenance.

A firefighter breathing air system consists of apiping distribution system that runs from a supplypoint to interior “fill stations” or “fill panels.” Fillpanels contain short sections of hose with connec-tions that fit firefighter’s air cylinders. Fill stationsare larger enclosures in which cylinders are replen-ished within a blast fragmentation container usingrigid fill connections. Both alternatives have thenecessary valves, gauges, regulators, and locks toprevent tampering. Their mounting height shouldfacilitate easy connection of cylinders.

A good location for fill points (panels or sta-tions) is just outside enclosed, fire-rated stairs.Placement at every second or third level providesreasonable coverage. This distribution enables fire-fighters to locate fill points quickly and set up areplenishment operation in safe proximity to thefire. With fill points just outside the stairs, refilloperations will not impede stairway traffic (whetherfirefighters or occupants). A sign within the stair

enclosure, at each level with fill points, can indicatethe location of fill points (for example: “BreathingAir Fill Panel, Out Door and 10 Feet to the Right.”).Fill points should only be located inside the stairenclosure after careful consideration by the firedepartment and if additional space is allocated forrefilling operations. For tunnels, designers shouldlocate fill points a reasonable spacing apart, per-haps 200 feet.

The supply to the distribution system will varyaccording to fire department capabilities and pref-erences. One approach is to provide one or moreexterior fire department connection panels throughwhich the fire department supplies air from amobile air supply unit. Another is to provide fixedair storage cylinders within the building, and anexterior backup fill connection. The fixed storagecomponents would be in a lockable, air condi-tioned, fire-rated room with emergency lightingand a pressure relief vent.

All fire department fill connection panels shouldbe in weather-resistant, locked enclosures markedto indicate their use. Many of the design considera-tions for these connections are similar to those inChapter 5 for sprinkler/standpipe connections.They should be located to make it possible for thefill lines on the air fill unit to reach the connectionpanel.

The designer should provide a fire lane or aroad for the mobile air fill unit to access each fillconnection. Some of the design considerations inthe section, Fire Apparatus Access, on page 11, alsoapply, in particular the paragraphs on material,gates, barricades, security measures, and marking.The clear height and width would need to accom-modate only the fill unit, unless it also serves asaccess for larger fire apparatus.

Reliability features are highly desirable onbreathing air systems. The piping should stay pres-surized and the system should include a low airpressure monitoring device. Air quality may besupervised with carbon monoxide and moisturemonitors. The designer should specify an air quali-ty analysis for the initial system acceptance as wellas ongoing periodic testing. The designer shouldcall for good installation practices, including keep-ing the piping free of oils, dirt, construction materi-als, or other contaminants.

6 0


For adequate protection throughout an incident,all components of the system should be separatedfrom other portions of the building or tunnel byfire-rated construction. A rating equivalent to thatrequired for stair enclosures is reasonable.

The performance of the entire system should bespecified in terms of the number of air cylinders tobe filled simultaneously at remote locations, the fillpressure, and the fill time. This will dictate the sizeof the distribution piping and any air storage cylin-ders. All components should be specified for usewith breathing air, and marked to indicate their use.

FIREFIGHTER RADIO SIGNALRETRANSMISSION SYSTEMSFire department portable radios are frequentlyunreliable inside buildings and other structuressuch as tunnels. Construction materials, earth, andchanges in the radio frequency environment cangreatly reduce the strength of radio signals. If a fire-fighter inside is unable to transmit or receive, he orshe must relocate closer to an exterior opening,move to a different floor, use an alternate means ofcommunication, or resort to runners or direct voicecommunications. Cell phone signals are affected bythe same factors as radio signals. Land line phoneswill allow firefighters to communicate with dis-patchers, but not other units; they may also beaffected by the incident occurring in the building.All of these factors may delay operations, and cre-ate greater challenges in maintaining crew integrity(Figure 7.3).

New technology can improve signal transmis-sion within buildings and structures through fixedcommunications infrastructures. Passive approach-es simply provide a conduit to assist in the trans-mission of signals. However, active methodsinvolve powered devices to amplify and retransmitsignals.

For example, the “passive antenna system”includes both an internal and an external antenna,connected with a short coaxial cable. A “radiatingcable, ” also known as a “leaky coax” is a networkof coaxial cables with slots in the outer conductorthat create a continuous antenna effect.

Increasing in popularity is an active signal trans-mission method involving a signal booster alsoknown as a “Bi-Directional Amplifier, ” or simplyBDA. These powered devices amplify signalsbetween an external antenna and one or moreinternal antennae. Both reception and transmissionare amplified messages on portable radios withinthe building. A network of antennae placed atstrategic locations or a leaky coaxial cable distrib-ute signals throughout the coverage area.

Some installations combine passive and activeapproaches. Passive antennae generally work wellin small, well-defined areas. BDAs function well inlarger, diverse areas that need a coverage solution.

Some jurisdictions have adopted laws or ordi-nances concerning public safety radio communica-tions. In others, designers should consider specify-


Considerations - Firefighter Breathing Air

Systems

■ Obtain and follow all applicable laws andregulations.

■ Specify lockable fill stations or fill panels.■ Specify proper mounting height for fill pan-

els or fill stations.■ Locate fill stations or fill panels just outside

stairways.■ Provide signage in stairs at levels of fill pan-

els/fill stations.■ Specify on-site air storage when required.■ Specify weatherproof lockable fire depart-

ment connection panel(s).■ Locate exterior fire department connection

panel(s) near access for the mobile air unit. ■ Locate multiple exterior fire department con-

nection panels remote from each other. ■ Specify piping and other components suit-

able for high pressure breathing air.■ Specify that all components be marked for

their use.■ Specify CO monitor and low air pressure

alarm. ■ Specify system performance as follows:

o Minimum number of cylinders to besimultaneously filled;

o Maximum cylinder pressure;o Maximum fill time.

■ Specify air quality analysis at acceptance,and periodic testing.

ing a study to determine the possible need forretransmission devices. Installing stationary com-munications infrastructures in high-rise buildingsand tunnels is one way to resolve communicationproblems like those encountered by the FireDepartment of New York on September 11, 2001.

Without laws requiring this equipment, cost con-siderations may discourage owners from voluntaryinstallations. However, owners of high-rises orother target hazards may be swayed by increasesin property value or improved safety for tenants.Alternatively, in high-rise buildings where firefight-er communication systems are required, a codeofficial may permit the substitution of fixed com-munications infrastructures as discussed in the sec-tion, Fire Department Communications Systems, onpage 57. Perhaps, in the future, insurance compa-nies will offer lower premiums for buildings con-taining such installations.

Many local communications ordinances current-ly in effect in the U.S. contain specific requirementsfor system performance.These include signalstrength, area coverage,reliability, secondarypower supply, interfer-ence filters, acceptancetesting upon completion,and ongoing periodictesting.

6 2


Considerations - Firefighter Radio

Communications

■ Follow any local laws or ordinances for fixedcommunications infrastructures.

■ Investigate the feasibility of voluntary com-pliance in other jurisdictions.

■ Specify minimum signal strength.■ Specify percentage of the building to meet

the signal strength.■ Specify the percentage of time that signal

strength is to be available.■ Specify secondary power for at least 12

hours of continuous, full-load operation.■ Specify filters needed to block interference

from nearby channels.■ Specify a suitable acceptance test of all sys-

tem functions and features.

(Fig. 7.3) Chief Officer on portable radio.

SMOKE CONTROL SYSTEMSSmoke control systems (or smoke managementsystems) are mechanical systems that control themovement of smoke during a fire. Most are intend-ed to protect occupants while they are evacuatingor being sheltered in place. The most common sys-tems referenced in current codes are atrium smokeexhaust systems and stair-pressurization systems.In some specialized cases, zoned smoke controlsystems may be provided. These feature zones orfloors that are either pressurized or exhausted tokeep smoke from spreading.

The IBC contains mandatory provisions forsmoke control systems. Designers can find NFPA’sdetailed provisions in two non-mandatory docu-ments, the Recommended Practice for SmokeControl Systems (NFPA 92A) and the Guide forSmoke Management Systems in Malls, Atria, andLarge Areas (NFPA 92B).

The manual controls required or provided forsmoke control systems are a primary considerationfor the fire service. These manual controls canoverride automatic controls that activate these sys-tems. When fire department personnel arrive, theycan assess whether the automatic modes are func-tioning as intended. Incident commanders maythen use the manual controls to select a differentmode or turn any given zone off. It is imperativethat these controls override any other manual orautomatic controls at any other location.

A simple, straightforward control panel withmanual switches for the smoke control system(s)will assist a firefighter who may be trying to deci-pher how the controls work just after awakening inthe middle of the night. Also, similar to annuncia-tors, the fire department may have specific require-ments or recommendations, and may prefer unifor-mity of panels within their jurisdiction.


(Fig. 7.4) A well-designed,easy-to-understand diagramof a smoke control panel.Each system has a single,clearly labeled switch toselect each mode.

Both the IBC and NFPA 92A call for status indica-tors for each fan, damper, and other device. TheICC requires individual controls for each of thesedevices, but permits them to be combined for com-plex systems. A system need not be very large tobe considered complex.

A good, simple panel layout might feature a sin-gle switch for each system or zone (Figure 7.4).Each different position of the switch places the sys-tem in a given mode, and the corresponding activa-tion or setting of the individual devices would beconfigured “behind the scenes.” For example, astair pressurization system might contain a three-position switch for each of three modes: “auto-matic, ” “pressurize, ” and “off. ”

Zoned smoke control systems are often ar-ranged with each floor as a separate zone. In othercases, a floor may be split into multiple zones.These should be indicated on a graphic display,either on or adjacent to the smoke control panel.See the section, Graphic Displays, on page 53, foradditional guidance on graphic displays.

American Association of State Highway and

Transportation Officials

444 North Capitol Street, NW, Suite 249Washington, DC 20001Phone: (202) 624-5800Fax: (202) 624-5806http://www.transportation.org/aashto/home.nsf/FrontPage

American National Standards Institute (ANSI)

1819 L Street, NW, 6th floorWashington, DC 20036 Phone: (202) 293-8020 Fax: (202) 293-9287http://www.ansi.org

American Water Works Association

6666 W. Quincy Ave.Denver, CO 80235Phone: (303) 794-7711 or (800) 926-7337Fax: (303) 347-0804http://www.awwa.org

International Code Council

5203 Leesburg Pike, Suite 600Falls Church, VA 22041Phone: (888) 422-7233Fax: (703) 379-1546http://www.iccsafe.org

National Fire Protection Association

1 Batterymarch ParkQuincy, MA 02169-7471Phone: (800) 344-3555Fax: (800) 593-6372http://www.nfpa.org

6 4


Considerations – Smoke Control Systems

■ Settings for atrium smoke exhaust switches:“auto, ” “exhaust, ” “off. ”

■ Settings for stair pressurization switches:“auto, ” “pressurize, ” “off. ”

■ Settings for zoned smoke control switches:“auto, ” “exhaust, ” “pressurize, ” “off. ”

■ If there is more than one zone per floor, pro-vide a graphic diagram.

■ Settings for manual smoke venting systemswitches: “exhaust, ” “off. ”

Designers should not confuse smoke controlsystems with smoke or heat venting systems. Thelatter are mechanical systems for the removal ofsmoke. They are often arranged to activate onlymanually. In some cases, they only remove smokeafter an incident.

Appendix

Sources of Referenced Standards and Information


OSHA Assistance

OSHA can provide extensive help through a vari-ety of programs, including technical assistance abouteffective safety and health programs, state plans,workplace consultations, voluntary protection pro-grams, strategic partnerships, training and education,and more. An overall commitment to workplace safetyand health can add value to your business, to yourworkplace and to your life.

Safety and Health Program Management Guidelines

Effective management of worker safety and healthprotection is a decisive factor in reducing the extentand severity of work-related injuries and illnesses andtheir related costs. In fact, an effective safety andhealth program forms the basis of good worker pro-tection and can save time and money (about $4 forevery dollar spent) and increase productivity andreduce worker injuries, illnesses and related workers’compensation costs.

To assist employers and employees in developingeffective safety and health programs, OSHA publishedrecommended Safety and Health Program Manage-ment Guidelines (54 Federal Register (16): 3904-3916,January 26, 1989). These voluntary guidelines applyto all places of employment covered by OSHA.

The guidelines identify four general elements criti-cal to the development of a successful safety andhealth management program:

■ Management leadership and employee involve-ment.

■ Work analysis.

■ Hazard prevention and control.

■ Safety and health training.

The guidelines recommend specific actions, undereach of these general elements, to achieve an effec-tive safety and health program. The Federal Registernotice is available online at www.osha.gov

State Programs

The Occupational Safety and Health Act of 1970(OSH Act) encourages states to develop and operatetheir own job safety and health plans. OSHA approvesand monitors these plans. Twenty-four states, PuertoRico and the Virgin Islands currently operate approvedstate plans: 22 cover both private and public (stateand local government) employment; the Connecticut,New Jersey, New York and Virgin Islands plans cover

the public sector only. States and territories with theirown OSHA-approved occupational safety and healthplans must adopt standards identical to, or at least aseffective as, the Federal standards.

Consultation Services

Consultation assistance is available on request toemployers who want help in establishing and main-taining a safe and healthful workplace. Largely fundedby OSHA, the service is provided at no cost to theemployer. Primarily developed for smaller employerswith more hazardous operations, the consultationservice is delivered by state governments employingprofessional safety and health consultants. Compre-hensive assistance includes an appraisal of allmechanical systems, work practices and occupationalsafety and health hazards of the workplace and allaspects of the employer’s present job safety andhealth program. In addition, the service offers assis-tance to employers in developing and implementingan effective safety and health program. No penaltiesare proposed or citations issued for hazards identifiedby the consultant. OSHA provides consultation assis-tance to the employer with the assurance that his orher name and firm and any information about theworkplace will not be routinely reported to OSHAenforcement staff.

Under the consultation program, certain exemplaryemployers may request participation in OSHA’s Safetyand Health Achievement Recognition Program (SHARP).Eligibility for participation in SHARP includes receivinga comprehensive consultation visit, demonstratingexemplary achievements in workplace safety andhealth by abating all identified hazards and develop-ing an excellent safety and health program.

Employers accepted into SHARP may receive anexemption from programmed inspections (not com-plaint or accident investigation inspections) for a peri-od of one year. For more information concerning con-sultation assistance, see the OSHA website atwww.osha.gov

Voluntary Protection Programs (VPP)

Voluntary Protection Programs and on-site con-sultation services, when coupled with an effectiveenforcement program, expand worker protection tohelp meet the goals of the OSH Act. The three levelsof VPP are Star, Merit, and Demonstration designedto recognize outstanding achievements by companiesthat have successfully incorporated comprehensivesafety and health programs into their total manage-

6 6


ment system. The VPPs motivate others to achieveexcellent safety and health results in the same out-standing way as they establish a cooperative relation-ship between employers, employees and OSHA.

For additional information on VPP and how toapply, contact the OSHA regional offices listed at theend of this publication.

Strategic Partnership Program

OSHA’s Strategic Partnership Program, the newestmember of OSHA’s cooperative programs, helps en-courage, assist and recognize the efforts of partners toeliminate serious workplace hazards and achieve ahigh level of worker safety and health. WhereasOSHA’s Consultation Program and VPP entail one-on-one relationships between OSHA and individual work-sites, most strategic partnerships seek to have abroader impact by building cooperative relationshipswith groups of employers and employees. Thesepartnerships are voluntary, cooperative relationshipsbetween OSHA, employers, employee representativesand others (e.g., trade unions, trade and professionalassociations, universities and other government agen-cies).

For more information on this and other coopera-tive programs, contact your nearest OSHA office, orvisit OSHA’s website at www.osha.gov

Alliance Programs

The Alliances Program enables organizationscommitted to workplace safety and health to collab-orate with OSHA to prevent injuries and illnesses inthe workplace. OSHA and the Alliance participantswork together to reach out to, educate and lead thenation’s employers and their employees in improv-ing and advancing workplace safety and health.

Groups that can form an Alliance with OSHA in-clude employers, labor unions, trade or professionalgroups, educational institutions and governmentagencies. In some cases, organizations may be build-ing on existing relationships with OSHA that weredeveloped through other cooperative programs.

There are few formal program requirements forAlliances and the agreements do not include an en-forcement component. However, OSHA and the partic-ipating organizations must define, implement andmeet a set of short- and long-term goals that fall intothree categories: training and education; outreach andcommunication; and promoting the national dialogueon workplace safety and health.

OSHA Training and Education

OSHA area offices offer a variety of informationservices, such as compliance assistance, technicaladvice, publications, audiovisual aids and speakers forspecial engagements. OSHA’s Training Institute inArlington Heights, IL, provides basic and advancedcourses in safety and health for Federal and statecompliance officers, state consultants, Federal agencypersonnel, and private sector employers, employeesand their representatives.

The OSHA Training Institute also has establishedOSHA Training Institute Education Centers to addressthe increased demand for its courses from the privatesector and from other Federal agencies. These cen-ters are nonprofit colleges, universities and otherorganizations that have been selected after a competi-tion for participation in the program.

OSHA also provides funds to nonprofit organiza-tions, through grants, to conduct workplace trainingand education in subjects where OSHA believes thereis a lack of workplace training. Grants are awardedannually. Grant recipients are expected to contribute20 percent of the total grant cost.

For more information on grants, training and edu-cation, contact the OSHA Training Institute, Office ofTraining and Education, 2020 South Arlington HeightsRoad, Arlington Heights, IL 60005, (847) 297-4810 orsee “Outreach” on OSHA’s website at www.osha.gov.For further information on any OSHA program, con-tact your nearest OSHA area or regional office listed atthe end of this publication.

Information Available Electronically

OSHA has a variety of materials and tools availableon its website at www.osha.gov. These include e-Tools such as Expert Advisors, Electronic ComplianceAssistance Tools (e-cats), Technical Links; regulations,directives and publications; videos and other informa-tion for employers and employees. OSHA’s softwareprograms and compliance assistance tools walk youthrough challenging safety and health issues andcommon problems to find the best solutions for yourworkplace.

A wide variety of OSHA materials, including stan-dards, interpretations, directives, and more, can bepurchased on CD-ROM from the U.S. GovernmentPrinting Office, Superintendent of Documents, phonetoll-free (866) 512-1800.

OSHA Regional Offices

Region I

(CT,* ME, MA, NH, RI, VT*) JFK Federal Building, Room E340Boston, MA 02203(617) 565-9860

Region II

(NJ,* NY,* PR,* VI*)201 Varick Street, Room 670New York, NY 10014(212) 337-2378

Region III

(DE, DC, MD,* PA, VA,* WV)The Curtis Center170 S. Independence Mall WestSuite 740 WestPhiladelphia, PA 19106-3309(215) 861-4900

Region IV

(AL, FL, GA, KY,* MS, NC,* SC,* TN*)61 Forsyth Street, SWAtlanta, GA 30303(404) 562-2300

Region V

(IL, IN,* MI,* MN,* OH, WI)230 South Dearborn Street Room 3244Chicago, IL 60604(312) 353-2220

Region VI

(AR, LA, NM,* OK, TX)525 Griffin Street, Room 602Dallas, TX 75202(214) 767-4731 or 4736 x224

Region VII

(IA,* KS, MO, NE)City Center Square1100 Main Street, Suite 800Kansas City, MO 64105(816) 426-5861

Region VIII

(CO, MT, ND, SD, UT,* WY*)1999 Broadway, Suite 1690PO Box 46550Denver, CO 80202-5716(720) 264-6550

Region IX

(American Samoa, AZ,* CA,* HI,* NV,* Northern Mariana Islands)71 Stevenson Street, Room 420San Francisco, CA 94105(415) 975-4310

Region X

(AK,* ID, OR,* WA*)1111 Third Avenue, Suite 715Seattle, WA 98101-3212(206) 553-5930

* These states and territories operate their ownOSHA-approved job safety and health programsand cover state and local government workers aswell as private sector workers. The Connecticut,New Jersey, New York and Virgin Islands planscover public employees only. States with approvedprograms must have standards that are identical to,or at least as effective as, the Federal standards.

Note: To get contact information for OSHA AreaOffices, OSHA-approved State Plans and OSHAConsultation Projects, please visit us online atwww.osha.gov or call us at 1-800-321-OSHA.


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