fizicki, mehanicki i drugi svojstva na elementi i materijali

THE STRUCTURE OF MATTER 1075

The Natural Elements (Continued)

AtomicAtomic weight Melting

Name number Symbol O � 16.000 point, °C

Magnesium 12 Mg 24.32 650Manganese 25 Mn 54.93 1260Mercury 80 Hg 200.61 �38.87Molybdenum 42 Mo 96.0 2625Neodymium 60 Nd 144.27 840Neon 10 Ne 20.183 �248.6Nickel 28 Ni 58.69 1455Nitrogen 7 N 14.008 �210.0Osmium 76 Os 191.5 2700Oxygen 8 O 16.0000 �218.8Palladium 46 Pd 106.7 1554Phosphorous 15 P 31.02 44.1Platinum 78 Pt 195.23 1773.5Polonium 84 Po …… 1800Potassium 19 K 39.096 63Praseodymium 59 Pr 140.92 940Protoactinium 91 Pa 231Radium 88 Ra 226.05 700Radon 86 Rn 222 �71Rhenium 75 Re 186.31 3000Rhodium 45 Rh 102.91 1966Rubidium 37 Rb 84.44 39Ruthenium 44 Ru 101.7 2450Samarium 62 Sm 105.43 1300Scandium 21 Sc 45.10 1200Selenium 34 Se 78.96 220Silicon 14 Si 28.06 1430Silver 47 Ag 107.880 960.5Sodium 11 Na 22.997 97.7Strontium 38 Sr 87.63 770Sulfur 16 S 32.06 119.2Tantalum 73 Ta 180.88 3000Technetium 43 Ma 97.8 2300Tellurium 52 Te 127.61 450Terbium 65 Tb 158.9 1356Thallium 81 Tl 204.39 300Thorium 90 Th 232.12 1700Thulium 69 Tm 169.4 1545Tin 50 Sn 118.70 231.9Titanium 22 Ti 47.90 1820Tungsten 74 W 184.0 3410Uranium 92 U 238.14 1850Vanadium 23 V 50.95 1735Xenon 54 Xe 131.3 �112Ytterbium 70 Yb 173.04 1500Yttrium 39 Y 88.92 1490Zinc 30 Zn 65.38 419.5Zirconium 40 Zr 91.22 1700

Structure and Properties of Materials

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1076 STRUCTURE AND PROPERTIES OF MATERIALS

Specific Gravity and Density of Materials

Specific gravity Density, lb/ft3 Density, kg/m3

Aluminum 2.7 165 2,643Beryllium 1.85 115.5 1,850Bronze 8.0 509 8,154Cadmium 8.6 537 8,603Cast iron 7.2 450 7,209Cobalt 8.76 547 8,763Columbium 8.57 535 8,571Copper 8.9 556 8,907Glass 2.5 160 2,563Gold 19.32 1206 19,320Lead 11.38 710 11,374Magnesium 1.74 109 1,746Mercury 13.6 849 13,601Molybdenum 10.2 637 10,205Nickel 8.9 556 8,907Nylon 1.14 71.2 1,141Osmium 22.58 1410 22,697Palladium 12.10 755 12,095Platinum 21.45 1339 21,450Polyethylene 0.91 to 0.965 56.8 to 60.2 910 to 960Polystyrene 0.906 56.6 907Rhodium 12.44 777 12,448Steel 7.8 490 7,850Zinc 7.5 440 7,049Silver 10.7 668 10,701Titanium 4.5 281 4,501Tantalum 16.6 1036 16,597Tungsten 19.6 1224 19,608Uranium 18.7 1167 18,702Zirconium 6.5 406 6,504Ash, dry 0.63 40 641Cedar, dry 0.36 22 352Fir, dry 0.56 32 513Maple, dry 0.65 43 689Redwood, dry 0.42 26 417White pine, dry 0.41 26 417Granite 2.6 165 2,643Limestone 2.5 165 2,643Sandstone 1.8 110 1,762Pressed brick 2.2 140 2,243Common brick 1.9 120 1,922Terra cotta 1.9 120 1,922Concrete 2.3 144 2,307Portland cement 3.0 183 2,932Mortar 1.7 103 1,650Earth, dry, loose 76 1,218Earth, dry, packed 95 1,522Sand and gravel 60 961Asbestos 153 2,451Lithium 0.533 33.28 533Marble 2.7 170 2,723Shale 92 1,474Tar 1.2 75 1,202Bluestone 2.5 159 2,547




PHYSICAL AND MECHANICAL PROPERTIES 1101

Order of Ductility of Metals

1. Gold 6. Aluminum2. Platinum 7. Nickel3. Silver 8. Zinc4. Iron 9. Tin5. Copper 10. Lead

Modulus of Elasticity in Tension of Materials

lb/in2 MPa

Lead (cast) 700,000 4,827Lead (hard-drawn) 1,000,000 6,895Phenolic (fabric laminated) 1,000,000 6,895Pine (static bending) 1,200,000 8,274Ash (static bending) 1,300,000 8,964Phenolic (paper base) 2,100,000 14,480Tin (cast) 4,000,000 27,580Tin (rolled) 5,700,000 39,300Glass 8,000,000 55,160Brass 9,000,000 62,100Aluminum (cast) 10,000,000 68,950Copper (cast) 11,000,000 75,850Zinc (cast) 11,000,000 75,850Zinc (rolled) 12,000,000 82,740Cast iron (soft gray iron) 12,000,000 82,740Brass (cast) 13,000,000 89,640Bronze (average) 13,000,000 89,640Phosphor bronze 13,000,000 89,640Manganese bronze (cast) 14,000,000 96,530Slate 14,000,000 96,530Copper (soft, wrought) 15,000,000 103,400Cast iron (average, with steel scrap) 16,000,000 110,300Clock brass 16,600,000 114,500Copper (hard-drawn) 18,000,000 124,100Cast iron (hard, white iron) 20,000,000 137,900Malleable iron 23,000,000 158,600Wrought iron 27,000,000 186,200Carbon steel 30,000,000 206,850Alloy steel (nickel-chromium) 30,000,000 206,850Nickel 30,000,000 206,850Tungsten 60,000,000 413,700





Melting and Welding Temperatures

°F °C

Direct electric arc 7232 4000°Oxygen-acetylene torch 6332 3500°Electric furnace 5432 3000°Aluminum-iron oxide powder 5072 2800°Combustion furnace 3092 1700°Oxygen-hydrogen torch 2642 1450°Plasma arc welding 59,432 33,000°Electron-beam welding �18,032 �10,000°Laser-beam welding �18,032 �10,000°

Mohs Hardness of Minerals

Original Mohs scale Modified Mohs scale

Hardness Hardnessnumber Mineral number Material Bierbaum number

1 Talc 1 Talc 12 Gypsum 2 Gypsum3 Calcite 3 Calcite 154 Fluorite 4 Fluorite5 Apatite 5 Apatite6 Orthoclase 6 Orthoclase

7 Vitreous silica7 Quartz 8 Quartz or stellite8 Topaz 9 Topaz

10 Garnet11 Fused zirconia

9 Corundum 12 Fused alumina13 Silicon carbide14 Boron carbide

10 Diamond 15 Diamond 10,000 (1-�m scratch)

Hardness Grades of Woods

1. Exceedingly hard Lignum-vitae, ebony2. Extremely hard Boxwood, lilac, jarrah, karri3. Very hard Whitethorn, blackthorn, persimmon4. Hard Hornbeam, elder, yew5. Rather hard Ash, holly, plum, elm6. Firm Teak, chestnut, beech, walnut, apple, oak7. Soft Willow, deal, alder, Australian red cedar, birch, hazel8. Very soft White pine, poplar, redwood





Knoop Hardness of Materials

Diamond 6,000–7,000 Zirconia 1,150Boron carbide 2,750 Chromium 935Aluminum boride 2,500 Quartz 710–820Titanium carbide 2,470 Feldspar (orthoclase) 560Beryllium carbide 2,400 Nickel 550Silicon carbide 2,130–2,480 Apatite 430Alumina 2,100 Steel, hardened 400–800Zirconium carbide 2,100 Glass 300–600Tantalum carbide 2,000 Magnesia 370Tungsten carbide 1,880 Copper 160Titanium nitride 1,800 Fluorite 160Zirconium boride 1,550 Calcite 135Garnet 1,360 Zinc 120Topaz 1,250–1,340 Silver 60Spinel 1,200–1,400 Cadmium 35Tungsten carbide-cobalt 1,000–1,800 Gypsum 30Beryllia 1,250

Comparative Hardness of Hard Abrasives

(Scale: Diamond 10, corundum 9)

South American brown bort 10.00South American Ballas 9.99Congo yellow (cubic crystals) 9.96Congo clear white (cubic crystals) 9.95Congo gray opaque (cubic crystals) 9.89South American carbonadoes 9.82Boron carbide 9.32Black silicon carbide 9.15Green silicon carbide 9.13Tungsten carbide (13% cobalt) 9.09Fused alumina (3.14% TiO2) 9.06Fused alumina 9.03African crystal corundum 9.00Rock-crystal quartz 8.94

Thermal Conductivity of Materials*

Conductivity measured in British thermal units transmitted per hour per square foot ofmaterial 1 in thick, per degree Fahrenheit difference in temperature of the two faces.

Silver 2,920.0 Diatomite block 0.58Copper 2,588.0 Magnesia, 85% 0.51Steel, 1.0 carbon 328.0 Wood pulp board 0.39Building stone 12.50 Bagasse board 0.35Slate, shingles 10.37 Cork, ground 0.31Concrete, 1:2:4 6.10 Flax fiber 0.31Glass, plate 5.53 Diatomite powder 0.308Brickwork, mortar bond 4.00 Mineral wool 0.296Gypsum plaster 2.32 Asbestos sheet 0.29Brick, dry 1.21 Vermiculite 0.263Airspace, 3.5 in 1.10 Wool 0.261Pine wood 0.958 Hair felt 0.26Clay tile 0.60 Cotton, compressed 0.206

*From Paul M. Tyler, U.S. Bureau of Mines.





Linear Expansion of Metals

Unit length increase per degree Celsius rise in temperature.

Cast iron 0.000010Steel 0.000011Cobalt 0.000012Bismuth 0.000013Gold 0.000014Nickel 0.000014Copper 0.000017Brass 0.000019Silver 0.000019Tobin bronze 0.000021Aluminum 0.000024Zinc 0.000026Tin 0.000027Lead 0.000028Cadmium 0.000029Magnesium 0.000029

Melting Point of Materials Commonly Used for Heat-Treating Baths

Melting point

Material °F °C

35% lead } 358 18165% tin50% sodium nitrate } 424 21850% potassium nitrateTin 450 232Sodium nitrate 586 308Lead 620 327Potassium nitrate 642 33945% sodium chloride } 1154 62355% sodium sulfateSodium chloride (common salt) 1474 801Sodium sulfate 1618 881Barium chloride 1760 960





Relative values of electrical insulating materials

The usual comparisons of insulating values of materials are made onthe basis of their dielectric strength. The dielectric strength of amaterial is the voltage that a material of a given thickness will resist.It is usually given in volts per mil (1 mil equals 0.001 in) or volts permeter. In any higher voltage the dielectric strength will permit aspark to pass through the material. The quoted dielectric strengths,however, are generally the minimum for the materials.

Dielectric strength Dielectric strength

Material � 106 V/m V/mil Material � 106 V/m V/mil

Mica, muscovite 39.4 1,000 Buna rubbers 20.3 515Glass 35.5 900 Vinylidene chloride 19.7 500Mica, phlogopite 31.5 800 Fish paper 19.7 500Electrical porcelain 31.5 800 Methyl methacrylate 18.9 480Steatite 29.6 750 Cellulose acetate 15.8 400Hard rubber 27.6 700 Casein plastic 15.8 400Silicone rubber 23.6 600 Shellac 15.8 400Polystyrene 23.6 600 Varnished cambric 15.8 400Pyroxylin 23.6 600

General Forging Temperature Range of Metals

Temperature

Metal °F °C

Aluminum alloys 600 to 1020 315 to 550Cobalt-base superalloys 2150 to 2280 1175 to 1250Columbium alloys 1700 to 3000 925 to 1650Copper alloys 1100 to 1650 595 to 900Iron-base superalloys 1900 to 2160 1040 to 1180Magnesium alloys 480 to 975 250 to 525Molybdenum alloys 1900 to 2700 1040 to 1480Nickel-base superalloys 1900 to 2200 1040 to 1205Steels

Carbon steels, 1010 to 1090 2150 to 2400 1150 to 1315Alloy steels, 41XX to 93XX 2200 to 2400 1205 to 1315Stainless steels 1500 to 2300 815 to 1260

Tantalum alloys 1800 to 2460 980 to 1340Titanium alloys 1200 to 2050 650 to 1120Tungsten alloys 2000 to 3500 1095 to 1925





Electrical Conductivity of Elements

Silver 100.00 Iron 14.57Copper 97.61 Platinum 14.43Gold 76.61 Tin 14.39Aluminum 63.00 Tungsten 14.00Tantalum 54.63 Osmium 13.98Magnesium 39.44 Titanium 13.73Sodium 31.98 Iridium 13.52Beryllium 31.13 Ruthenium 13.22Barium 30.61 Nickel 12.89Zinc 29.57 Rhodium 12.60Indium 26.98 Palladium 12.00Cadmium 24.38 Steel 12.00Calcium 21.77 Thallium 9.13Rubidium 20.46 Lead 8.42Cesium 20.00 Columbium 5.13Lithium 18.68 Vanadium 4.95Molybdenum 17.60 Arsenic 4.90Cobalt 16.93 Antimony 3.59Uranium 16.47 Mercury 1.75Chromium 16.00 Bismuth 1.40Manganese 15.75 Tellurium 0.001

The Electrochemical Series of Elements

In this table, the elements are electropositive to the ones which follow them, and willdisplace them from solutions of their salts.

1. Cesium 23. Nickel 45. Silicon2. Rubidium 24. Cobalt 46. Titanium3. Potassium 25. Thallium 47. Columbium4. Sodium 26. Cadmium 48. Tantalum5. Lithium 27. Lead 49. Tellurium6. Barium 28. Germanium 50. Antimony7. Strontium 29. Indium 51. Carbon8. Calcium 30. Gallium 52. Boron9. Magnesium 31. Bismuth 53. Tungsten

10. Beryllium 32. Uranium 54. Molybdenum11. Ytterbium 33. Copper 55. Vanadium12. Erbium 34. Silver 56. Chromium13. Scandium 35. Mercury 57. Arsenic14. Aluminum 36. Palladium 58. Phosphorous15. Zirconium 37. Ruthenium 59. Selenium16. Thorium 38. Rhodium 60. Idodine17. Cerium 39. Platinum 61. Bromine18. Didymium 40. Iridium 62. Chlorine19. Lanthanum 41. Osmium 63. Fluorine20. Manganese 42. Gold 64. Nitrogen21. Zinc 43. Hydrogen 65. Sulfur22. Iron 44. Tin 66. Oxygen





Flammability Characteristics of Common Gases and Liquids1

Flammability MaximumBoiling Flash Autoignition limit in air, oxygen point2 point3 temperature4 volume %5 content,

Material °F °C °F °C °F °C Lean limit Rich limit volume %6

Acetaldehyde 70 21.2 36 2.2 365 185 4.1 55 12Acetone 133 56.2 0 �17.8 1000 538 2.6 12.8 11.6Acetylene �119 �84 — — 571 300 2.5 81 —Allyl chloride 113 45 �25 �31.7 737 392 3.3 11.1 12.6Ammonia �28 �33.3 — — 1204 652 16 25 15Benzene 176 80 12 �11.1 1044 563 1.47 7.1 11.21, 3-Butadiene 24 �4.4 — — 804 429 2 11.5 10.4Butane 32 0 — — 761 405 1.9 8.5 12.1Butyl acetate 259 126 79 26.1 789 421 1.7 7.6 11.51-Butene 20 �6.7 — — 723 384 1.6 9.3 11.42-Butene 34 1.1 — — 615 324 1.8 9.7 11.7N-butyl formate 225 107 64 17.8 612 322 1.7 8 12.4Carbon disulfide 115 46.1 �22 �30 212 100 1.3 44 5.4Carbon monoxide �310 �190 — — 1128 609 12.5 74 5.6Cyclopropane �27.4 �33 — — 928 498 2.4 10.4 11.71, 1-Dichloroethylene 99 37.3 �5 �20.6 856 458 5.6 11.4 102, 2-Dimethylbutane 121 49.5 �54 �47.8 797 425 1.2 7 12.1Ethane �127 �88.4 — — 959 515 3 12.5 11Ethanol 173 78.4 �55 �48.4 793 423 4.3 19 10.6Ethyl acetate 171 77.3 28 �2.2 798 426 2.2 11.5 11.2Ethyl bromide 101 38.4 — — 952 512 6.7 11.3 14Ethyl chloride 54 12.1 �58 �50 966 519 3.8 15.4 13Ethylene �152 �102 — — 842 450 3.1 32 10Ethylene oxide 56.4 13.6 �0��17.8 804 429 3 100 —Ethyl ether 94 34.4 �49 �45 356 180 1.9 48 —Ethyl glycol 273.2 134.1 100.4 38 460 238 1.8 14 10.7Ethyl formate 130 54.4 �4 �20 851 455 2.7 13.5 10.4Ethylglycol acetate 312.8 156.1 134.6 57 716 380 1.7 — 11Gasoline — — �49 �45 996 536 1.4 7 —Gasoline (60 octane) — — �45 �42.8 536 280 1.4 7.6 11.6Gasoline (92 octane) — — — — 734 390 1.5 7.6 11.6Gasoline (100 octane) — — �36 �37.8 853 457 1.4 7.4 11.6Heptane 209 98.4 25 �3.89 433 223 1.2 6.7 11.6Hexane 156.2 69.1 �7 �21.7 453 234 1.2 7.5 11.9Hydrogen �422 �252 — — 1085 586 4 75 5Isobutane 11 �11.7 — — 864 463 1.8 8.4 12Isopropanol 179.6 82.1 70 21.1 860 460 2 12 12Isopropyl ether 154.4 68.1 �18 �27.8 830 443 1.4 21 10Methane �263 �164 — — 999 538 5.3 14 12.1Methanol 151 66.2 52 11.1 867 464 7.3 35 9.7Methylethylketone 176 80 26 �3.3 960 516 1.8 12 11.4Methylisobutylketone 242.6 117.1 73.4 23 858 459 1.4 7.5 12Methyl acetate 135 57.3 14 �10 935 502 3.1 16 10.9Methylamine 19.4 �7 — — 806 430 4.9 20.7 10.7Methyl butene 87.4 31.4 �20 ��6.7 — — — — 11.4Methyl chloride �11 �23.9 — — 1170 632 10.7 17.4 15Methyl formate 89.6 32 �2 �18.9 853 456 5.9 20 10.1




Flammability Characteristics of Common Gases and Liquids1 (Continued)

Flammability MaximumBoiling Flash Autoignition limit in air, oxygen point2 point3 temperature4 volume %5 content,

Material °F °C °F °C °F °C Lean limit Rich limit volume %6

N-butanol 244.4 118.1 95 35 649 343 1.4 11.2 11.3Pentane 97 36.1 ��40 ��40 588 309 1.5 7.8 12.1Propane �44 �42.2 — — 871 466 2.2 10 11.4Propylene �54.4 �48 — — 770 410 2.4 10.3 11.5Propylene oxide 93 33.9 �35 �37.3 869 465 2–2.1 21.5–22 �10Toluene 230 110 39.2 4 996 536 1.4 7 9.1tert-Butylamine 112 44.4 16 �8.9 716 380 1.7 8.9 �11Vinyl chloride 9 �12.8 — — 882 473 4 22 9Xylene 284 140 85 29.5 867 464 1.1 7 8

1From Philippe B. Laut and David W. Johnstone, Air Liquide America, Chemical Engineering, June 1994.2At standard atmospheric pressure.3Minimum temperature at which vapors of a combustible liquid will be ignited by a flame under certain

experimental conditions.4Minimum temperature at which a material will spontaneously oxidize in air.5Volume percent of combustible gas in air such that below the lean limit or above the rich limit the mix-

ture is considered nonflammable.6Maximum oxygen content in a combustible gas mixture below which the mixture is nonflammable.7At 212°F (100°C).


Carcinogens—Substances and Materials Known to be Cancer-Causing in Humans*

Name or synonym Year first listed†

Aflatoxins 1980Alcoholic beverage consumption 20004-aminobiphenyl (4-aminodiphenyl) 19802-aminonaphthalene (see 2-naphthylamine) 1980Analgesic mixtures containing phenacetin 1985Arsenic compounds, inorganic 1980Asbestos 1980Azathioprine 1985Benzene 1980Benzidine 1980Bis (chloromethyl) ether 1980Busulfan (see 1,4-butanediol dimethylsulfonate 19851,3-butadiene 1989‡, 2000¶1,4-butanediol dimethylsulfonate (Myleran, Busulfan) 1985Cadmium 1980‡, 2000¶Cadmium chloride 1980†, 2000¶Cadmium oxide 1980‡, 2000¶Cadmium sulfate 1980‡, 2000¶Cadmium sulfide 1980‡, 2000¶Chlorambucil 19811-(2-chloroethyl)-3(4-methylcyclohexyl)-1 nitrosourea (MeCCNU) 1991Chloromethyl methyl ether 1980Chromium hexavalent compounds 1980Coal tar 1980





Carcinogens—Substances and Materials Known to be Cancer-Causing in Humans* (Continued)


Coke oven emissions 1980Creosote (coal) 1985Creosote (wood) 1985Cristobalite 1991‡, 2000¶Cyclophosphamide 1980Cyclosporin A (cyclosporine A; ciclosporin) 1997Diethylstilbestrol 1980Direct black 38 1983‡, 2000¶Direct blue 6 1983‡, 2000¶Dyes metabolized to benzidine 2000Erionite 1980Ethylene oxide 1981‡, 2000¶Lead chromate 1980MeCCNU [1-(2-chloroethyl)-3-(4-methylhexyl)-1-nitrosourea] 1991Melphalan 1980Methoxsalen with ultraviolet A (long-wave) therapy (PUVA), 1985not carcinogenic alone

Mineral oils 1980Mustard gas 1980Myleran (1,4-butanediol dimethylsulfonate) 19852-naphthylamine (ß-naphthylamine; 2-aminonaphthalene) 1980Piperazine estrone sulfate 1985Quartz, respirable size 1991‡, 2000¶Radon 1994Sodium equilin sulfate 1985Sodium estrone sulfate 1989Solar radiation and exposure to sunlamps and sunbeds 2000Soots 1980Sulfuric-acid-containing strong, inorganic, acid mists 2000Strontium chromate 1980Tamoxifen 2000Tars 19802,3,7,8-tetrachlorodibenzo-p-dioxin (TCDD or Dioxin) 2001‡Thiotepa [tris (1-aziridinyl) phosphine sulfide] 1981‡, 1997¶Thorium dioxide 1981Tobacco smoking 2000Tobacco, smokeless 2000Tridymite, respirable size 1991‡, 2000¶Tris (1-aziridinyl) phosphine sulfide (Thiotepa) 1981‡, 1997¶Vinyl chloride 1980Zinc chromate 1980

*From “9th Report on Carcinogens, 2000,” U.S. Department of Health and HumanServices, Public Health Service, National Toxicology Program, National Institute ofEnvironmental Health Sciences, P.O. Box 12233, Research Triangle Park, NC 27709.

†Year of Report on Carcinogens when first listed.‡First listed as “reasonably anticipated to be a human carcinogen.”¶First listed as “known to be a human carcinogen.”





Substances and Materials Reasonably Anticipated to be Carcinogenic in Humans*


Acetaldehyde 19912-acetylaminofluorene 1981Acrylamide 1991Acrylonitrile 1981Adriamycin (doxorubicin hydrochloride) 19852-aminoanthraquinone 1983o-aminoazotoluene 19891-amino-2-methylanthraquinone 1983Amitrole 1981o-anisidine hydrochloride 1983Aroclor (polychlorinated biphenyls) 1981Aroclor 1254 (polychlorinated biphenyl) 1981Aroclor 1260 (polychlorinated biphenyl) 1983Azacitidine (5-azacytidine) 1997BCNU [bis (chloroethyl) nitrosourea] 1985Benz(a)anthracene 1981Benzo(b)fluoranthene 1981Benzo(j)fluoranthene 1981Benzo(k)fluoranthene 1981Benzo(a)pyrene 1981Benzotrichloride 1985Beryllium-aluminum alloy 1981Beryllium chloride 1981Beryllium fluoride 1981Beryllium hydroxide 1981Beryllium oxide 1981Beryllium phosphate 1981Beryllium sulfate and its tetrahydrate 1981Beryllium zinc silicate 1981Beryllium ore 1981Bis(chloroethyl) nitrosourea (BCNU) 1985Bis(dimethylamino) benzophenone 1983Bis(2-ethylhexyl) phthalate 1983Bromodichloromethane 1991Butylated hydroxyanisole (BHA) 1991Carbon tetrachloride 1981CCNU [1-(2-chloroethyl)-3-cyclohexyl-1-nitrosourea] 1985Ceramic fibers 1994Chlordecone 1981Chlorendic acid 1989Chlorinated paraffins (C12, 60% chlorine) 19891-(2-chloroethyl)-3-cyclohexyl-1-nitrosourea (CCNU) 1985Chloroform 19813-chloro-2-methylpropene 19894-chloro-o-phenylenediamine 1985Chloroprene 2000p-Chloro-o-toluidine 1997p-Chloro-o-toluidine hydrochloride 1997Chlorozotocin 1997C.I. basic red 9 monohydrochloride 1989Cisplatin 1991





Substances and Materials Reasonably Anticipated to be Carcinogenic in Humans* (Continued)


p-cresidine 1981Cupferron 1983Decarbazine 1985Danthron (1-8-dihydroxyanthraquinone) 1997DDT (dichlorodiphenyltrichloroethane) 1985Decabromobiphenyl 1983DEPH [di(2-ethylhexyl) phthalate] 1983DEN (N-nitrosodiethylamine) 19812,4-diaminoanisole sulfate 1983Diaminodiphenyl ether 19892,4-diaminotoluene 1981Dibenz(a,h)acridine 1981Dibenz(a,j)acridine 1981Dibenz(a,h)anthracene 19817H-dibenzo(c,g)carbazole 1981Dibenzo(a,e)pyrene 1981Dibenzo(a,h)pyrene 1981Dibenzo(a,i)pyrene 1981Dibenzo(a,l)pyrene 19811,2-dibromo-3-chloropropane 19811,2-dibromoethane (ethylene dibromide, EDB) 19811,4-dichlorobenzene (p-dichlorobenzene) 19893,3′-dichlorobenzidine 19813,3′-dichlorobenzidine dihydrochloride 1991Dichlorodiphenyltrichloroethane (DTT) 19851,2-dichloroethane (ethylene dichloride) 1981Dichloromethane (methylene chloride) 19891,3-dichloropropene (technical grade) 1989Diepoxybutane 1983Diesel exhaust particulates 2000N,N-diethyldithiocarbamic acid 2-chloroallyl ester 1983Di(2-ethylhexyl)phthalate [DEHP, bis(2-ethylhexyl phthalate)] 1983Diethylnitrosamine 1981Diethyl sulfate 1985Diglycidyl resorcinol ether 19891,8-dihydroxyanthraquinone (Danthron) 19973,3′-dimethoxybenzidine 19834-dimethylaminoazobenzene 19813,3′-dimethylbenzidine 1983Dimethylcarbamoyl chloride 19811,1-dimethylhydrazine(UDMH) 1985Dimethylnitrosamine 1981Dimethyl sulfate 1981Dimethylvinyl chloride 19911,6-dinitropyrene 19971,8-dinitropyrene 19971,4-dioxane 1981Disperse blue 1 1997DMN (N-Nitrosodimethylamine) 1981Doxorubicin hydrochloride 1985ENU [N-nitroso-N-ethylurea (N-ethyl-N-nitrosourea)] 1981






Epichlorohydrin 1985Estradiol-17ß (estrogen, not conjugated) 1985Estrone (estrogen, not conjugated) 1985Ethinylestradiol (estrogen, not conjugated) 1985Ethyl carbamate 1983Ethylene dibromide 1981Ethylene dichloride 1981Ethylene thiourea 1983Ethyl methanesulfonate 1991N-ethyl-N-nitrosourea 1981FireMaster BP-6 (polybrominated biphenyls) 1983FireMaster FF-1 (hexabromobiphenyl) 1983Formaldehyde gas 1981Furan 1997Glasswool 1994Glycidol 1994Hexabromobiphenyl (FireMaster FF-1) 1983Hexachlorobenzene 1983�-hexachlorocyclohexane 1981ß-hexachlorocyclohexane 1981-hexachlorocyclohexane 1981Hexachlorocyclohexane 1981Hexachloroethane 1994Hexamethylphosphoramide 1985Hydrazine 1983Hydrazine sulfate 1983Hydrazobenzene 1981Indeno(1,2,3-cd)pyrene 1981Iron Dextran Complex 1981Isoprene 2000Kenechlor 500 1983Kepone (chlordecone) 1981Lead acetate 1981Lead phosphate 1981Lindane (hexachlorocyclohexane) 1981MBOCA [(4,4′-methylenebis (2-chloraniline)] 1983Mestranol (estrogen, not conjugated) 19852-methylaziridine (propylenimine) 19855-methylchrysene 19814,4′-methylenebis(2-chloraniline) (MBOCA) 19834,4′-methylenebis(N,N-dimethylbenzenamine) 1983Methylene chloride 19894,4′-methylenedianiline 19854,4′-methylenedianiline dihydrochloride 1985Methyl methanesulfonate 1991N-methyl-N-nitro-N-nitrosoguanidine 1991N-methyl-N-nitrosourea 1981Metronidazole 1985Michler’s ketone [4,4′-(dimethylamino)benzophenone] 1983Mirex 1981Nickel 1980








Nickel acetate 1980Nickel carbonate 1980Nickel carbonyl 1980Nickel hydroxide 1980Nickelocene 1980Nickel oxide 1980Nickel subsulfide 1980Nitrilotriacetic acid 1980O-nitroanisole 19976-nitrochrysene 1997Nitrofen 1983Nitrogen mustard hydrochloride 19852-nitropropane 19851-nitropyrene 19974-nitropyrene 1997N-nitroso-n-butyl-N(3-carboxpropyl)amine 1981N-nitroso-n-butyl-N(4-hydroxybutyl)amine 1981N-nitrosodi-n-butylamine 1981N-nitrosodiethanolamine 1981N-nitrosodiethylamine (diethylnitrosamine, DEN) 1981N-nitrosodimethylamine (dimethylnitrosamine, DMN) 1981N-nitrosodi-n-propylamine 1981N-nitroso-N-ethylurea (N-ethyl-N-nitrosourea, ENU) 19814-(N-nitrosomethylamino)-1-(3-pyridyl)-1-butanone (NNK) 1991N-nitroso-N-methylurea (N-methyl-N-nitrosourea) 1981N-nitrosomethylvinylamine 1981N-nitrosomorpholine 1981N-nitrosonornicotine 1981N-nitrosopiperidine 1981N-nitrosopyrrolidine 1981N-nitrososarcosine 1981NNK [4-(N-nitrosomethylamino)-1-(3-pyridyl)-1-butanone] 1991Norethisterone 1985Ochratoxin A 1991Octabromobiphenyl 19834-4′-oxydianiline 1989Oxymetholone 1980PAHs (polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons) 1989PBBs (polybrominated biphenyls) 1983PCBs (polychlorinated biphenyls) 1981Perchloroethylene 1989Phenacetin 1980Phenazopyridine hydrochloride 1981Phenolphthalein 2000Phenoxybenzamine hydrochloride 1989Phenytoin 1980Polybrominated biphenyls (PBBs) 1983Polychlorinated biphenyls (PCBs) 1981Polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons (PAHs) 1989Procarbazine hydrochloride 1981Progesterone 1985






1,3-propane sultone 1985ß-propiolactone 1981Propylene oxide 1991Propylenimine 1985Propylthiouracil 1985Reserpine 1981Safrole 1981Selenium sulfide 1983Streptozotocin 1981Sulfallate 19832,3,7,8-tetrachlorodibenzo-p-dioxin (TCDD)‡ 1981Tetrachloroethylene (perchloroethylene) 1989Tetrafluoroethylene 2000Tetranitromethane 1994Thioacetamide 1983Thiourea 1983Toluene diisocyanate 1985o-toluidine 1983o-toluidine hydrochloride 1981Toxaphene 1981Trichloroethylene 20002,4,6-trichlorophenol 19831,2,3-trichloropropane 1997Tris(2,3-dibromopropyl) phosphate 1981UDMH (1,1-dimethylhydrazine) 1985Urethane (Urethan, ethyl carbamate) 19834-vinyl-1-cyclohexene diepoxide 1994 1994

*From “9th Report on Carcinogens, 2000” U.S. Department of Health and HumanServices, Public Health Service, National Toxicology Program, National Institute ofEnvironmental Health Sciences, P.O. Box 12233, Research Triangle Park, NC 27709.

†Year of Report on Carcinogens when first listed.‡This substance has been proposed for the “known to be a human carcinogen” category.Proposed listing is currently in litigation.





Hardness numbers

The Brinell method of determining hardness is by the indentationeffect of a hard ball pressed into the surface of the metal to be tested.Tables of hardness numbers corresponding to the various indentationmeasurements are furnished by the makers.

The Scleroscope, or “Shore,” method measures hardness by a com-parison of the effect of the drop and rebound of a diamond-tippedhammer dropped from a fixed height. The resulting rebound is thenread on a graduated scale.

The Rockwell hardness tester measures hardness by determiningthe depth of penetration under load of a steel ball or diamond cone inthe material being tested. Rockwell hardness is expressed as a num-ber, which is read on a graduated gage.

The Mohs hardness scale for abrasives and minerals is measuredby scratch comparison, the mineral talc being taken as 1 and the dia-mond as 10 on the scale. This method is only an approximation formineral comparison, and the Knoop indentor is used for measuringcomparative hardness of hard materials.

The Vickers method is similar to the Brinell and Rockwell methodsexcept that a diamond in the form of a pyramid is used as the pene-trator. It is thus suitable for measuring metals of high hardness.

The Bierbaum microcharacter, or Bierbaum number, is used todetermine the hardness by scratch. The width of a scratch made bydrawing the point of a cube-shaped diamond across the surface undera 3-g load is measured with a microscope and determines the degreeof hardness.

Index of refraction

Index of refraction indicates the relative amount of light transmittedby a material. As the index of refraction increases, the transmittedlight decreases. The amount of light reflected may be considered as ininverse proportion to the amount transmitted, though much of thelight may be dissipated. A vacuum transmits 100% of the light andreflects 0%, and has a refractive index of 1.00. A polished diamondwith parallel sides will transmit only 83% of the light, and thereflected light makes the diamond shine. The sparkle of angle-cut dia-monds and highly refractive cut glass is caused by the dissipated ordeflected light emerging from the angles.

Acidity and alkalinity scale

The degree of acidity or alkalinity of solutions is expressed by the pHvalue. Water is considered neutral and is given a pH value of 7.Values below 7 are acid, each declining value being 10 times moreacid than the previous value. A pH of 6 is 10 times more acid than a





UNITS OF MEASURE 1091

Approximate Relationship of Vickers, Shore (Scleroscope), Rockwell, and BrinellHardness Numbers

Vickers Approximate tensileor Shore or Rockwell strength of Hardness Firth Scleroscope C B Brinell steels, lb/in2 MPa class of steel

1,220 96 68 … 7801,114 94 67 … 7451,021 92 65 … 712

329,000 to 380,000

940 89 63 … 682(2,268 to 2,620) Hard to file

867 86 62 … 653803 84 60 … 627746 81 58 … 601694 78 56 … 578649 75 55 … 555608 73 53 … 534587 71 51 … 514551 68 50 … 495534 66 48 … 477 165,000 to 317,000 Machining opera-502 64 47 … 461 (1,138 to 2,186) tions difficult474 62 46 … 444460 60 44 … 429435 58 43 … 415423 56 42 … 401401 54 41 … 388390 52 39 … 375380 51 38 … 363361 49 37 … 352344 48 36 … 341335 46 35 … 331320 45 34 … 321312 43 32 … 311305 42 31 … 302291 41 30 … 293285 40 29 … 285278 38 28 … 277272 37 27 … 269261 36 26 … 262255 35 25 … 255250 34 24 100 248 78,000 to 159,000 Commercial 240 33 23 99 241 (538 to 1,096) machining range235 32 22 99 235226 32 21 98 229221 31 20 97 223217 30 18 96 217213 30 17 95 212209 29 16 95 207197 28 14 93 197186 27 12 91 187177 25 10 89 179171 24 8 87 170154 23 4 83 156144 21 0 79 143




pH of 7, and a pH of 3 is 10,000 times more acid than a pH of 7.Solutions having values from 7 to 14 are alkaline by the same multi-ples of 10. A pH of 14 is 10 million times more alkaline than a pH of 7.Chemical indicators used to indicate the acidity or alkalinity of solu-tions are shown in the acidity-alkalinity table.

Viscosity of liquids

The viscosity of a liquid is its resistance to change in its form, orflow, caused by the internal friction of its particle components. Thus,the higher the viscosity, the less fluid it is. When a liquid is hot, thereis less internal friction owing to the greater mobility and distancebetween the molecules, and a liquid will flow more readily than whenit is cold. Thus, all the comparisons of viscosity should be at the sametemperature. Kinematic viscosity is the ratio of viscosity to density.Specific viscosity is the ratio of the viscosity of any liquid to that of


Index of Refraction

Material Index Material Index

Diamond 2.42 Nylon 1.53Ruby 1.80 Polyethylene 1.52Sapphire (synthetic) 1.77 Pyrex (borosilicate glass) 1.52Iceland spar 1.66 Window glass (soda-lime) 1.52Flint glass (dense leaded) 1.66 Acrylic 1.50Flint glass (dense barium) 1.62 Cellulose acetate 1.48Vinylidene chloride 1.61 Cellulose acetate butyrate 1.47Polystyrene 1.59 Ethyl cellulose 1.47Flint glass (light leaded) 1.58 Fused quartz 1.46Flint glass (light barium) 1.57 Water 1.33Amber 1.55 Ice 1.30Quartz crystal 1.54 Air 1.0003Urea-formaldehyde 1.54 Vacuum 1.00

Acidity-Alkalinity Indicators

pH range

Meta cresol purple 1.2–2.8 Red to yellowThymol blue 1.2–2.8 Red to yellowBromophenol blue 3.0–4.6 Yellow to blueBromocresol green 4.0–5.6 Yellow to blueChlorophenol red 5.2–6.8 Yellow to redBromothymol blue 6.0–7.6 Yellow to bluePhenol red 6.8–8.4 Yellow to redCresol red 7.2–8.8 Yellow to redThymol blue 8.0–9.6 Red to blue




UNITS OF MEASURE 1093

water at the same temperature. The reciprocal of viscosity is calledfluidity. Viscosity is usually expressed in poises or centipoises, apoise being equal to 1 g/(cm � s).

The specific gravity of a liquid is the relative weight per unit vol-ume of the liquid compared with the weight per unit volume of purewater. Water is arbitrarily assigned the value of 1.000 g/cm3. All liq-uids heavier than water thus have specific gravities greater than1.000; liquids lighter than water have values less than 1.000. Usually,the specific gravity of a liquid is measured at 15°C or at room temper-ature. In practice, measurements are taken with a series of weightedand graduated glass cylinders called hydrometers. These float verti-cally, and the markings are usually in degrees Baumé.

Color determination of lubricating oils

Color determination of lubricating oils and petroleum is made by com-parison with standard colored disks. Light is dispersed through a 4-oz(0.1-kg) sample bottle of the oil to be tested, and the color is comparedvisually with the gelatin colors on the glass. The colors on the stan-dard glass disks of the National Petroleum Association are as follows:

1 Lily white 4 Orange pale1.5 Cream white 4.5 Pale2 Extra pale 5 Light red2.5 Extra lemon pale 6 Dark red3 Lemon pale 7 Claret red3.5 Extra orange pale

Gasoline and fuel oil rating

The cetane number of a diesel fuel is numerically equal to the per-centage by volume of cetane in a mixture of cetane and a-methyl-naphthalene which will match the fuel in ignition quality. Cetane hasthe composition CH3(CH2)14CH3, and a-methylnaphthalene CH3 �C10H7. The cetane number of a fuel is given as the nearest whole

Liquid Viscosity, cp Liquid Viscosity, cp

Benzene (0°C) 0.906 Linseed oil (30°C) 33.1Carbon tetrachloride (0°C) 1.35 Soybean oil (30°C) 40.6Mercury (0°C) 1.68 Sperm oil (15°C) 42.0Ethyl alcohol (0°C) 1.71 Sulfuric acid (0°C) 48.4Water (0°C) 1.79 Castor oil (10°C) 2,420Phenol (18°C) 12.7 Rape oil (0°C) 2,530




number. Thus, if it required 49.8% of cetane in the mixture to match,the number would be 50.

The octane number of a fuel is the whole number nearest to thepercentage by volume of isooctane, (CH3)3C:CH2CH(CH3)2, in a blendof isooctane and normal heptane, CH3(CH2)5CH3, that the fuelmatches in knock characteristics.

Phenol coefficient

Phenol is used as the standard for measuring the bacteria-killingpower of all other disinfectants, and the relative bacteria-killingpower is expressed as the phenol coefficient.

The phenol coefficient is the ratio of the dilution required to kill theHopkins strain of typhoid bacillus in a specified time compared withthe dilution of phenol required for the same organism in the sametime. Usually, 2.5- and 15-minute time limits are used, and the coeffi-cient is calculated from the average of the two. For example, if 1:80and 1:110 dilutions of phenol kill in 2.5 and 15 minutes, respectively,as the necessary dilutions of the disinfectant under test are 1:375 and1:650, then the phenol coefficient of the disinfectant is 5.3.

Physical and Mechanical Properties

Definitions of physical and chemical properties

Acid number. The weight in milligrams of potassium hydroxide required toneutralize the fatty acid in 1 g of fat or fatty oil.

Aliphatic. Having a straight, chainlike molecular structure.

Anhydrous. Having no water of crystallization in the molecule. A hydratedcompound contains water of crystallization which can be driven off by heat-ing.

Aromatic. Having a ringlike molecular structure.

Brittleness. The property of breaking without perceptible warning or with-out visible deformation.

Bursting strength. The measure of the ability of a material, usually in sheetform, to withstand hydrostatic pressure without rupture.

Compressibility. The extent to which a material, such as for gaskets, iscompressed by a specified load. Permanent set is the unit amount, in per-cent, that the material fails to return to the original thickness when the loadis removed. Recovery is the amount, in percent, of the return to originalthickness in a given time, and is usually less under a prolonged load.

Conductivity. The rate at which a material conducts heat or electricity.Silver is the standard of reference, as it is the best of the known conductors.

Creep rate. The rate at which strain, or deformation, occurs in a material





under stress or load. Creep strength is the maximum tensile or compressivestrength that can be sustained by a material for a specified strain and time ata specified temperature. Creep recovery is a measure, in percent, of thedecrease in strain, or deformation, when the load is removed.

Ductility. The ability of a material to be permanently deformed by tensionwithout rupture.

Elasticity. The ability of a material to resume its original form after removalof the load which has produced a change in form. A substance is highly elasticif it is easily deformed and quickly recovers.

Elastic limit. The greatest unit stress that a material is capable of with-standing without permanent deformation.

Elongation. The increase in length of a bar or section under load, expressedas a percentage difference between the original length and the length at themoment of rupture or at a specific strain.

Factor of safety. The ratio of the ultimate strength of a material to its work-ing stress.

Fatigue strength. The measure in pounds per square inch (megapascals) ofthe load-carrying ability without failure of a material subjected to a loadingrepeated a definite number of times. Fatigue strength is usually higher thanthe prolonged service tensile strength. Fatigue life is a measure of the use-ful life, or the number of cycles of loading, of a specified magnitude that canbe withstood by a material without failure.

Flash point. The minimum temperature at which a material or its vaporwill ignite or explode.

Flow, or creep. The gradual continuous distortion of a material under con-tinued load, usually at high temperatures.

Fusibility. The ease with which a material is melted.

Hardness. A property applied to solids and very viscous liquids to indicatesolidity and firmness in substance or outline. A hard substance does not read-ily receive an indentation.

Hygroscopic. Readily absorbing and retaining moisture.

Impact strength. The force in foot � pounds (joules) required to break amaterial when struck with a sudden blow.

Iodine value. The number of grams of iodine absorbed by 100 g of fat orfatty oil. It gives a measure of the chemical unsaturation of an oil or fat. Highiodine value, 117 to 206, in vegetable oils indicates suitability of the oil foruse in paints. Low iodine value, not subject to oxidation, indicates nondryingquality suitable for soaps.

Malleability. The property of being permanently deformed by compressionwithout rupture, that is, the ability to be rolled or hammered into thin sheets.

Modulus of elasticity. The ratio of the unit stress to unit strain in tension orcompression within the elastic limit without fracture.





Modulus of rigidity. The ratio of the unit stress to unit strain in shear ortorsion within the elastic limit without fracture.

Plasticity. The ability of a material to be permanently deformed at low load.

Porosity. The ratio of the volume of the interstices of a material to the vol-ume of its mass.

Reduction of area. The percentage difference between the area of a barbefore being subjected to stress and the area of the bar after rupture.

Resilience. The energy of elasticity—the energy stored in a material understrain within its elastic limit which will cause it to resume its original shapewhen the stress is removed. The modulus of resilience is the capacity of a unitvolume to store energy up to the elastic limit.

Saponification value. The number of milligrams of potassium hydroxiderequired to saponify 1 g of fatty oil or grease.

Shrinkage. The diminution in dimensions and mass of a material.

Softening point. The Vicat softening point for thermoplastic materials isthe temperature at which a flat-ended needle of 1-mm2 area will penetrate aspecimen to a depth of 1 mm under a load of 1,000 g when the temperature ofthe specimen is raised at a constant rate of 50°C/h.

Solubility. Capacity for being dissolved in a liquid so that it will not sepa-rate out on standing, except the excess over the percentage which the liquid(solvent) will dissolve. A suspension is a physical dispersion of particles suf-ficiently large that physical forces control their dissolution in the liquid. Acolloidal solution is a dispersion of particles so finely divided that surfacephenomena and kinetic energy control their behavior in the liquid. A colloidalsolution is close to a molecular combination.

Specific gravity. The ratio of the weight of a given volume of a material tothe weight of an equal volume of pure water at 4°C.

Specific heat. The number of calories required to raise 1 g of a material 1°Cin temperature.

Stiffness. The ability of a material to resist deflection, as determined by itsmodulus.

Strain. The distortion in a material by the action of an applied load.

Strength. The ability of a material to resist applied loads.

Stress. Force, or load, per unit area.

Tensile strength. The maximum tensile load per square unit of originalcross section that a material is able to withstand.

Thermal conductivity. The number of calories transmitted per secondbetween opposite faces of a cube, 1 cm by 1 cm by 1 cm, when the tempera-ture difference between the opposite faces of the cube is 1°C.

Thermal expansion. The coefficient of linear thermal expansion is theincrease in unit length with each change of 1° in temperature.






Thermoplastic. Capable of being molded and remolded without rupture byheat and pressure. When a material sets under heat and pressure into a hardsolid not capable of being remolded, it is called thermosetting.

Toughness. The ability of a material to resist impact, or absorb energy,without fracturing.

Ultimate strength. The stress, calculated on the maximum applied load andthe original area of cross section, which causes fracture of the material.

Yield point. The minimum tensile stress required to produce continuousdeformation in a solid material.




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