fletcher, creencias y comunidad religiosas

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Religion and life meaning: Differentiating between religious beliefs

and religious community in constructing life meaning

Susan K. Fletcher*

Department of Sociology, University of North Carolina-Wilmington, Wilmington, NC 28403-5978, USA

Abstract

Religion is one of the major resources used to generate meaning in life. An individuals religion involves not

only a set of beliefs, but also an involvement in a community of like-minded others. The purpose of this study is to

differentiate between religious beliefs and religious community in constructing life meaning at the end stage of life.

Twelve women, who resided at various assisted-living facilities, participated in qualitative interviews about the

current and past meaning of religion in their lives. They were distributed among fundamental Christian, Catholic,

liberal Protestant, and Jewish faiths. Differences between and within the groups were the result of the content, as

well as certainty, of belief. These differences influenced the sufficiency of a belief system to construct life

meaning. When belief alone was insufficient, life meaning was supplemented with social and secular interactions.D 2004 Elsevier Inc. All rights reserved.

Keywords: Life meaning; Religious beliefs; Religious community

1. Introduction

According toMarshall (1986, p. 125),humans must create the meanings that allow us to make sense

of, and to make our way in, the world. Religious beliefs offer an explanation for the fundamental

meaning of life (Stark, 1999) and have always been a viable source of meaning in individuals livesthrough positive beliefs, rituals, symbols, traditions, and support(Hadaway, 1978; Hadden, 1995).The

need to generate meaning may become more significant in old age, as societal roles and opportunities

lessen, and death draws nearer. Rentsch (1997, p. 270) describes aging as a communicative, self-

reflective process of forming a unique totality, a forming that is essentially highlighted by a change of

view towards a meaningful and enduring life. Religion may be especially important in finding such

meaning.

0890-4065/$ - see front matterD 2004 Elsevier Inc. All rights reserved.doi:10.1016/j.jaging.2004.01.005

* Tel.: +1-910-962-7424.

E-mail address:[email protected] (S.K. Fletcher).

Journal of Aging Studies 18 (2004) 171185


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An important function of religious groups is providing support and social integration (Durkheim,

1951). A significant aspect of religion is the sense of community, often implicit within religious settings.

Church affiliation not only promotes the development of a friendship network among those with similar

ideologies but also influences the quality of those relationships (Ellison & George, 1994). Beyondaffiliation, religious beliefs themselves may generate life meaning. George (1990) suggests the

possibility of a belief structure that includes assumptions about the self in relationship to God. The

sacred self may provide a way to transcend secular life, to add a sense of perspectivethat can buffer

the onslaught of discordant messages that one constantly receives in the secular world(George, 2000,

p. 26). Religious identity may be one of many interlocking and publicly salient identities (Dillon,

1999, p. 296).

Previous research has demonstrated that religiosity affects older persons sense of meaning and

purpose(Baker & Nussbaum, 1997; Burke, 1999; Meddin, 1998; Miller, 1999; Tellis-Nayak, 1982) as

well as their health and psychological well-being(Ellison & Levin, 1998; Idler, 1987; Koenig, George,

Blazer, Pritchett, & Meador, 1993; Levin and Chatters, 1998). An increase in religiosity has beenpositively correlated with age (Courtenay, Poon, Martin, Clayton, & Johnson, 1992). Little is known,

however, about differentiating between religious beliefs and religious community in the ability to

construct life meaning. What specific beliefs are more conducive to sustaining personal meaning are also

not known. Understanding the role of religious community and religious beliefs in the elderlys ability to

construct meaning is important because the quest for meaning may become more problematic with age.

How does religion influence life meaning in old age, when there may be limited avenues to generate

such meaning? Do religious actors construct meaning through positive social interaction and reinforce-

ment within their religious community or is meaning generated from the beliefs themselves? When

examining beliefs, is it the content of belief, certainty of belief, or commitment to belief that is most

significant? This study explores these questions with older women who resided in assisted-living

residential facilities. In open-ended interviews, they recounted how they negotiated life meaning andwhat role religiosity played in the construction of life meaning at this stage of their life.

2. Research design and informants

Following approval from the University Institutional Review Board, 12 women who lived in three

residential assisted-living facilities were invited to participate in a study involving their religious beliefs.

They were selected by either an activities coordinator or a volunteer coordinator who were asked to

solicit women who displayed a religious faith either verbally or through involvement with a church or

denomination. None of the facilities was owned or operated by a religious organization, where theremight have been strong social influence for holding beliefs in line with the institution. The names of

those interested were given to the author, who made personal contact via phone or in person, for those

without a phone. For those contacted by phone, an interview was scheduled. Those contacted in person

were interviewed immediately after the initial contact. All but two of the women agreed to audiotape the

interview.

The interview guide consisted of open-ended questions in which the women were asked about their

religious upbringing, midlife and current involvement in either organized or personal religious activities,

and specific religious beliefs and thoughts about death and the meaning of life. The questions were

designed to elicit the womens views on seven themes involving religious beliefs and religious

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community. Each interview lasted approximately 90 min. The 10 audiotapes were transcribed verbatim.

Extensive notes were taken during the two other interviews and were elaborated immediately afterwards.

All names were changed to ensure the participants anonymity.

Analysis focused on how different religious beliefs impact the ability to construct life meaning.Through a process of induction (Glaser & Strauss, 1967; Lofland & Lofland, 1995; Weiss, 1994),

differences were found within the seven themes elaborated below. Focusing on these differences, the

informants were sorted into three typesbelievers, belongers, and doubters.

The informants were white, middle-class women, who ranged in age from 70 to 94. Five women were

in their 70s, 5 were in their 80s, and 2 were in their 90s. They resided within a large midwestern city. All

of the women were ambulatory and cognitively alert. None of the women was currently married. Eight

were widowed, 3 divorced, and 1 had never married. Seven were parents and 5 were grandparents. One

woman had stepchildren and step grandchildren. Four did not have children. The 12 women included 3

Catholics, 2 Presbyterians, 2 Jews (one Reformed and one Orthodox), 1 Methodist, 1 Pentecostal, 1

member of the Salvation Army, 1 member of a nondenominational Protestant church, and 1 self-identified Protestant who had no specific affiliation. The belongers included the 3 Catholics, the 2

Presbyterians, the Reformed Jew, and the self-identified Protestant. The believers included the member

of a Pentecostal church, the Salvation Army member, and the nondenominational Protestant church. The

doubters included the Orthodox Jew and the Methodist.

3. Variation in religious beliefs and religious community

The interviews focused on seven themes relating to religious community and religious beliefs in

relation to constructing life meaning. These themes included (1) ownership of life and function of God,

(2) benefits of faith, (3) Gods role in everyday events, (4) fidelity of beliefs, (5) social and spiritualaspects of church involvement, (6) life meaning, and (7) expectations for afterlife. A review of the

themes will be followed by the subsequent typology of the informants into primary types based on

differences within and between these themes.

3.1. Ownership of life and the function of God

Seven of the women viewed God as a powerful benefactor, whom they tried to obey out of respect,

while retaining ownership and control over their own lives. When asked what religion did for her in her

everyday life Betty responded: I think Im in charge of my own life, but I try to follow what God has

taught us. . .

I dont expect [God] to do much for me. I think you are responsible for yourself. Leahbelieved that there is a loving God who is in control of our lives but, He gives us a certain amount of

leeway. God owns our life but he turns it over to us. Martha said: You can do what you want but you

cant live without God. For these women, God was a benefactor who did not control their lives but

functioned as a kindly helper.

Two of the women saw God as primarily as a crutch, on whom, for the most part, they chose not to

lean. Ann and Elaine were not sure of the existence of God. Ann had been very involved with the

Methodist church because she volunteered for a Methodist service agency, but as for religion itself, It

doesnt do much for me. . .I just dont believe that theres a God that can control every single thing I do.

It just doesnt make sense to me. For Elaine, God was a question mark. . .Its a concept thats a little

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difficult for me to accept. . ..Sometimes God appears as a benign individual, sometimes as a forceful

individual, and these are all things that are in my mind. . .Once in awhile I wonder about the existence of

God. It doesnt play a strong role in my life.

Both of these women were seekers of knowledge, who looked to sources, in addition to religious, foranswers to life meaning. Ann said, I am really searching. . .I guess that well never be able to solve the

religious problem. . ..Ive looked for the light and I cant find it. Elaine explained, Im self-educated,

reading about all the religions I could read about. I read the New Testament, the Old Testament, I read

about Confucius, Buddha, so I had them all balanced, educated in that area.

For three of the women, God was not only an omnipotent bestower of peace and blessings, but was

also the owner and director of their lives. Gloria, Rachel, and Fran saw God as intimately involved in

every aspect of their daily life. God was seen as an integral part of who they were, and they surrendered

the control of their lives to Him. They had an interactive relationship with a supreme being who offered

hope, refuge, peace, and eternal life. Rachel, when asked if she belonged to a church or a denomination,

replied, I belong to Jesus Christ, but I go to church. For her, Jesus was the chief interest of my life.Words like born-again, surrender, Gods will, and personal Savior peppered the womens language

throughout the interview. It was not simply a matter of semantics, but of who was in charge of their life.

Rather than offering God only faith in His existence, they offered Him ownership of their lives. Fran

said; I wouldnt do anything without asking God to direct me and help me. When asked what

happened to her will, she said, Surrendered to Him. It always has been. These women said that

surrendering themselves to God was a choice they had made. As a result, as Gloria put it, Hes in

control. If Hes not in control then Im a liar.

3.2. Benefits of faith

The women who saw God as a benefactor described how He bestows blessings such as guidance,protection, health, peace, and hope. According to Sarah, God sustains me, loves me and protects me.

Claire regularly turned to God to help her: Every time I lose something I pray about it and I find it for

sure. And if I think anything is going to go wrong, youre nervous, you pray and everything starts to be

fine. Hannah credited God for the gift of love, not only His love, but also the love of her husband and

for her ability to love others. She prayed for God to make things all right in her daily life. Samantha

prayed without expecting anything but the ability to cope: When Im in terrible pain I talk to God. The

pain doesnt go away but it helps. God keeps teaching Martha about dealing with difficult times. I just

want to weep that God would love me that much that at 87 he is still teaching me. Life is so hard.

Although neither Ann nor Elaine adhered to any specific teachings, they saw the usefulness of a belief

system and, although they hesitated to use the word blessings, believed that faith could be of benefitin daily living. Ann believed that the Bible provided guidance for Christians and felt obligated to take

her son to church when he was young: I kinda thought it might be a good idea for my son . . ..Every-

.Everybody that has children should I suppose go to church. It gives them kind of a guideline . . .[and] it

was something we could do together really, just the two of us. As for religious faith itself, she found

little benefit. She attended church to hear the music. She likened religiosity to seeing a psychiatrist: The

same way that people who go to psychiatrists forever dont seem to ever stop. I think its more a crutch

than anything. They havent reached what theyre looking for either. Ann looked at it this way, A

friend of mine I remember told me one time that man created God to keep him honest, and thats a pretty

good answer. Elaine believed that faith in God makes life easier. She was glad her parents had had a



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strong faith and was also happy that her children had a faith that she did not have: Its easier if you

believe than if you dont believe because youre not in conflict and youre accepting the situation as it is

and youre comfortable with it.

The women describing themselves as born-again felt that the relational aspect of their faith was moresignificant than the bestowing of blessings. Gloria spoke in terms of being in or out of fellowship with

God. She had never lost her faith but, at times, was not in tune with the Lord because she had not

spent enough quiet time with Him: If youre busy doing other things and youre not in tune with what

the Lord wants you to do that day, I call it being out of fellowship, wandering around in the wilderness.

Prayer for all these women was more than asking for blessings. It was a means of communicating with a

God they believed to be, as Fran put it, part of our lives or, as Gloria said, If you have a friend, you

communicate with him. Gloria was a firm believer in prayer to an intervening God: We dont pray,

well God, if You feel like it, or if Youre in the mood. We pray believing its going to happen.

These were the only women who reported conversion experiences. Both Fran and Gloria came to

know the Lord as children. When she was 7, Fran surrendered herself to Jesus at a Sunday service:I said I wanted to belong to Jesus and I asked him to forgive me and help me in all my life and I

surrendered myself right there. and at that point that was it. The Lord has always guided me. Gloria

came to know the Lord at the Baptist church at the age of 14 . . .I didnt want to go to hell. Thats the

reason. I was scared. I wish I had been brought to the Lord by love, but it was fear. Rachel has lived life

both with God and apart from Him. I was doing my own thing, and living my life the way I chose to

live. I was working for the Lord instead of with the Lord. It wasnt until she was in her 60s that Rachel

was saved and came under the rulership of Jesus Christ.

3.3. Fidelity of beliefs

Although the majority of women expressed deep faith, all but three adapted their beliefs to fit theirneeds to cope with what they saw as apparent contradictions of church teachings. Even while

acknowledging a divine authority, they allowed themselves to bend the rules when they thought it

was necessary. When it came to sin, Leah had her own classification system and found ways to justify

what the Bible said about her sin of swearing: Language is bad, dont get me wrong, but my excuse is,

Im not as bad as I used to be, Im getting better. Although Claire trusted God to know what was best

for her life, she disagreed with her churchs teachings when it comes to believing that God may condemn

some people to hell if they dont believe in Jesus: I think all these people of different religions, its

Jesus they believe in but they dont realize it but they will when the time comes. . .Now, thats only my

idea.

That the women adapted their beliefs to fit their needs was evident in how they chose a husband.All stressed the importance of their individual faith and/or church, yet, none of them felt the need to

marry someone with similar beliefs. Claire said that she never considered religion when choosing a

mate: I think all religions, every one, is as good as another, so it wouldnt have mattered if he wasnt

a Presbyterian. Although Betty did marry someone of the same faith, she explained, We were told

we had to marry a Catholic. A few people didnt, but I mean I didnt pick him out because he was

Catholic.

Neither Ann nor Elaine was faithful to any spiritual authority. They trusted their own judgments.

Although neither woman had a definitive faith, both prayed at various times. Ann said; I pray from time

to time, to a god or whatever. . .Im not sure that its gonna help cause Im not that religious that I believe



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who in the heck am I really praying to. Elaine prayed about her death, The only prayer I have is that I

dont have another stroke. That I just slip away.

Unlike the women for whom God acted as a benefactor, the women who considered God to own their

lives displayed fidelity of faith in all aspects of their lives. They trusted God to provide and guide themand felt they had to surrender their desires to conform to divine authority. Rather than adapt their beliefs

to fit their personal needs, these women held beliefs that were in line with what they considered to be the

divine source of authority, the Bible. Gloria attended a nondenominational Protestant church, which she

believed was strictly based in the Bible: Our church we have elders that are grounded in the Bible,

grounded in the Word, and they monitor each other. If one makes a slip, after the service is over, they let

him know. At other churches she explained, They have women in the pulpit. . .the man preaches a

social gospel, and the one Sunday I went there he did not even look at his Bible which was right on the

lectern. And that offends me.

Heaven, hell, and Satan all existed for these women who accepted that in accordance with their belief

system, loved ones might suffer eternal condemnation. Fran talked about concern for family members:Im very concerned about them and I keep writing to them and saying you must do something about

your life. Rachel was concerned about her nephews salvation: I pray for Chuck that his soul will be

saved before he goes to hell, before he leaves this world, because I believe that he is on his way to hell

because of the things that hes done. Hes never come to repentance. For these women, marriage to a

believer was imperative. Fran prayed for Gods direction to tell her if she should marry her husband: If

he hadnt been a Christian, I wouldnt have married him.

3.4. Gods role in everyday events

For the majority of women, accepting Gods will was something one simply did to make sense of the

world. Betty trusted that when God did not answer her prayers the way she wanted Him to, it is for herown good: Maybe its not good for us or its not the right time in our life. Some of the women

expressed feelings of anger towards God during difficult times but said they eventually came to a point

of trusting in Gods will. Claire explained, When my husband died, so quick and so sudden you know, I

was [angry] but now I know it was best for him and for me too. When Claires sister died, she felt the

same way: I wanted her to get well but she died and it was all right. Bad things, she said, are meant

to be. Hannah needed her leg amputated, and although it was difficult, I thank Him. . .There was a

reason for this.

Elaine could not understand why bad things happened but did not try to explain it from a spiritual

perspective: Is there any accounting for it? When her sister-in-law died during childbirth, she did not

think it was Gods will: I would say the doctor left before he should have. Similarly, when she wasthankful for good things happening in life, I would say its the fates. Doubters took the view that

difficulties were a personal responsibility. Ann put it this way: You know if I make dumb mistakes,

theyre my dumb mistakes. . ..If theres a tragedy in my life I dont believe God punished me for

something that I did. Its part of life, you know. We live and we die and we have in between.

The women considering themselves to be born-again reported that they believed God had been in

control during difficult life situations and that they had maintained trust in Gods will. According to

Rachel, God always answered prayers, but sometimes, one had to be patient: The Bible talks an awful

lot about waiting on the Lord. And it takes a lot of patience to wait upon the Lord because His timing is

not our timing. . .[or] that might not be Gods will for you. They believed in the sinfulness of humans



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and the destructive role that sin played in peoples lives. Difficult times, in addition to simply being

Gods will, were also seen as the result of sin. The answer, for these women, was to repent and

surrender to God. Rachel prayed for her nephew who was an alcoholic. She didnt blame God for his

illness, but held her nephew accountable. It was his responsibility to repent for his sins, which wouldallow God to heal him from his alcoholism. Fran also believed that humans sinful nature had

consequences: Im not always free from the results of sin, either someone elses or a sin that I might

have committed sometime myself. The results pop up. Fran explained, If you dont go the Christian

way then youre going to run into these human problems that you ordinarily wouldnt bring upon

yourself, and make life difficult for yourself.

3.5. Social versus spiritual aspects of religiosity

Except for the three born-again women, close personal relationships did not necessarily revolve

around their religious beliefs and, in fact, spiritual issues had little effect on social bonds within oroutside of their church community. Martha helped lead the rosary, and Hannah was attending a Bible

study to see what they have to say. They were the only women of faith, other than the three born-

again, who were involved in any spiritual activity other than church attendance. The social aspect of

church had been significant to most of these women. Betty had been involved in womens guild,

picnics, bake sales, anything to make money. Claire had been involved in choir and plays. Leah had

participated in the social needs of her church as well. But the women did not use religion in evaluating

friendships. When asked if religion affected her friendships, Martha replied, I think that is kinda dumb

myself. Cause everybody has their own opinion on things. When speaking of church leaders, who were

especially inspiring, these women rarely mentioned spiritual qualities but focused on interpersonal style

and availability. Leahs favorite minister is a very learned man. It was his knowledge. This guy has

been all over the world and it was like the way he could express himself you felt like you were rightthere.

The social aspect of church was also important for Ann even though she could not accept the religious

teachings: There are good people within the church, so I suppose the social part is important. She

described returning to her old church: Its like a family reunion. She appreciated ministers who were

involved in social issues. She liked a sermon that relates to the neighborhood, or the city Im in, or the

country I live in. But when they start in on the Old Testament and stick to that, or even the New

Testament, then they lose me. Elaine attended temple more frequently with her second husband, who

was an usher. She enjoyed being part of the whole group, participating. It gave her a sense of

security. It was a feeling of comfort at being in the temple, and with all the other people.

As may be expected, friendships for the born-again women revolved around a sustaining faith.Although the other women had close friends of all faiths, for these three women, their closest friendships

were with those who shared their beliefs in God and the Bible. The distinction between those who

know the Lord and those who are in the world was made in some way by all three women. Rachel

said, There are plenty of good people in the world who do good things but they dont have a personal

relationship with Jesus. Rachel said, I lost all my friends when I followed Jesus because people in the

world dont want to hear about it.

Following Gods will took precedence over family relationships for these women. Gloria said that she

was estranged from her son because of her beliefs: Complete abstention of himself from the family

cause he knows when he gets around me Im going to be concerned about his soul but he doesnt want to



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hear it. Rachel did not visit her dying sister because she believed God wanted her to focus on life and

not on death: She wouldve liked to have seen me but my focus is on Jesus Christ and whatever He tells

me to do or indicates that I do that is what I do.

Church leaders were respected for their spirituality rather than their friendliness. In response to aquestion about why she admired certain church leaders Fran said, They were so sincere in doing the

Lords will that you knew they were really really Christian and you wanted to be like them. Rachel has

little regard for many ministers: They tickle the ears. They preach what the people want to hear instead

of preaching sin and how to get to heaven and all that through Jesus Christ.

3.6. Life meaning

Helping others in daily activities or through community involvement is a significant factor in life

purpose for the majority of women. Serving others was not so much a desire to serve God, but rather,

was a means to achieve Gods approval. When asked what she thought her purpose in life was, Leahresponded, I think its meant that I was put here to put as much brightness into everyones life that I

could. When asked if she is a good Catholic, Martha replied, just be good to people I think. I think

thats the main thing. Sarah believed her purpose was to live a peaceful life, to be quiet and well-

behaved. For Betty, the main purpose of life was just to have friends and be good to people and to

help people. Hannah said, He probably has [a purpose for me], but I dont know what it is. I never

gave it a thought. Similarly, Samantha said: I wonder if Im here for a particular reason. I wonder, but

I dont know.

Life purpose for the Fran, Rachel, and Gloria was intimately related to being used by God. Serving

others, or works, were motivated by their already deep relationship with God, rather than by the hope of

improving it. Fran explained: Ive been very happy all my life and Ive known God has led me and

Hes used me and thats the value of life. Rachel found her sole purpose in life through her relationshipwith God: God is in charge of my life and whatever He puts down for me I accept. For Gloria, the

purpose of her life was to please God. She believed He wanted her to share His love with others: He

wants me to go and tell those that dont know about Him or arent close to Him and Im hoping that I can

have my light shine. Her sense of purpose came from trying to be a virtuous woman, Proverbs

31. . .He makes me a whole person. I try to be the best I can be, the best He wants me to be.

For Elaine and Ann, religious beliefs were not a source to construct meaning. Instead, they believed

that leaving a legacy was imperative to life purpose. Elaine said, I think I was put in this life to try to be

helpful to all my family and just to be a do gooder. She believed your life is the total, and her purpose

was to leave a family legacy. When asked about what she would be leaving behind, she explained, A

wonderful family to carry on, so Ill be living. Who was it? One author said, Our bodies are vehicles forour ancestors. Mark Twain I think it is that said that. She believed that she would have eternal life

through her children: Its a Jewish custom to name children for deceased ancestors so my name will [go

on]. This brought her satisfaction: My ego seems to be pleased with it. Ann did not know whether

her life had a specific purpose, but she knew that she wanted to be remembered for her life:

You know I do have a fear. I would like to leave this world with something behind that shows I was

here. You know like Id like to write a book if I had the ability to do that or Id like to leave

something, some kind of a mark that people knew that I was here. I just dont know how Im gonna do

that but its been a priority. . .Influence is forgotten.



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3.7. Expectations for the afterlife

Although most women believed in an afterlife and, particularly, in the concept of heaven, many were

not confident about what happens after death but hoped they would go to heaven. The women saw Godas a loving God who offers eternal life to those who are worthy. Leah explained, Hell look through

everything, and Hell know if we really made the effort. . .He will be a forgiving person. Betty was

confident that her loved ones were in heaven: Well, I cant judge how they lived their life but they

seemed to have died in the blessings of the church. Put it that way. Martha believed everyone will be

at peace there. Its hard to imagine how everybody could be so peaceful and all, but thats how its

supposed to be. Although she said she was ready because you always have to be ready to die, she

admitted to being afraid of the unknown. Claire believed that her faith in Jesus would help her get into

heaven and was not afraid, although you never know when the time comes how youll act. When

Betty was asked what she thought about death she responded, I think about death and I say lets hold on

a little bit more. I got a few things to do here. Leah says shes not afraid but I hope I have time tobargain. I want to avoid it. I plan on living to at least 100. Ive decided that I can do that.

For Ann and Elaine, thoughts about death involved fear. Elaine said, Sometimes Im a little

frightened maybe, you know, wondering about things. . .and sometimes I think Im just ready any-

time. . .my sister and I talk about it. She says she doesnt want to be the last one and I say I dont want to

be the last one, so her daughter says, Why dont you go together? Neither of the doubters were ready

to die. Ann, who was afraid of not being remembered, said: I really have a hard time. I mean I know

there are a lot of people who say, Well Im ready to go. Well Im not. I mean I dont know why I should

be ready to go. Im really not ready to go.

Fran, Gloria, and Rachel were ready to meet their God and were comfortable talking about death. Fran

says, If I die tomorrow thats fine. I know without a question in my mind that Im going to be with

God. Gloria, when asked what she thought about death, replied, Im ready. . .

I know where Im going.I know how Im going to get there. . .I can die tomorrow and Im ready. When asked if she was prepared

to die, Rachel said I certainly am. Im not going to die. Im going to live. Im going up with Jesus.

She was not afraid because I know where Im going.

4. Role of religious beliefs and religious community in constructing life meaning

Analyzing the seven themes generated from the interviews, it was evident that there was substantial

variability between the womens narratives with respect to the role of religiosity in constructing life

meaning. These differences are depicted in Table 1.The belongers and doubters maintained authority over their life, adapted and supplemented beliefs to

fit their personal world view, and saw the primary benefits of involvement with a religious community to

be social. The believers, however, relinquished control of their life over to the Divine, maintained

consistent beliefs viewed as ultimate truth, and viewed the spiritual aspects of their religious community

as more vital than the social aspects.

Religious beliefs were a vital component in constructing life meaning for the believers and belongers,

yet, the specific role of those beliefs differed between the groups. Religious beliefs alone were sufficient

to construct life meaning for the believers, whereas the belongers needed to supplement their beliefs with

secular and social interactions. Service to others within the community was a means of constructing life



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meaning for the belongers. Service to God alone sufficed for the believers. The doubters did not utilize

religious beliefs or religious community in negotiating meaning. Meaning was generated through the

desire to leave a personal legacy, regardless of religiosity.

What accounts for these differences? What makes it possible for the believers to generate meaning for

their life solely within the context of their religious beliefs, while the other women required social

interactions either through service or through legacy, to supplement their quest for meaning?

5. Theoretical considerations

According to Stark (1999), individuals utilize subjective rationality in making choices about their

system of belief. Religious beliefs offer varying costs and rewards, and religious actors formulate

explanations about the value of the terms of exchange based on a number of propositions including

certainty of belief and the dependability and responsiveness of god or gods. Berger (1969, pp. 5354)

also addresses the issue of confidence in belief systems in The sacred canopy where he writes, It is

Table 1

Belongers, doubters and believers

Belongersn = 7 Doubters n = 2 Believers n = 3

Ownership of life

and function of

God

Retain ownership of

life and viewed God as

benefactor.

Retained ownership of life

and viewed God as a crutch.

Relinquished ownership

of life over to God.

Benefits of faith Blessings, guidance,

eternal life, protection,

hope.

Less conflict, guidance. Relationship with the Divine,

eternal life, transformation,

guidance, protection, blessings,

hope.

Fidelity of beliefs Adapt beliefs to fit

personal world view

and personal needs

Adapt beliefs to fit personal

world view and personal

needs.

Beliefs consistent with what

they view as the ultimate

authority: the Bible

Gods role in

everyday events

Life events are meant

to be, God is responsible,

and His will may bequestioned, but is

ultimately accepted.

Life events are primarily

due to human choice

although there is such athing as fate. There is no

such thing as divine purpose.

Life events are often the

consequence of sin. Regardless,

all events serve Gods purposeand must be accepted with

complete trust.

Social versus spiritual

aspects of church

involvement

Primary involvement with

religious community is social.

Spiritual aspects shaped by

social needs. Church leaders

respected for social qualities.

Primary involvement with

religious community is social.

Church has responsibility

to meet the needs of the

community.

Church leaders respected

for social involvement.

Spiritual beliefs integrated into

and motivation for all aspects

of life. Involvement with church

primarily spiritual with social

relationships a consequence of

spiritual life.

Life meaning Serve others as a means of

achieving approval from

God or others.

Leave a legacy. Serve God in whatever capacity

He chooses.

Expectations

for afterlife

Hope for eternal life. Would

like to prolong life to do

more good works.

Unsure of afterlife.

Not prepared

for death.

Complete assurance of salvation.

Ready for when God wants to

take them to heaven.



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possible to differentiate theodicies in terms of their degree of rationality, that is, the degree to which they

entail a theory that coherently and consistently explains the phenomena in question in terms of an over-

all view of the universe.

An actors confidence in religious beliefs may be due, in part, to the organizational and social contextin which plausible religious explanations are offered. According to Dillon (1999, p. 292), religious

traditions change in response to sociocultural conditions: the churchs organizational structure,

doctrines, and practices are not the product of a divinely prescribed blueprint but evolve and vary in

response to different societal circumstances. Dogma is not pregiven but is extrapolated and developed

over time. Even mainline religions engage in a constant process of reevaluating the definitions of what

constitutes acceptable behavior and claims of absolute truths. As a result, the shared meanings offered

may not elicit enough certainty to rely on for life meaning. Furthermore, beliefs that originate within a

religious community are filtered through personal interpretations that are not under control of the

community(Hornsby-Smith, 1992).

Consistent with these findings, the belongers and the doubters in the study adapted their ownpluralistic system of belief, relying on church teachings, personal testimonies, scientific knowledge,

authorities apart from religious organization, intuition, and logic (see Table 2). Personal theodicy was a

vague, fluidbelief system renegotiated at their discretion, which is consistent with an extrinsic religions

orientation(Allport and Ross, 1967).Put another way, because their religious community could offer no

guarantees, the women were constantly choosing their ways of being religious(Ammerman, 1997, p.

203). A consistent remark of belongers was that no belief system was completely right. All questioned

the ability of a loving God to condemn people to hell. None claimed assurance of heaven but clung to

the hope offered by their belief that heaven was possible. This is evidence of relativism resulting from

the lack of absolute truth.

Table 2

Beliefs, community, and life meaning

Belongers Doubters Believers

Religious beliefs,

certainty of beliefs

(Berger, 1969)

No certainty of belief

system

No certainty of belief

system

Certain of belief system

providing absolute truth.

Sacred self(George,

2000)

Sacred Self No Sacred Self Sacred Self

Relationship to Divine

Other(Berger, 1969)

No personal relationship

with Divine Other

No personal relationship

with Divine Other

Personal relationship with

Divine other

Give authority of life over

to Divine otherReligious community Social interactions often

more significant than

individual beliefs

Social interactions more

significant than individual

beliefs

Religious beliefs more

significant than social

interactions

Life meaning

(Stark, 1999)

Religious beliefs alone

not a rational choice to

construct life meaning.

Religious beliefs alone not

a rational choice to construct

life meaning.

Religious beliefs alone a

rational choice to construct

life meaning.

Life meaning supplemented

with social interactions

and/or secular beliefs.

Life meaning supplemented

with social interactions and/or

secular beliefs

Need to serve God

Need to serve others. Need to leave personal legacy



12/15

Because their belief systems could not provide absolute truth with sufficient certainty, the belongers

supplement them with other sources of meaning. This is consistent with the theory of Berger (1967, p.

47), in which he writes, The less firm the plausibility structure becomes, the more acute will be the

need for world-maintaining legitimations. For the belongers in the study, meaning was found inpleasing God, and such approval was generated through relationships with others. Serving others and/or

being good Christians became meaningful in the hope of cementing the approval of God. Social

relationships were, in effect, a way to manipulate God to achieve the reward of meaning offered through

eternal life.

For the belongers, social relationships were deemed as significant, if not more significant than their

relationship with God. When their religiosity could not guarantee eternal life with certainty, and when

their beliefs could not sustain life meaning independently, the women negotiated life meaning through

service to others and social relationships. Good works, friendships, and family relationships could at

least offer the certainty of being accepted, while increasing their hope for eternal life with God. The

internal dialogue of the belongers might be characterized, I am good to others, which makes me a good(Methodist, Catholic, Jew, etc.), therefore my life has meaning because I must be pleasing God.

For the doubters, ultimate truth could not be found within a religious collectivity. These women

had to generate meaning through their own actions within society, apart from the Divine. The

doubters placed authority in knowledge and continually sought to supplement answers via secular

experts. Since there was no hope of eternal salvation, the women worked at creating their own eternal

life by leaving a legacy to be remembered. For them, social relationships were not sufficient or, as

Ann put it, influence is forgotten. The doubters found meaning in leaving something concrete

behind, such as a book or a namesake. The doubters may say to themselves, Life is all there is. I

must leave something behind to bring meaning to the time I am alive. As with the belongers, social

interactions were significant sources of meaning for the doubters due to the uncertainty of truth

offered by their beliefs.The believers, on the other hand, placed their trust in the authority of the Bible, believing it to be

inerrant and literal. For these women, scriptures offer an unchanging, external, ultimate Truth. Since it

remained constant and was therefore reliable, it was a rational choice to derive life meaning from it

(Stark, 1999). For the believers, life meaning was intrinsically involved with their relationship to the

divine as depicted in the Bible. Interaction with the Divine took precedence over concrete social

relationships, which generated no such ultimate truth or meaning. Their rationale for life meaning may

be interpreted, My relationship with the Ultimate God gives meaning and purpose to my life and He

motivates me to interact with others in ways that He chooses. Their beliefs offered the believers a

dependable, consistent, and responsive God, who not only offered eternal life but also a personal

relationship to assist them in their everyday lives. According to Stark (1999), a responsive Godstrengthens confidence.

A personal relationship with a divine other suggests an alternative or additional theoretical

explanation for the differing role of religion among the participants. It may be the divine relationship

itself, rather than the consistency of belief or strength of commitment, which was the motivating force

behind life meaning. According toMead (1934, p. 158), an individual develops a view of him/herself

through interactions with others that, the development of the self is a reflexive process. The self reaches

full development by organizing these individual attitudes of others into the organized social or group

attitudes, and by thus becoming an individual reflection of the general systematic pattern of social or

group behavior in which it and the others are all involved.



13/15

Symbolic interaction involves the definition and interpretation of actions between participants. In the

case of religious communities, participants maynot only include fellow members, but also God, Jesus,

the Holy Spirit, or other divine personifications.George (2000, p. 24)writes, in terms of the content of

the sacred self, the possibilities are infinite, although one would expect religious-based self-perceptionsto exhibit predictable denomination-based patterns to some degree. And, of course, not everyone is

likely to have a sacred self-even among individuals who actively participate in religious institutions not

everyones belief structures will include assumptions about the self in relation to God or a higher

power. Interactions with these divine figures may be as influential in terms of the formation of the self

as interactions with concrete members of the community, depending upon the extent of the relationship

(Black, 1999; Fowler, 1981; Koenig, 1994; Pollner, 1989; Yemane & Polzer, 1994; Thoits, 1983;

Wilstrom, 1987).

The belongers and doubters maintained ownership over their lives, and although the belongers

developed a sacred self, their beliefs were not thoroughly integrated into their lives. The self was

developed and maintained through social relationships, and the womens identity remained separate froma divine other. Neither their relationship with the Divine nor their internalized belief systems were

reliable enough nor deemed worthy enough to deny themselves and find meaning solely in God.

Ambivalence remained, and meaning had to be reinforced through other relationships or, in the case of

the doubters, through a legacy.

The believers integrated their beliefs into every aspect of their lives and constructed life meaning

within the context of their personal relationship with the divine other, which was perceived as being

more trustworthy than persons. Interaction with the Divine other took precedence over other relation-

ships. It is the believers that Berger (1967, p. 38) describes when he writes, tenuous self-identifications

are given a foundation seemingly secure from the shifting reactions of other men [sic]. God then

becomes the most reliable and ultimately significant other. By striving to surrender their will and

desires to the will of the Divine other, the believers sacred self became a self that was submitted to God.This denial of self allowed each believer to transcend her individuality and lose herself in the

meaning-giving nomos of his society (Berger, 1967, p. 55).

Berger sees this self-denying surrender as a form of religious masochism. Masochism, by its radical

self-denial, provides the means by which an individuals suffering, and even death, can be radically

transcended to the point where the individual not only finds these experiences bearable but even

welcomes them. Humans can accept neither aloneness nor meaninglessness (Berger, 1969, p. 56).The

believers exhibited the masochistic submission, which enabled them to generate life meaning through

their all-inclusive relationship to a God who could not be questioned or challenged. The women dared

not waiver in their beliefs because there was so much at stake. If God imputed meaning into their lives

by virtue of a Divine relationship, to doubt that relationship would have resulted in living withuncertainty of meaning as well as uncertainty of ultimate truth and rightness.

6. Conclusion

The narratives of these women suggest an interrelationship between belief systems and social

interactions with others, as well as with the Divine, in constructing life meaning at the end of life.

Religiosity does appear to influence life meaning at old age, but its impact varies substantially in terms

of specific belief systems, which, in turn, influences the need to supplement beliefs with religious



14/15

community and secular activities. The believers, who believed in a strong religious truth, found meaning

through relationship with the Divine other and trust in the Bible rather than social relationships. Positive

social interaction and reinforcement within the religious community was necessary for the belongers and

the doubters, whose belief systems were more fluid and open to personal interpretation and relativism. Itappears that the content, as well as certainty, of belief influenced the degree of commitment the women

were willing to make to their belief system. A relationship with a Divine other who is trusted and

reliable increased the significance of religious beliefs in negotiating and maintaining life meaning during

old age.

This study focused on a small group of women, all of whom were white, middle-class, and living in

assisted-living residences. It is not clear whether the types identified here would apply even to other

women in similar circumstances, let alone elderly men and women in different circumstances.

Nevertheless, the findings are an important step in sorting out how religion and life meaning are related

in old age. It raises questions that can be addressed in future research. For example, do various groups

require differing levels of certainty to trust in a belief system? Are divine relationships more likely to betypical of complete surrender within various groups and/or religious communities? What are the

behavioral concomitants of life meaning?

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