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july 2012

features14 Energy Matters how efficient pumping systems can save the world

22 Identifying Pressure Sensor Problems how barometric pressure, installation, and drift affect

sensor performance

30 Understanding Ultrasonics custody transfer drives the market, but inline and clamp-ons gain popularity

34 Microbiologically Induced Corrosion understanding the biological degradation of metals

Vol. XVIII, No. 7

Flow Control (ISSN #1081-7107) is published 12 times a year by Grand View Media Group, 200 Croft Street, Suite 1, Birmingham, AL 35242.

A controlled circulation publication, Flow Control is distributed without charge to qualified subscribers. Non-qualified subscription rates in the U.S. and Canada: one year, $99; two year, $172. Foreign subscription rates: one year, $150; two year, $262. Wire Transfer: $180. Please call or e-mail the Circulation Manager for more wire transfer information. Single cop-ies $10 per issue in the U.S. and Canada. Single copies $15 per issue in all other countries. All subscription payments are due in U.S. funds.

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© Entire contents copyright 2012. No portion of this publication may be reproduced in any form without written permission of the publisher.Views expressed by the bylined contributors should not be construed as reflecting the opinion of this publication. Publication of product/service information should not be deemed as a recommendation by the publisher. Editorial contributions are accepted from the fluid handling industry. Contact the editor for details. Product/service information should be submitted in accordance with guidelines available from the editor. Editorial closing date is two months prior to the month of publication. Advertising close is the last working day of the month, two months prior to the month of publication.

plus45 REFERENCE SHELF

46 ADVERTISER/ PRODUCT INDEX

The variation and unpredictable nature of barometric changes can make it very frustrating to professionals attempting to keep pressure sensor systems in calibration.

22

columns 4 VIEWPOINT training the

workforce of the future

12 APPLICATIONS CORNER part II: open-channel flowmeter problems

departments47 THINK TANK pressure measurement

48 QUIZ CORNER variable area flowmeter accuracy statements

®®

2 July 2012 Flow Control

SUBSCRIPTION INFORMATION

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On the Cover: The product photo on the cover of this issue is courtesy of Neptune Chemical Pump Co. (neptune1.com).

30

While much of the attention to ultrasonic flowmeters had been based on progress in inline or “spoolpiece” meters, suppliers have also made important strides in clamp-on ultrasonic flowmeters, which hold certain advantages over inline and insertion meters.

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viewpoint

Training the Workforce of the Future® ®

WINNER

PUBLISHERJOHN P. HARRIS | (205) 408-3765

[email protected]

ASSOCIATE PUBLISHER

MICHAEL C. CHRISTIAN | (732) [email protected]

EXECUTIVE DIRECTOR OF CONTENT

MATT MIGLIORE | (610) [email protected]

MANAGING EDITOR

AMY W. RICHARDSON | (859) [email protected]

COLUMNISTSLARRY BACHUS;

DAVID W. SPITZER; JESSE YODER

ART DIRECTOR

JULIE [email protected]

MARKETING MANAGER

MARY BETH TIMMERMAN

SUBSCRIPTION & REPRINT REQUESTS:

[email protected]

Administrative TeamGENERAL MANAGER

BARRY LOVETTE

VICE PRESIDENT OF OPERATIONSBRENT KIZZIRE

VICE PRESIDENT OF MARKETINGHANK BROWN

DIRECTOR OF CIRCULATION & FULFILLMENTDELICIA POOLE

CIRCULATION MANAGER STACIE TUBB

CIRCULATION ANALYST ANNA HICKS

VICE PRESIDENT OF FINANCEBRAD YOUNGBLOOD

EDITORIAL ADVISORY BOARDLarry Bachus: Bachus Company Inc.

Gary Cornell: Blacoh Fluid Control

Jeff Jennings: Equilibar LLC

Peter Kucmas: Elster Instromet

Jim Lauria: Water Technology Executive

James Matson: GE Measurement & Control

John Merrill, PE: EagleBurgmann Industries

Steve Milford: Endress+Hauser U.S.

David W. Spitzer, PE: Spitzer and Boyes LLC

Tom Tschanz: McIlvaine Company

John C. Tverberg: Metals and Materials Consulting Engineers

Jesse Yoder, Ph.D.: Flow Research Inc.

WINNER

WINNER

A common rumbling and grum-

bling over the past few years

here in the United States has

been on the need for a renewed

commitment to Science, Technology,

Engineering, and Mathematics

(STEM) education. And with this

heightened focus on STEM, it seems

we are beginning to see some

progress, particularly with new

funding and investment in STEM at

the university and high school level. This should

help breathe new life into STEM fields five to

10 years down the road. But in the near term,

as those cagey old vets continue to take “early

retirement,” what is being done to provide

continuing education and professional develop-

ment to our current STEM workforce, which is

getting younger and younger and less and less

experienced? Here too, it seems there are signs

of new investment in training programs.

For example, I recently attended a launch

event for Endress+Hauser’s new Process

Training Unit (PTU) just outside Philadelphia

(see page 6 for more). The facility is the

product of a joint partnership between

Endress+Hauser (www.us.endress.com) and

Rockwell Automation (www.rockwell.com), and

it features a state-of-the-art process system

outfitted with all of Endress+Hauser’s latest

instrumentation and Rockwell’s control sys-

tems. The PTU is part of a larger effort by the

two organizations to provide hands-on training

to engineers, operators, and technicians on the

finer points of modern plant systems design.

Along this line, Endress+Hauser is offering a

full schedule of instrumentation-oriented train-

ings at its PTUs located throughout the U.S.,

while Rockwell is offering training focused on

control systems.

Here at Flow Control, we too are commit-

ted to continuing education and professional

development, having worked with our regular

columnist Larry Bachus (a.k.a.

“The Pump Guy”) to present the

Pump Guy Seminar since 2007.

And we’re now working with

David W. Spitzer, another regular

Flow Control columnist, to pres-

ent his popular Industrial Flow

Measurement Seminar.

In fact, I was in New Orleans last

month for trainings with Larry and

David. Much of our conversation

during the off hours revolved around the critical

situation many industrial companies in the U.S.

now face as they lose their experienced techni-

cal professionals. Valuable in-house experi-

ence is disappearing every day at companies

across the country. But is it being replaced?

Unfortunately, in my experience, it is not—at

least not quickly enough.

Consider this … I speak with folks all of the

time who are interested in attending our pump

and flow trainings. Yet, interest is only half the

battle. More often than not, those interested

folks never actually make it to our trainings

because either: a. they are so swamped with

work that they can’t afford to get away for

a few days of training; or b. they can’t get

their boss to approve the expense. I find this

unfortunate because: a. we are working hard

to grow our training program, and we need as

many attendees as possible to do this; and b.

more importantly, it’s hard to see how the U.S.

can continue to compete in the upper echelons

of manufacturing and industry if its workforce

isn’t given the opportunity to learn and develop

their skillset.

Perhaps this trend is merely a product of

the economy we have been operating in over

the past several years. My hope is that as com-

panies get back on solid footing, they will rec-

ognize the need to strategically and aggressive-

ly invest in training their workforce to regain

some of the technical knowhow they have lost.

While cost-cutting is clearly necessary in some

instances, it’s not the foundation of a success-

ful business, particularly when such cost cut-

ting is at the expense of the human capital on

which a company’s future relies. You are what

you know. FC

– Matt Migliore, Executive Director of Content

[email protected]

VGG R A N D V I E W M E D I A G R O U P

WINNER

WINNER

Valuable in-house experience

is disappearing every day at

companies across the coun-

try. But is it being replaced?

As part of their global partnership around automation and

instrumentation systems, Endress+Hauser (us.endress.

com) and Rockwell Automation (rockwellautomation.com)

hosted a launch event and Process Solutions Summit in May in

Chalfont, Pa., just outside Philadelphia. The event, which was

attended by approximately 220 registered end-users over two

days, showcased a new Process Training Unit (PTU), featur-

ing Endress+Hauser’s instruments and Rockwell Automation’s

PlantPAx process automation system. The unit is designed to pro-

vide the opportunity for hands-on instrumentation and automation

training to field technicians, engineers, and sales personnel in the

Northeast U.S.

The PTU also features a bioreactor, which Endress+Hauser

acquired from a major pharmaceutical manufacturer who had

decommissioned the unit. The instrumentation and controls on

the unit have been updated, and Endress+Hauser and Rockwell

plan to use it to provide life sciences-specific training. Life sci-

ences is a key target market for both companies in the Northeast

region.

“Not only is Endress+Hauser making major investments in the

U.S. to expand manufacturing capability, but additional invest-

ments are also being made around the country to offer best-in-

class Instrumentation Training Schools by constructing the type of

Process Training Units that are unequaled in the industry,” says

Jerry Spindler, training manager for Endress+Hauser’s, Customer

and Field Service Training program. “And this is in cooperation

with our Alliance Partner Rockwell Automation. No other supplier

of instrumentation or controls can claim this type of commitment

to addressing the process training needs of its customers.”

Spindler says one of the core aims of Endress+Hauser’s train-

ing initiative and investment is to show end-users that the solu-

tion to their process problems is not maintenance-related, but

rather it is tied to proper specification, installation and operation

of their instruments and controls. He says that if the user has a

solid understanding of how to specify, install, and operate a pro-

cess system, the maintenance issues will go away.

In addition to the Philadelphia-area location, Endress+Hauser

and Rockwell-sponsored PTUs are also located in LaPorte, Texas,

Memphis, Tenn., Mobile, Ala., Matthews, N.C., and Vega Alta,

Puerto Rico. All trainings at PTU sites consist of approximately

50–60 percent lectures, presentations, oral and written exams,

and 40–50 percent hands-on training. Endress+Hauser is respon-

sible for developing the instrumentation training program, while

Rockwell is responsible for the control systems trainings.

The Philadelphia-area PTU includes over 5,000 square feet of

classroom and hands-on training space. For Endress+Hauser’s

full course schedule, visit www.us.endress.com/training/. For

Rockwell’s training schedule, visit www.rockwellautomation.com/

services/training.

E+H, Rockwell Open Process Training UnitHands-on instrumentation and automation training for end-users

news & notes


The Process Training Unit in Chalfont, Pa., is designed to provide

the opportunity for hands-on instrumentation and automation

training to field technicians, engineers, and sales personnel in the

Northeast U.S.


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Wireless Tank Gauging Application For Critical Industrial Tank Level & Condition Monitoring

Apprion’s (apprion.com) ION Tank Gauging Application can be

implemented to remotely and continuously monitor a tank’s

liquid levels, vapor pressure, temperature, hazardous condi-

tions, and standing water. ION Tank Gauging extends existing ION

System Monitoring applications for condition monitoring, network

monitoring and emission monitoring. The application streams

real-time intelligence from all these applications and others into a

common dashboard view for plant operators in industrial process

manufacturing industries.

As a result, industrial users now have added capabilities to automati-

cally gauge tank capacity utilization, accurately know inventory levels,

and dramatically reduce loss control, whether from overflows or hazard-

ous safety incidents. Apprion says this wireless monitoring capability from

remote control stations replaces time-consuming, inefficient, error-prone

manual processes.

Apprion VP of Corporate Marketing Sarah Prinster said the applica-

tion, which was released in October 2011, was a response to customer

requests for new capabilities to monitor various elements of their tank

levels. She said, in a press announcement, that the application “can slash

conventional tank-gauging costs in the high double-digit percentages.”

Prinster added that ION Tank Gauging captures and interprets tank-

gauging data from single or all tanks in a facility that previously was

either technically or financially out of reach for operators. The application

also serves as a framework for unifying disparate tank-gauging hardware

technology into a single dashboard for a complete view of tank conditions

and status. Sensor devices from multiple vendors installed in the tanks

can communicate with Apprion’s wireless infrastructure, which is an

open-protocol system that integrates and transmits myriad data points in

one central Web-based dashboard.

The complete ION System not only provides a window into tank levels,

but it also combines it with data from other safety, security, compliance

and operational applications, Apprion says.

Automated alerts provide immediate notifica-

tion of tank levels before overflows or hazard-

ous pressure situations. Also, two backhaul

data paths meet compliance requirements, and

reporting capabilities provide historical infor-

mation, such as tank levels.

news & notes


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Caldwell Tanks Partners with Fusion Tanks & Silos

Caldwell Tanks Inc. (caldwelltanks.

com) announced in late May its

association with Fusion Tanks

& Silos. Fusion has experience in the

engineering and manufacturing of glass-

fused-to-steel bolted tanks and silos.

With Fusion’s expertise in this particular

market, Caldwell Tanks says it will be able

to further expand its capabilities to meet

customer storage needs in the water,

wastewater, industrial, process and waste

storage sectors. Caldwell will build glass-

fused-to-steel bolted composite elevated

tanks throughout the U. S. and ground

storage glass-fused-to-steel bolted tanks

regionally across all industry sectors.

Headquartered in Louisville, Ky., Caldwell

Tanks has built customized storage tanks

and vessels throughout North America.

Global Flowmeter Market to Reach $5.1 Billion by 2017

The global market for flowmeters is

expected to reach US $5.1 billion by

the year 2017, primarily driven by

the re-investment of manufacturing majors

in plant renovation, modernization, capac-

ity expansions, technology developments,

and the entry of new players into the mar-

ket, according to a new Global Industry

Analysts (GIA) report. Additionally, rising

opportunities from emerging countries in

the Asia-Pacific region is also expected to

bode well for the future growth prospects

of the marketplace.

The flowmeter market continues its transi-

tion from the traditional to new high-technology

meters. Driven by precision and reliability, new

flowmeters, especially ultrasonic and Coriolis,

are becoming extremely popular among end-

users. Another high-tech flowmeter grounding

base is the magnetic flowmeter, acknowledged

for its capacity in non-intrusive measurement.

These flowmeters have been found as an

appropriate replacement to the conventional

flowmeter types, such as turbine, differential

pressure, and positive displacement. The reli-

ability and accuracy offered by these flowme-

ters make them a favorite among customers

against the traditional counterparts, GIA says.

Post-recession, the flowmeters market

is surging ahead, primarily due to the

accumulation of postponed and deferred

orders, and re-investment of manufac-

turing majors in plant renovation, and

modernization and capacity expansions,

GIA says. Capital projects, which have

either been shelved or postponed due to

tight budgetary conditions, are presently

remerging to drive growth. Stimulus pack-

ages offered by governments across the

globe as succor to the ailing industries are

strengthening capital investments.

GIA found the ultrasonic flowmeter market

represents the fastest- growing product

segment, displaying a CAGR of about 8.29

percent over the analysis period. Ultrasonic

flowmeters are gaining wider prominence in

hydrocarbon industry applications. The oil &

gas industry has been one of the major con-

tributors to the market growth of ultrasonic

flowmeters, GIA says. Ultrasonic flowmeters

offer improved measurement accuracy at

significantly lower costs, making them the

most preferred product for oil & gas and

district heating applications. GIA says the

ultrasonic flowmeters market is especially

driven by the robust demand for multi-path

ultrasonic meters used in custody transfer of

natural gas and other petroleum products.

Rapid growth of the ultrasonic flowme-

ters market has also been supplemented

by the approval of ultrasonic standards by

various regulatory authorities, GIA says,

such as the American Gas Association

(AGA, aga.org), among others.

For more details, visit www.strategyr.

com/Flow_Meters_Market_Report.asp.

www.FlowControlNetwork.com July 2012 9


North American municipal drinking water plants will spend

over $3.5 billion on new hardware, instrumentation and

treatment chemicals in 2012, according to the McIlvaine

Company (mcilvainecompany.com).

McIlvaine says several thousand of the larger plants will make

80 percent of the investment, whereas the 10,000 smaller facili-

ties will account for only 20 percent.

This investment is only 12 percent of the total $30 billion

investment that will be made by the industry this year. The total

includes all the distribution investment and maintenance, plus

non-equipment expenditures at the treatment facilities.

Overall, there are more than 50,000 requests for quotation

issued by the operating companies, McIlvaine reports.

For more information on McIlvaine Company’s “North American

Public Water Plants and People,” visit mcilvainecompany.com.

With hydraulic fracturing, or “fracking”—the use of high-

pressure water to help extract previously inaccessible

shale gas—eager to replicate its success outside the

U.S., the market for water treatment will grow nine-fold to $9 bil-

lion in 2020, according to a new report by Lux Research

(luxreserachinc.com). This expansion will spur technology innova-

tion and novel thinking about water disposal and reuse, but the

field is rapidly growing overcrowded, creating significant risk for

new entrants, Lux Research says.

Fracking requires between 4,000 m(3) and more than 22,000

m(3) (25,000 bbl to 140,000 bbl) of water per well and produces

toxin-laced brine that can be more than six times as salty as the

sea. Its growth has energized the water industry, inspiring a bum-

per crop of new water treatment startups vying to treat the highly

challenging flowback water, Lux Research says.

“Fracking represents a significant water treatment challenge—

hydrocarbons, heavy metals, scalants, microbes, and salts in pro-

duced and flowback water from shale gas wells represent a water

treatment challenge on par with the most difficult industrial waste-

waters,” said Brent Giles, Lux Research analyst and lead author of

the report titled, “Risk and Reward in the Frack Water Market,” in a

prepared statement. “While the opportunity is large, only a few com-

panies are really positioned to profit. Meanwhile, nearly every start-up

we talk to is going after frack water, regardless of their technology,

and many of them are going to come to grief.”

“Risk and Reward in the Frack Water Market” is part of the Lux

Research Water Intelligence service. For more information, visit

luxresearch.com.

Buoyed by more business opportunities, including significant

production improvements by their clients and expansion

in numerous industries, members of the Control System

Integrators Association (CSIA, controlsys.com) remain confident

that strong economic conditions will continue in the U.S. and

most areas around the world.

Control system integrators design and implement automation

and control systems for manufacturing and industrial facilities.

“CSIA members are telling us that more plant managers,

operations directors, and other industry leaders are investing in

automation to ensure their manufacturing systems run at peak

capacity,” Robert Lowe, CSIA executive director, said in a pre-

pared statement. “Many clients of CSIA members are turning to

them for project assessment and implementation. They are look-

ing to CSIA members for technology solutions that can drive a

more efficient operation.”

According to a CSIA member survey, more than half expect

their business to grow by 20 percent or more this year. Industries

served by CSIA members, such as food & beverage, metals, oil &

gas, and paper, were among those reporting growth at the end of

the first quarter of 2012.

In his keynote speech at the recent CSIA Executive Conference

in Scottsdale, Ariz., Alan Beaulieu, economist and president of the

Institute for Trend Research, supported CSIA’s positive outlook,

noting that the U.S. is in a solid economic recovery.

“All leading indicators are up, a clear indication of economic

health,” Beaulieu said. “Manufacturing is picking up speed, and

interest rates are going to stay low.”

To learn more about control system integrators or the CSIA,

visit www.controlsys.org.


Municipal Water Plants to Spend More than $30 Billion in 2012

Frack Water Market to Grow 9-fold to $9 Billion in 2020

Integrators See Signs of Promise in Industrial Automation Segment

trendlines

news & notes

NA Municipal Drinking Water Plant Spending ($ Millions)

Equipment 2012

Pumps 117

Valves 320

Clarifiers - Centrifuges 1,205

Membrane Systems 209

Macrofiltration 67

Treatment Chemicals 320

Biological Treatment and Disinfection 54

Instrumentation 618

Total $3,468

In the May 2012 Applications Corner

(page 14), there was an extra “.com” at

the end of the URL given for the Industrial

Flow Measurement Seminar. The correct

address is FlowControlNetwork.com/

FlowSeminar. A date for the next Flow

Seminar will be announced soon.

A poise is one dyne-second per square

centimeter, not one dyne per second

per square centimeter as written in the

definition of centipoise in the Glossary of

Terms on page 47 of the May 2012 issue.

In essence, centipoise is a unit of mea-

surement for absolute viscosity equal to

one-hundredth of a poise.

Help us make Flow Control the best it

can be! If you see any errors, mix-ups,

or oversights, whether grammatical or

technical, please e-mail ARichardson@

GrandViewMedia.com.

accountability file

®



Mergers & Acquisitions

Curtiss-Wright Corporation has

acquired the Versatile Measuring

Instruments (VMI) and Lisle-Metrix

(L-M) product lines from the

Amidyne Group for approximately

$7 million. The VMI and L-M product

lines serve the commercial nuclear

power market, and consist of origi-

nal equipment and re-engineered

replacement products for obsolete

equipment. The company will inte-

grate both product lines into its Flow

Control business segment.

Madison Dearborn Partners

Global completed its acquisition

of Schrader International from

Tomkins Ltd. The deal includes

certain affiliated investment funds

(Madison Dearborn) and members

of Schrader’s management team.

Schrader International is a global

manufacturer of sensing and valve

solutions including Tire Pressure

Monitoring Systems (TPMS) and

custom-engineered valve and fluid-

control components for industrial

markets.

Velcon Filters, a manufacturer of

industrial filtration systems, has

acquired Warner Lewis. Velcon

manufactures filtration systems,

primarily for the jet fuel market,

including vessels and replacement

cartridges, which meet specific

requirements for fluid filtration pro-

cesses in a variety of domestic and

international end-markets.

Emerson has acquired ISE Magtech,

enabling Emerson Process

Management to strengthen its level

measurement solutions in the oil and

gas, refining, chemical, and power

generation industries. Terms of the

acquisition were not disclosed. ISE

Magtech designs and manufactures

level gauges and associated equip-

ment for use in industrial applica-

tions.

✓

✓

✓

✓

✓

✓

For the past two months, I asked what can be wrong with a

flowmeter and referred to an article where an open-channel

measurement (used to measure the wastewater effluent prior

to the pumping station) was suspected to be “way off” (Flow Control,

May 2012, page 14; June 2012, page 6). A number of end-users

and consultants provided responses—and their suggestions varied

all over the map, including:

✓ Checking that the relation between flow and level is linear does

not seem logical given that the relationship between flow and level

for this type of flowmeter is not linear. However, a logarithmic graph

between flow and level yields a straight line, so let’s assume that

this is what was meant. Continuing, part of the explanation suggests

that if the flowrate and corresponding height does not match what

you expect, you should use a few known data points to generate

your own linearly extrapolated calibration data. This solution appears

to address a transmitter calibration problem and discards the pos-

sibility of having other hydraulic, installation, design, electronic, or

other problem(s) that could clearly occur. For example, what if the

improper upstream piping causes the flowmeter to measure high at

some flowrates and low at others? What if jetting is present? What

if the level sensor is not properly located? What if the level sensor is

plugged? What if…?

✓Determining the flowrate using dilution techniques is a reasonable

way to verify whether the open-channel flowmeter is accurate (at the

tested flowrate). However, it does not solve the open-channel flow mea-

surement problem.

✓Making sure that the depth sensor is clean and that an ultrasonic

sensor is not reading foam is a reasonable and easy first step that

can typically be performed by visual inspection.

So, the lesson learned here when asking what can be wrong with

a flowmeter is … Just about anything. The flowmeter can be

designed wrong, installed wrong, calibrated wrong, operated wrong,

and/or maintained wrong. To find the problem (or problems), one

should examine the entire flowmeter system and its installation,

operation and maintenance from the start of its upstream straight

run to the end of its downstream straight run. Subtleties and nuanc-

es can make a world of difference. FC

David W. Spitzer is a regular contributor to Flow Control maga-

zine and a principal in Spitzer and Boyes, LLC offering engi-

neering, seminars, strategic, marketing consulting, distribution

consulting and expert witness services for manufacturing and

automation companies. He has more than 35 years of experience

and has written over 10 books and 250 articles about flow mea-

surement, instrumentation and process control.

Mr. Spitzer can be reached at 845 623-1830 or

www.spitzerandboyes.com. Click on the “Products” tab to find his

“Consumer Guides” to various flow and level measurement tech-

nologies.


applications cornerBy David W. Spitzer

Part II: Open-Channel Flowmeter ProblemsWhat to do when the meter readings don’t match consumption

So, the lesson learned here when asking what

can be wrong with a flowmeter is … Just

about anything. The flowmeter can be designed

wrong, installed wrong, calibrated wrong,

operated wrong, and/or maintained wrong.


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the pump guyBy Larry Bachus

I recently attended the Pump Users Symposium. The exhibits

showed the latest technology to improve efficiency and con-

serve energy with pumps and pump systems. The tutorials dis-

cussed the latest developments in computer-aided design to pro-

duce high-efficiency motors, pumps, valves, and pipe schemes.

The lessons were simple for today’s “designed-obsolescence,”

instant-gratification society. Just buy your way to improved effi-

ciency. Scrap all your fixed-speed electric motors and replace

them with high-efficiency variable-speed motors. Toss your exist-

ing process pumps, and buy new high-efficiency pumps at a

quarter-million dollars each.

Twenty years ago, this same symposium would have shown

the pump users how to improve their installed equipment. The

experts in the tutorials were oozing and dripping with useful

knowledge. Now the symposium teaches that all energy-saving

solutions lie in new devices and new technology. This is simply

not true. To the contrary, I will explain here how you can conserve

huge quantities of energy with no investment in new equipment.

Consider JapanA huge earthquake struck Japan just over a year ago (March

2011). The quake damaged the Fukushima Nuclear Power plant.

At first, the Japanese government considered rebuilding the

nuclear plant. Japan has more experience with both sides of

nuclear power than any other country on earth, beginning with

the atomic bomb that ended World War II.

Two months later (May 2011), after much consideration and

reflection, Japan announced it would abandon plans to rebuild

the Fukushima plant. Japan would make-up the lost production

capacity with conservation and renewable energy as pillars of a

new energy policy. Energy conserved is energy found.

With pumps, opportunities to conserve energy stare us in the

face every day, but we don’t see them. We are like wild deer at

night, transfixed by the spotlight of new technology. Our attention

is distracted by the spotlight, and we don’t see the hunter’s rifle.

Save Energy On the Cheap Let me offer the least expensive method to bring about the great-

est energy savings with process pumps. If you follow my sugges-

tions, you’ll invest a few hours to improve the education of your

employees and realize the greatest energy conservation for your

company, your country, and the world. I’m going to offer some

thoughts on the way pumps are operated.

You don’t need a license to own a car. You don’t need a license

to repair a car. You need the license to “operate” the car.

The driver (operator) determines if the car is fuel efficient, or

a fuel guzzler. The driver determines if the car is a high-main-

tenance vehicle, or a low-maintenance vehicle. The driver influ-

ences the ultimate service life of the vehicle.

Likewise, a pump operator determines the efficiency of the

pump by the way he controls (operates) his pumps. The pump

operator determines whether the pump is low maintenance or

high maintenance. And the operator determines the ultimate

service-life of the pump.

But strangely, most pump operators, and even their supervisors

and engineers don’t know how to control their pumps. This is a

strong statement, deserving an explanation.

Consider CavitationAll over the world, cavitation is the most common maintenance

issue with the process pump. Cavitation is the root cause for

about 70 percent of all pumps in the shop today around the

world. Often, we don’t attribute the problem to cavitation.✓ The production engineer sent the pump to the shop

because he perceived the pump was performing

“off-the-curve.”✓ We think the pump is in the shop with mysterious

mechancal seal failure. Mistakenly, we blame the seal or

the seal supplier.✓ We think the bearings failed prematurely. We mistakenly

blame the shop fitter or technician who installed the

bearings.✓ The reliability engineer ordered to rebuild the pump to deal

with runaway vibrations.

Most of these problems are not real failure modes. These com-

plaints are typical symptoms and manifestations of cavitation.

By definition, cavitation is the formation and implosion of vapor

bubbles inside the pump. Cavitation occurs when the prevailing

pressure applied to the liquid falls below the liquid’s vapor pres-

sure. A liquid will go into cavitation if the prevailing pressure is

sufficiently low, or if the liquid’s temperature is sufficiently high.

Regarding pumps and process liquids, “classic cavitation” is a

place (head and flow) on the pump performance curve. Amazingly,

the pump operator can prevent 60 percent of all cavitation by

simply avoiding that place on the curve. The operator can make

60 percent of all cavitation calm down (including the associated

vibrations, bearing and seal failures).

The questions are: ✓ Does the pump have adequate instrumentation? ✓ Does the operator know how to interpret the pump curve? ✓ Does the operator know how to avoid that place on the

pump curve?

A few liquids are cavitation prone, and sometimes the demands

of production call for pump operation in the cavitation zone.

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These conditions are beyond the scope of

the plant operator. Then the engineer can

intervene and make even more problem-

atic cavitation go away.

The questions are:

✓ Does the engineer know how to give

instructions to the operators and

instrumentation technicians? ✓ Does the engineer know how to

modify the system to resolve

cavitation? ✓ Does the engineer know what he’s

trying to accomplish?

Sadly, these issues are not discussed in a

university “Fluid Mechanics” course.

Why in 2012 is cavitation a misdiag-

nosed, mysterious, unknown phenom-

enon? Why isn’t cavitation eradicated like

measles, polio, or dengue fever? Why can’t

the process engineer resolve cavitation?

Because he doesn’t understand how the

pump and system interact.

Therefore, we’ve taught the pump

operator to:

1. Open the valve;

2. Start the motor and pump; and

3. Let the pump do what it wants to do.

You certainly couldn’t start your car, put

the car in gear, and then let the car do

whatever it wants to do. No one would say

this is how to drive (operate) a car.

Pump companies publish performance

curves of the different pump models they

manufacture. The curves contrast head

and flow and indicate the efficiency and

power consumption at different points on

the curve.

The pump’s efficiency is zero (zero per-

cent efficient) on both ends of the curve.

Between both ends, there are zones of

better and best efficiency. Best efficiency

is a place on the performance curve where

the pump delivers the optimum combina-

tion of head and flow at the least energy

consumption.

As the pump operates away from

this primary zone of efficiency, energy

is wasted or diverted from its primary

mission. This diverted energy manifests

itself as excessive power consumption,

heat generation, noise, mysterious vibra-

tions, and runaway maintenance. Think

about it! Vibrations, noise, heat, and even

“unplanned” maintenance are all forms

of diverted or misdirected energy, drawn

away from the primary mission.

In the hands of the operator, the pro-

duction and reliability engineers, the pump

curve is the most powerful indicator of

energy conservation and overall equip-

ment health. My experience indicates:✓ That control room monitor screens

don’t show the pump curve;✓ That most operators are not trained

to interpret their pump curves;✓ That many engineers are unfamiliar

with their pump curves; and✓ That most engineers are unfamiliar

with their system curves.

The laws of thermodynamics state: Energy

is neither created nor destroyed. Energy

is only transformed or converted from

one form into another. Inefficiency occurs

when too much energy is wasted by con-

version into an “unusable” form.

When the pump operates to the left of

best efficiency for extended periods, ener-

gy is transformed (wasted) into unusable:

1. Heat generation—Kilowatts of

diverted energy are converted into

calories. A calorie is the energy to

raise one kilogram of water one

degree Celsius temperature. The

pumped liquid overheats and may

even vaporize.

2. Mysterious vibrations and noise—

This is transformed (unusable) ener-

gy that leads to overall equipment

degredation. Vibrations and noise

will destroy your pump reliability

program.

3. Shaft deflection—This is trans

formed (wasted) energy expressed

as a radial hydraulic imbalance in

the volute. It sideloads the shaft and

impeller assembly. The imbalance is

measured in “tons” (not pounds) of

radial load. Premature seal and bearing

failure is the result. Alignment also suf-

fers through the coupling to the electric


the pump guy


motor or other driver. The entire shaft

may even fracture and break.

4. Internal recirculation—A cavitation-

type noise in the pump releasing vio-

lent, “unusable” energy shock waves

against the impeller. These shock

waves travel through the shaft to the

fragile faces of the mechanical seal and

proceed on to the bearings. Premature

bearing and seal failures result.

When the pump operates to the right

of best efficiency for extended periods,

energy is wasted as:

1. Excess power (kW) consumption—

This can overload your motor. Fuses

may burn repeatedly. Breakers may

trip. The stress leads to premature

motor failure.

2. Cavitation—The liquid vaporizes

in low-pressure zones inside the

pump. As the liquid passes into zones

of higher pressure, the vapor bubbles

implode, releasing violent unusable

energy at the pump internals.

3. Shaft deflection—Unusable energy

discussed earlier.

4. Mysterious vibrations—Unusable

energy discussed earlier.

In an effort to control the pumps within

their best efficiency zones, most design

engineers try to mate the pump’s best

efficiency performance coordinates to the

piping system’s energy demands. These

demands are called the Total Dynamic

Head (TDH) of the piping system.

The most important part of the TDH is

the “D.” The pump operates in a “dynam-

ic” system. Why? Because:✓ Levels rise and fall in the vessels.

Static head is dynamic.✓ Pressures rise and fall in headers

and tanks. Pressure head becomes

dynamic.✓ Valves are constantly manipulated.

Velocity and friction losses are

dynamic.✓ Filters and strainers clog with dirt

and debris. The resistance is variable. ✓ New equipment (check valves,

restrictor plates, in-line mixers, tem

perature probes, filters and strainers)

is added into the system after design.✓ Changes occur with maintenance

and repair.✓ The system expands and contracts

with the economy. New pipes and

processes are incorporated into

existing systems—and later

removed.✓ The system curve changes as the

demands of the system change.

These changes drag the pump away

from best efficiency and into zones

of wasted energy on its perfor-

mance curve.

All pumps operate at the intersection

of the system curve with the pump curve.

With process pumps, it is better to think

of the system curve as the wagging tail of

a happy dog. The system curve is in con-

stant movement.

However, my experience indicates

that too many design engineers treat

the system as though it were static and

fixed. Design engineers frequently show

the proposed duty coordinates with a tri-

angle superimposed onto the pump curve

(Figure 1).

This leads process, production and reli-

ability engineers to think the pump oper-

ates at only one specific set of head and

flow coordinates. This is incorrect.

Process pumps operate in dynamic

systems. This means the dynamic system

will drag the pump into zones of wasted

energy and high maintenance on the per-

formance curve.

For example, let’s say you’re driving

your car on a level highway. The road

begins to slope downhill, and your car

accelerates even faster. You don’t want to

wreck your car or get a speeding ticket.

As the driver (the operator of the car),

you must aggressively take measures to

control the velocity of your car. The car

is equipped with an accelerator pedal, a

brake pedal, a hand brake, and a trans-

mission.

The driver must know how to use these

devices to decelerate. Plus, the car has a

steering wheel to avoid other cars and a

horn and lights to alert other drivers.

Likewise, the pump operator has a

number of devices at his disposal to hold

(operate) the pump into the best efficiency

zone, and deal with production upsets.

As the system changes, the pump

operator can see the pump’s duty coordi-

nates move away from the best efficiency

coordinates by observing his instrumen-

tation. The operator can manipulate the

system’s elements to conserve energy and

move the pump back toward the best effi-

ciency zone.

The pump operator can manipulate his

Figure 1

devices—tank levels, header pressures, valves, and other forms

of resistance and artificial head…to control the pumps. This is

the same way a car driver manipulates his tools—the steering

wheel, the turn signals, the brakes, the accelerator pedal, the

lights—to control his car as the roadway conditions change.

I have two children. They watched me drive for 16 years. I was

the logical person to teach them and help them get their driver’s

licenses. Likewise, the pump operators look to engineers for lead-

ership.

The process engineer can train the operators in correct pump

operation. The engineer can coordinate with design and maintenance

to alter the system where appropriate, or expand the operating range

of the pump. The goal is energy conservation and reliable pumps.

Here are some examples illustrating the operator’s contribu-

tion to energy conservation and reliability:

✓ A common operation in a process plant is to use a pump

to transfer liquid from one vessel to another. Typically, the

liquid level in the suction vessel is below the liquid level

in thedischarge vessel. This elevation differential is called

static head. Static head is one of the elements of the sys-

tem curve.

✓ If liquid is added to the suction vessel, or removed from the

discharge vessel, the elevation differential decreases. As the

elevation differential decreases, the pump’s duty coordinates

(head and flow) slide to the right on the performance curve.✓ A flowmeter will indicate the increase in flow. Differential

pressure gauges will indicate a drop in head or pressure as

the pump moves toward the right on the curve.

This is a classic example illustrating how the dynamic system

can drag a pump to the far right side on the performance curve.

Another typical operation in a process plant is to pump into a

pressurized vessel or reactor. A process engineer may order to

increase the temperature in the pressure vessel. The pressure in

the vessel increases with the temperature. As the temperature

rises, the backpressure will increase on the pump that feeds the

vessel. This will drag the pump to the far left of best efficiency on

the performance curve.

This typical function in a process plant illustrates how the

dynamic system can drag a pump to the far left side on the

performance curve. Most engineers are not aware that their deci-

sions, without training or mentoring, cause runaway maintenance

(bearing and seal failures) on the pumps.

Other common events in the process plant affect the pump

such as:

✓ Installing new devices (like a heat exchanger) into an

existing system, or ✓ Exchanging devices (valves for example) in a maintenance


the pump guy


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function, or✓ Expanding the system (with more tanks and pipes), or✓ A system upset (a leak, or equipment failure).

These alterations drag the pump away from best efficiency

and hold the pump to the left or right extreme of the performance

curve for extended periods. The operators look to the engineers

for leadership to deal with these alterations.

Specific Energy“Energy” is the capacity to perform work. “Work” is a force mul-

tiplied over a distance. “Power” is work per unit of time (work

per second, work per minute). Specific energy is the energy per

unit of mass, or energy comparison to perform equivalent work.

With pumps, it is the energy (and ultimately the cost of energy) to

move an equivalent mass (volume) of a liquid.

Let’s consider the specific energy and kilowatts of a typical

raw water pump. We will use a comparison mass of 1,000 gal-

lons of water that might be used at a municipal water plant, coal

mine, or a petroleum refinery as we consider: How much energy

is wasted when a water pump operates at 50 percent flow?

Let’s consider specific energy and kilowatts per 1,000 gallons

of water (comparison mass). We will use a typical water pump

that might be used at a water treatment plant or paper mill and

consider: How much energy is wasted when a water pump oper-

ates at 50 percent flow?

Let’s say the pump employs a fixed-speed motor with a pulley

drive. The pump speed is 450 RPM. The pump is 83 percent effi-

cient pumping 50,000 GPM flow at 280 feet of head (Figure 2).

At design flow (50,000 GPM) the pump is 83 percent efficient.

The pump consumes 4,260 BHp by the formula:

The Specific Energy is 85.2 BHp. This is the power (horsepow-

er) required to deliver the comparison liquid (1,000-gallons of raw

water) with this pump. Assigning a modest value of six cents per

kWh, the cost to deliver 1,000 GPM is $3.51 U.S.


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Figure 3

For whatever reason, a system alteration drags and holds the

pump to 25,000 GPM flow. Efficiency drops to 72 percent with no

intervention by either the engineer or the operator (Figure 3).

How much does the lost efficiency cost in wasted energy? At

off-design flow (25,000 GPM), the pump is 72 percent efficient.

The pump consumes 2,981-BHp.

The specific energy is 119 BHp. Again, specific energy is the

power to deliver 1,000 gallons of raw water with this pump. At six

cents per kWh, the cost to deliver 1,000 GPM is $5.33 U.S.

As Table 1 shows, a centrifugal water pump allowed to operate

inefficiently without correction or intervention by the operator, can

waste almost $9,900 per day, or $3.5 million per year for every

1,000 GPM of raw water moved. These figures also represent the

energy savings with some operator training. This is how you can

use the specific energy to your benefit.

Pumps and motors are by far the most popular pieces of rotating

equipment in the world. The industrial pump far outnumbers com-

pressors, fans, gearboxes, mixers, and other types of rotating equip-

ment.

We’ve just calculated the energy costs of one typical raw

water pump that might be in service today at any Texas municipal

water department, or a West Virginia coal mine. We also calcu-

lated the specific energy, which reveals the kilowatts and lost

dollars (close to $4 million in a year) from operating that pump

away from best efficiency.

It’s a well-known fact that most process pumps languish

between 10 percent to 40 percent efficiency simply because

the operators and engineers lack proper training. These same

pumps could be operating at 80 percent to 85 percent efficient

with proper attention. If every family in Austin, Texas turns off one

light to conserve energy, it won’t equal the savings of operating a

handfull of industrial pumps at best efficiency.

I totally support new technology, and I know that some people

are shopping for a new pump that might be 1 percent or 2 per-

cent more efficient than the existing pumps in service now. I

know some people are ready to purchase high efficiency motors

and other high efficiency process devices to save energy. But if

we invest in knowledge, we can conserve our way into the future

and avoid an energy crisis. I mean, how many people can you

train with $4 million? This is either the wasted energy or found

savings from operating one industrial pump at best efficiency.

Energy conserved is energy found.

Parting Shots Piping systems are dynamic. This is the “D” in TDH. When the

design engineer draws that triangle on the pump curve, he tells

the process and production engineers that the pump will oper-

ate at one fixed point on the curve. I know this is true because I

frequently meet with process, production and reliability engineers

who are positive that their pumps are running at one fixed point

(head/flow) on the curve.

Process engineers believe this with such conviction that they

see no reason to install instrumentation (pressure gauges or

flowmeters) on their pumps. Engineers tell me daily, “If I find a

measurement worth making, I can justify the cost of installing the

gauge or meter.”

This means cost isn’t the issue. If the engineer doesn’t install

instrumentation on his pumps and doesn’t train the operators,

then the engineer is either not convinced or not aware.

See the aforementioned pump curve and information on spe-

cific energy. How can a process or production engineer allow an

inefficient, vibrating, overheating raw water pump to waste close

to $10,000 U.S. per day in energy? Wouldn’t this money be better

spent with an investment in instrumentation and training for the

operators and technicians?

Your systems are dynamic if you work with process pumps,

pipes, tanks, reactors, temperature, valves, pressure, filters, etc.

Your systems are dynamic if you make soap, fuel, paper, beer,

paint, glue, kerosene, sulfuric acid, or Jack Daniels. Your pumps

are dragged all over the curve by the ever-changing system.

Learn how your pumps react to system changes and upsets.

Install instrumentation on your pumps. Teach the operators to

drive your pumps toward efficiency and reliability. FC

Larry Bachus, founder of pump services firm Bachus Company

Inc., is a pump consultant, lecturer, and inventor based in

Nashville, Tenn. He can be reached at [email protected].

www.bachusinc.com


the pump guy

Table 1

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installation guidelinesBy Elden Tolman

It is common for a pressure sensor to perform well at first and

then later fall outside of the acceptable range of performance.

Frequently such errors are classified as drift, when in reality

there are other forces at play. This article reviews the influence of

barometric pressure, installation and drift on sensor performance.

Barometric Pressure

Barometric pressure change has a specific impact on sealed pres-

sure sensors; this includes absolute and sealed pressure types of

pressure sensors. It will not have any influence on vented pressure

types such as gauge, compound gauge and vacuum pressure

measurement.

The impact of barometric pressure is inversely proportional to

the pressure range of the sensor. The larger the pressure range

the smaller the effect barometric pressure changes will have on

the sensor output. On lower ranges it can have a substantial influ-

ence on the sensor output.

Graph 1 shows the effect of barometric pressure on sensor out-

put for a 15-PSI range sensor each day over a period of one year.

The graph shows the change in output normalized against the

average shift in output. As can be seen, the shift in performance is

somewhat seasonally cyclical but can vary significantly from day

to day. The magnitude of the changes widely varies but tends to

move within a certain range.

The effect will also be influenced by weather patterns of the

area where they are used. This means that while Graph 1 swings

from 0.25 to -0.23 PSI, it is not necessarily representative of the

effect it will have in all areas and does not indicate a maximum

range of change on the sensor output.

The variation and unpredictable nature of barometric changes

can make it very frustrating to professionals attempting to keep

equipment in calibration. I once spoke with just such an upset

individual who indicated he had to recalibrate the sensors at least

once a week and sometimes every couple days. After researching

the issue, I determined that he was attempting to calibrate against

barometric pressure changes and fighting a losing battle.

If changes in barometric pressure are resulting in inaccurate

pressure measurement then the application should be examined

to determine if a vented sensor could be used or if the pressure

range could be increased without impairing the required output

resolution. Other than different pressure type options that are

offered at the time of purchase, this is a problem that the sensor

manufacturer cannot fix and returning such sensors to a manufac-

turer for replacements will not correct the root problem.

Another potential solution is differential-pressure measurement.

In essence this approach uses two sensing surfaces, where one is

for process measurement and the other becomes the reference.

Measurements are recorded as the difference between the two

readings resulting in an output that is normalized to barometric

pressure. Sensors exist that offer both in one unit, or it can be

accomplished with two separate sensors.

Installation Shift

Graph 2 shows how a representation of the installation shift would

look over a one-year period. Notice that other than the shift itself,

the sensor output remained fairly constant. The graph is based on

the installation shift of a 15-PSI range sensor. Installation shift

also diminishes as the pressure range increases.

Output shift due to installation is usually a one-time shift.

However, if the sensor is uninstalled for some reason (i.e. cleaning,

relocating equipment) then it stands to reason that this shift will

be realized again. It should be understood that the installation shift

Graph 1: Effect of Barometric Pressure Changes on Sensor Output Graph 2: Effect of Installation on Sensor Output

Identifying Pressure Sensor ProblemsHow barometric pressure, installation, and drift affect sensor performance

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in output is not always the same magni-

tude each time that the sensor is installed.

The magnitude of the shift is affected

by sensing method or technology used.

Sensing elements that are fixed directly to

the sensor diaphragm (or sometimes called

the wetted surface) will be more suscep-

tible to installation shift. Sensors where the

sensing elements have been decoupled or

separated from the sensor diaphragm are

fairly isolated from installation effects on

output.

What happens is that torque forces

imposed on the sensor mounting threads

during installation are being transferred

to some degree to the sensor diaphragm.

The effect of the torque forces on the sen-

sor diaphragm usually varies from sensor

to sensor and for each installation. As the

torque forces vary with each installation so

does the magnitude of output shift.

The variation in the magnitude of the

output on a particular sensor can be

controlled by using a torque wrench dur-

ing installation. Set the torque wrench to

the sensor manufacturers recommended

installation or mounting torque and use it

at the same setting each time.

The most common method for man-

aging installation shifts is to adjust or

calibrate the output after installation. This

can be done with the actual sensor if the

sensor has been designed with a “zero”

adjustment that can be adjusted in the

field. If not, then it can be managed by

programming an offset into the sensor

controller. Generally speaking, installa-

tion effect is best handled at the end-user

level.

DriftPiezo-resistive pressure measurement

drifts over time and all sensors will exhibit

this behavior. The magnitude or rate of

change on the sensor output from drift is

what is of concern, as the faster the rate

of drift the sooner the sensor will drift out

of specification. Ideally it will take years

for this to happen.

True drift is characterized as continual

drifting of the output over time in the same

direction. Graph 3 shows a sensor drifting

over a 365-day period on a 15-PSI sensor.

While the change in output will be dif-

ferent for every sensor Graph 3 clearly

shows a trend of increasing output. This

is characteristic of drift behavior. The ups

and downs on the graph are caused by

other sources. What you are looking for is

a trend for the output to move in the same

direction, positive or negative, over time.

Unlike barometric or installation effects

on output, drift is not related to the pres-

sure range of the sensor. This is the

reason that all these effects are often

clumped together and called drift. If a

high-pressure-ranged sensor is having

output changes it is almost always drift

related.

The root cause of drift in sensors is fun-

damentally a design level issue with some

caveats that are reviewed below. The

sensor-bonding layer—the attachment

installation guidelines



method between the sensing elements and

the sensor diaphragm or sensor fitting—is

the cause.

The bonding layer requires curing for

the sensor output to become stable. This

curing should happen at the factory when

the sensor is produced. Think of it like a

cheese or fine wine that requires aging in

order to achieve the expected character-

istics and level of quality. The more the

bonding layer has aged with use the more

stable the output will be.

Aging requires rigorously exercising the

sensor throughout the pressure range and

over temperature. This of course continues

to happen out in the field. The older sen-

sors become without sustaining damage

the more stable they typically become with

reference to drift rate.

The challenge comes when the bonding

layer has become disturbed by sustain-

ing a sharp and/or jarring impact—for

example, when the sensor is dropped

with some force onto a hard surface or a

pointed object is pressed against the sen-

sor diaphragm. This causes fractures and

stresses within the bonding layer.

The effect is to reset the aging that has

already occurred and will cause it to drift

until the bonding layer comes again to rest

with additional aging. To accelerate the

aging process requires cycling the pres-

sure and temperature over time. This is

why great care should be taken to ensure

the sensors are not abused and to avoid

objects entering the pressure port that are

not designed to be there.

It used to be commonplace among

users “in the know” to tap a pointed object

such as a pen or pencil against different

parts of the sensor diaphragm to adjust

the sensor output. Tapping in the center

would shift the output up and tapping on

the side would bring it down. What has

been discovered is that while this works

to adjust the sensor output, it also disturbs

the bonding layer and causes the sensor

output to begin drifting—the output might

be where the users wants it, but it will not

stay there.

If the output has not drifted to the point

that it is no longer possible to calibrate it,

then it may be possible to fix the sensor

without having to return it to the manufac-

turer by cycling temperature and pressure

to simulate the aging process. Of these two

influences, temperature has the greatest

influence on aging on sensors in the field.

This is not necessarily true during the pro-

duction process, but once the diaphragm

has been well exercised then temperature

cycling takes the dominant role in aging.

The user can cycle the temperature

as close to possible within the operating

temperature range of the sensor,

being certain not to exceed the range as

doing so could result in additional damage

to the sensor. Users can cycle from room

temperature to the maximum rating of the

sensor, allowing it to set or soak for a while

at the temperature extremes. After aging

the sensor should settle; if it doesn’t then

the sensor should be returned.


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Troubleshooting

Characterizing the nature of the change can identify the reason for

change in sensor performance. Knowing what type of influence is

imposed on the sensor enables the operator to narrow down the

root cause and develop a solution to the problem. Following is a

process to accomplish this.

Graph 4 shows the total combined effect of the previous graph

on the output. Installation shift is the easiest to identify and the

most simple to fix. Most always it has already been compensated

or adjusted for after installation. Graphically this can be done by

subtracting the magnitude of the installation shift from all subse-

quent sensor readings. If the performance is otherwise fairly level

then that was the problem.

Graph 5 shows the combined effect of barometric pressure

and drift on sensor output when the installation shift has been

removed. In this example the problem is obviously more than just

an installation shift. The next thing to do is to adjust for barometric

pressure changes. Most weather websites have historical baro-

metric data on file and available for downloading. By accessing

these it is possible to normalize the measurements against baro-

metric pressure variations. Doing so would, in this case, produce

the graph shown in Graph 3.

Unfortunately in many cases long-term data is unavailable to

analyze to determine the root cause of the problem. In these cases

the problem is usually either identified by an operator frustrated by

the need for frequent calibration or the output has shifted so much

that the sensor can no longer be calibrated into an acceptable

range.

In the case of frustration caused by frequent calibrations, if

each time that calibration is performed the operator notes in which

direction the output needed adjustment, it would only take a few

calibrations (I recommend no less than three but more is better)

before a determination could be made.

If the adjustment always had to be made in the same direc-

tion it is probably drift; but if the direction changes then it is either

the result of barometric pressure changes or installation shift.

Installation shift can be ruled out by always taking the measure-

ment before uninstalling the sensor and calibrating it after it is

installed. If the problem is still manifest after doing this then it is a

drift problem; if not then the problem is an installation shift issue.

In instances when the sensor output can no longer be calibrat-

ed, the problem is either drift or damage to the sensor. In this case

the best alternative is to return it to the supplier if it is within war-

ranty and discard it if it is not. FC

Elden Tolman is Product Development Engineer at Automation

Products Group (APG). Following a Bachelor of Science degree in

Engineering from Utah State University, Mr. Tolman has worked at

APG for nine years. In addition to developing products for several

industries, most predominantly in Oil & Gas, he has an integral role

in the design and testing of sensors to ensure EMI compliance. He

writes regularly for the APG blog at apgsensors.com/about-us/blog

and can be reached at 435 753-7300.

apgsensors.com


installation guidelines

Graph 3: Effect of Drift on Sensor Output Graph 5: Combined Effect of Pressure and Drift on Sensor Output

Graph 4: Total Combined Effect on Sensor Output

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flow updateBy Jesse Yoder, Ph.D.

The market for ultrasonic flowmeters is among the fastest

growing globally, as many end-users replace traditional

metering devices with ultrasonic systems. There is, in

particular, a great deal of attention being paid to ultrasonic flow-

meters for liquid and natural gas custody-transfer applications.

In fact, the market for ultrasonic meters for custody transfer of

natural gas is one of the fastest growing niches within the entire

flowmeter market.

The market for ultrasonic custody-transfer measurement is

growing at approximately the same rate as the market for mul-

tiphase custody-transfer measurement. Coriolis flowmeters trail

ultrasonic slightly, although the advent of large-line size Coriolis

meters is having an impact on this market.

In response to the growing demand for ultrasonic systems,

manufacturers are investing a lot of research and development

in this area, perhaps at the expense of other meters, such as

vortex and turbine. Suppliers have made significant progress in

enhancing the accuracy and reliability of ultrasonic flowmeters—

in part by increasing the number of paths and, thus, the number

of measurement points, and also by adding greater diagnostic

capability. Suppliers tout enhanced diagnostics as way to reduce

the need for upstream piping and to better determine sources of

error. Lately, new and more accurate meters have been developed

for custody transfer of petroleum liquids, as well as for custody-

transfer of natural gas.

Appreciating the Advantages and ImprovementsUltrasonic flowmeters have been gaining acceptance over the last

10 years as end-users come to understand and appreciate the

technology—although some end-users are just now discovering

the advantages and potential of ultrasonic flow measurement.

Advantages of ultrasonic flowmeters include high accuracy,

high reliability, long service life, high turndown ratios, relatively

low cost, low maintenance, no moving parts, valuable diagnostics,

and redundancy capabilities. Clamp-on ultrasonic flowmeters, in

particular, can offer redundancy by providing an easy check of an

inline meter.

In addition to the traditional advantages, suppliers are sig-

nificantly improving accuracy, sensitivity, and reliability. Energy,

including energy conservation, and other markets have the poten-

tial to create even more demand, particularly as the technology

improves to enable new applications. There is also an expansion

in the usage of non-contact flow measurement.

Average ultrasonic prices are holding their own or even declin-

ing, which adds to their appeal. In comparison, the average price

for Coriolis flowmeters is rising due to the recent introductions

of large-line size models in the 10-inch to 16-inch diameter

range. While the price for ultrasonic custody-transfer flowmeters

remains high, it is still significantly less than the price of compa-

rable Coriolis flowmeters for custody transfer.

Acceptance as the Highest Accuracy Gas TechnologyUltrasonic flowmeters have become accepted as the highest

accuracy technology for gas, and acceptance for liquids is fol-

lowing suit. Some users trust ultrasonic flowmeters so much that

they will use them with limited or no on-site proving. The accel-

eration in trust for gas ultrasonic meters began following U.S.

approvals for their use in custody transfer of natural gas in 1998.

Barriers to Growth for UltrasonicsThe growth of ultrasonic in-line devices for non-conductive liq-

uids is challenged by the growth in the acceptance of Coriolis

meters. Smaller line size Coriolis meters are getting less expen-

sive and, as noted earlier, Coriolis technology, which provides high

accuracy mass-based flow measurement, is now also making

inroads in larger line sizes. Vortex meters challenge ultrasonic as

well, as they are less expensive for liquid applications that don’t

require high turndown or high accuracy. For conductive liquids,

especially water, magnetic flowmeters continue to dominate the

market based on their overall good performance at lower prices

than ultrasonic.

As Coriolis suppliers have begun releasing larger line size

meters (up to 16 inches), they are generating some competition

for ultrasonic flowmeters in the oil & gas segment. And while they

cannot compete with ultrasonic meters that measure gas flow

Understanding UltrasonicsCustody transfer drives the market, but inline and clamp-ons gain popularity

Total Shipments of Insertion Ultrasonic Flowmeters Worldwide(Millions of Dollars)

Compound Annual Growth Rate (CAGR) = 7.5%

Source: Module A: The World Market for Clamp‐on and Insertion Ultrasonic FlowmetersPublished in April 2012 by Flow Research, Inc.

0.0

10.0

20.0

30.0

40.0

50.0

60.0

70.0

80.0

90.0

2011 2012 2013 2014 2015 2016


Source: Module A: The World Market for Clamp-on and Insertion Ultrasonic Flowmeters, Published in April 2012 by Flow Research, Inc.

Total Shipments of Clamp-On Ultrasonic Flowmeters Worldwide

(Millions of Dollars)

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in pipelines from 20 inches and up, they may take some market

share from ultrasonic meters in the 6- to 16-inch line sizes.

Growth in the Clamp-On Ultrasonic Flowmeter MarketWhile much of the attention to ultrasonic flowmeters had been

based on progress in inline or “spoolpiece” meters, suppliers

have also made important strides in clamp-on ultrasonic flowme-

ters. Clamp-on flowmeters have certain advantages over inline

and insertion meters✓ They are portable, and thus can be used at multiple loca-

tions and to measure flow in different pipes.✓ They are completely nonintrusive, since the transducers sit

outside the pipe and do not penetrate it. This completely elimi-

nates any possibility of pressure drop or flow disturbance. ✓ Clamp-on meters are also typically lower in cost than inline

meters, since there is no meter body to pay for.

Despite their advantages, clamp-on meters also have some

disadvantages:✓ Their signal passes through the pipe wall, which can

attenuate the signal.✓ The width of the pipe wall is sometimes an unknown factor

that can have an impact on the accuracy of the measurement.✓ The material from which the pipe wall is made can also

have an impact on the ultrasonic signal, thereby affecting accu-

racy and reliability.✓ Clamp-on meters tend not to be as accurate as inline

meters, and they are not approved for custody transfer.✓ Clamp-on meters need to be installed at the correct loca-

tion on the pipe in order to work properly. While every meter

needs to be installed properly, some are easier to install properly

than others. Because there is more variability in the location of

clamp-on than inline meters, they may be more difficult to install

correctly.

Some suppliers have attempted to meet these difficulties

by the use of tools to measure pipe thickness. Others, such as

Siemens, have introduced clamp-on meters already mounted

onto a spoolpiece so that pipe wall thickness and material is

already taken into account. Despite these improvements, it is safe

to say that inline meters are, generally speaking, more accurate

and reliable than clamp-on meters, but that clamp-on meters

have the advantage of lower cost and greater portability.

Growth in the Insertion Ultrasonic Flowmeter MarketInsertion flowmeters are designed for use in large line sizes

where an inline meter might be too expensive. While they are not

used for custody-transfer applications, they can be used when

very high accuracy is not required. Insertion ultrasonic meters are

used in the water & wastewater industry, which features large

line sizes. The accuracy requirements in this industry are typically

not as high because the fluid being measured is not as expensive

or valuable as it is in the oil & gas industry. Insertion ultrasonic

meters compete with insertion magnetic and insertion turbine

meters in the water & wastewater industry.

Insertion ultrasonic meters are also widely used for flare and

stack gas applications. There is a growing need for this measure-

ment worldwide, due to environmental considerations. However,

ultrasonic meters compete with thermal meters and differential-

pressure (DP) flowmeters with averaging Pitot tubes for these

applications. Ultrasonic meters for flare and stack gas applica-

tions often sell in the $20,000 price range.

Insertion meters are also used in process pipes where they

are installed by drilling a hole in the pipe and inserting ultrasonic

transducers. While this form of measurement often does not

achieve the same accuracy level as an inline or “spoolpiece”

meter, it does have a cost advantage since the cost of the meter

body is avoided. Insertion meters also have an advantage over

clamp-on meters since their signal does not have to go through

a pipe wall. This eliminates uncertainties that sometimes bedevil

clamp-on meters involving wall thickness or the material of con-

struction of the pipe wall.

A Role for All to PlayA great deal of research and development is currently going into

multipath ultrasonic flowmeters for custody transfer of gas and

liquids. This is resulting in greater growth in this market, as sup-

pliers increase the accuracy, reliability and diagnostic capabilities

of these inline meters. At the same time, important improvements

are occurring among clamp-on and insertion flowmeters. Look for

more improvements in all three technologies as the ultrasonic

flowmeter market continues to expand. FC

Jesse Yoder, Ph.D., is president of Flow Research Inc. in

Wakefield, Mass., a company he founded in 1998. He has 24

years of experience as an analyst and writer in process control.

Dr. Yoder can be reached at [email protected].

www.flowresearch.com

For more information on Flow Research’s research in the area of

ultrasonic flow measurement, see www.FlowUltrasonic.com.

flow update

Total Shipments of Insertion Ultrasonic Flowmeters Worldwide(Millions of Dollars)


Source: Module A: The World Market for Clamp‐on and Insertion Ultrasonic FlowmetersPublished in April 2012 by Flow Research, Inc.

0.0

10.0

20.0

30.0

40.0

50.0

60.0

70.0

80.0

90.0

2011 2012 2013 2014 2015 2016


Source: Module A: The World Market for Clamp-on and Insertion Ultrasonic Flowmeters, Published in April 2012 by Flow Research, Inc.

Total Shipments of Insertion Ultrasonic Flowmeters Worldwide

(Millions of Dollars)

© 2011 FMC Technologies. All rights reserved.

www.fmctechnologies.com

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best practices

Microbiologically Induced CorrosionUnderstanding the biological degradation of metals

The cost of corrosion to the U.S. economy is estimated at 3.1

percent of the Gross National Product, according to a recent

study.¹ That amounts to over $333 billon annually, which

exceeds the annual cost of all oil imports into the U.S. for 2007.²

Corrosion is the most common and costly failure mode

impacting engineered and structural materials, yet it tends to be

accepted as inevitable, precisely because it is so pervasive. The

same study, however, indicates that 40 percent of these costs, or

$133 billion, could be saved through the application of existing

practices and technologies. Although numbers of this magnitude

tend to be overwhelming, they translate into real costs and lost

revenue by industry, right down to individual manufacturers and

product end-users.

Microbologically Induced CorrosionThe term “corrosion” describes a number of processes driven by

a wide range of electro-chemical factors. At the root of these is

the inherent instability, at the atomic level, of most industrial met-

als, which predisposes them to return to their naturally occurring

form, oxides.

One of the more unusual forms of corrosion results from the

interaction of bacteria with a wide range of metals and alloys.

Microbiologically Induced Corrosion (MIC) technically functions

as an accelerant to more conventional corrosion processes. The

rate of acceleration, however, may be from 10 to 1000 times

conventional corrosion rates, requiring that MIC be addressed as

a distinct corrosion process from a practical standpoint.

MIC initiates and propagates primarily by two processes.

The first is the formation of corrosion cells on a metal surface.

Colonies of micro-organisms generate sticky biofilms with which

they adhere to their host surface and create a micro-environ-

ment that is significantly different from the surrounding metal.

Variations in dissolved oxygen, pH, and organic and inorganic

compounds in these micro-environments result in electrical

potential differences with the surrounding metal, producing highly

active corrosion cells.

The second is by direct chemical attack. The metabolic by-

products of many micro-organisms are highly corrosive. Two

related organisms—sulfur reducing bacteria (Disulfovibrio) and

sulfur oxidizing bacteria (Thiobacillus thiooxidans)—produce

hydrogen sulfide and sulfuric acid respectively. Localized sulfuric

acid concentrations from these by-products as high as 10 per-

cent have been observed. Other bacteria species produce a wide

range of organic acids, as well as ammonia.

Both aerobic bacteria, which thrive in an oxygenated environ-

ment, and anaerobic bacteria, which thrive in a minimal or non-

oxygen environment, have been documented in MIC. In some

cases, these two bacteria types share a symbiotic relationship, as

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Desulfovibrio vulgaris, a sulfur-reducing bacteria generate hydrogen

sulfide as a metabolic by-product. This species has been implicated in

MIC—Microbiologically Induced Corrosion—in iron, steel, stainless steel,

aluminum, zinc, and copper alloys.

aerobic bacteria deposit biofilms under which an oxygen-depleted

zone is formed at the metal interface. This oxygen-depleted zone

then becomes an ideal environment for the growth of anaerobic

bacteria colonies.

The formation of tubercles is also often associated with MIC.

Tubercles resemble blisters of corrosion product and are initiated

from biofilm deposits and iron oxidizing bacteria, particularly at

low flow velocity areas in fluid piping systems. The growth and

decomposition cycle of the tubercle releases sulfates and pro-

vides a site for anaerobic sulfate-reducing bacteria on the interior

of the blister. Tubercles also form an efficient oxygen concentra-

tion cell, dissolving iron under the blister. Unchecked tubercle

growth in fluid transport systems will severely limit or even com-

pletely block fluid flow.

Contact of the metal’s surface with water is a pre-condition

to MIC. Since the bacteria species responsible for MIC pose no

human health risk, “safe” drinking water systems are just as

By Robert Hutchinson



"One of the more unusual forms of cor-

rosion results from the interaction of

bacteria with a wide range of metals

and alloys. Microbiologically Induced

Corrosion (MIC) technically functions

as an accelerant to more conventional

corrosion processes."

Classic hallmark of a widespread MIC failure type. This cross-section

shows a Type 304 stainless steel heat exchanger tube that failed by MIC

at the longitudinal seam weld, perforating the 0.065” tube wall. MIC

began at the tube ID due to an anaerobic bacteria species introduced

through incomplete drying following hydrostatic testing.

much at risk as non-potable water systems. Cooling systems and

heat exchangers, wells, fire and agricultural automatic sprinkler

systems, and liquid storage tanks are among the more obvi-

ous potential sites for MIC to develop. However, fluid products

not normally associated with water, such as gasoline, oil, and

machining and cutting lubricants all contain at least trace levels

of water, which are sufficient to support bacteria that initiate MIC.

Virtually all processed fluid products, including food and bever-

age, petrochemical, and other commercial and industrial products

also contain varying amounts of water and are susceptible to MIC.

MIC occurs as both general corrosion and pitting corrosion,

though localized pitting is the more definitive form and more

likely to result in dramatic system failures. Low flow areas in

circulating systems such as heat exchangers and process piping

are particularly susceptible since these “stalled flow” locations

provide bacteria with the opportunity to attach to the tube or pipe

surface. At both microscopic and macroscopic features, fluid

flow “stalling” occurs at any crevice, joint, weld, or imperfec-

tion, and these are typical locations for MIC. Interrupted flow in

circulating fluid systems, such as weekend, over night, or even

brief maintenance shutdowns, also provides the opportunity for

bacterial adhesions and the initiation of MIC. Once the bacteria

are established, the corrosion process will proceed even after

flow is restored. Hydro-static testing, in which a system is filled

with fluid, pressurized, leak tested, and drained—but often not

completely dried—is a sequence repeatedly seen in the initiation

of MIC failures. This testing usually immediately precedes plac-

ing the system in service, and failure may not occur for several

months. When failure does eventually occur, the hydrostatic test

and stagnant fluid residue are often overlooked and, as such, the

failure is misdiagnosed as chloride induced corrosion.

Static fluid systems, such as sumps and storage tanks are

receptive environments for MIC. Corners, fittings, joints and welds

are again vulnerable and in the case of fuels and non-water solu-

ble fluids, the interface between the fluid and any water contami-

nant is particularly susceptible. MIC in underground storage tanks

and pipelines, particularly in moist clay soils, has been widely

observed despite protective tar, asphalt or polymeric coatings.

While effective in preventing conventional corrosion, any delami-

nation or bond failure of the coating provides an ideal bacterial

growth environment.

Virtually all industrial metal alloys are subject to MIC, with the

exception of titanium alloys. Testing suggests that the few stain-

less steel alloys containing molybdenum at levels of 6 percent or

more are also highly resistant to MIC. These limitations severely

restrict material substitution as a strategy to mitigate MIC.

Metal Alloys & Their Susceptibility to CorrosionCarbon Steels—Generally susceptible to conventional corrosion

processes, carbon steels are also widely affected by a broad

range of MIC implicated bacteria. Considerations of cost and ease

of fabrication make carbon steel the material of choice in many

water storage and transport applications, as well as the most

widely reported material in MIC failures. Protective coatings gen-

erally have limited preventive value.

Stainless Steels—These alloys develop tough chromium oxide

surface layers from which they derive their corrosion resistance.

Once the oxide layer is breached, however, they are particularly

vulnerable to both conventional and MIC corrosion. Welds are

best practices


MIC Failure Example 1

This sequence shows several

steps in the analysis of pit-

ting corrosion in stainless

steel tubing from a water

bottling plant. The plant

processed purified water,

normally a media relatively

immune to MIC. However,

hydrostatic-testing performed

during installation of the

process piping introduced

anaerobic bacteria, which

adhered to several tube ID

welds and adjacent areas,

resulting in perforation of the

tubes (above).

The perforations were

examined using a Scanning

Electron Microscope, which

revealed biological adhe-

sions in and around the pits.

Several entries leading to

apparent sub-surface voids

were also observed (at

arrows).

Polished cross sections

through the pits revealed

internal cavities in the 0.060”

thick tube wall, again, a hall-

mark of anaerobic bacteria

that adhered to the tube ID

surface and congregated

in these oxygen depleted

cavities formed by corrosive

attack from their acidic by-

products. Because MIC usu-

ally initiates at the ID of tub-

ing, extensive corrosion and,

eventually, perforation occurs

before any visible evidence of

attack is apparent externally.

Micro-chemical analysis

of the biological adhe-

sions, by Energy Dispersive

Spectroscopy (EDS), identi-

fied high levels of carbon (C),

oxygen (O) and sulfur (S).

These elements are consis-

tent with sulfur reducing and

oxidizing anaerobic bacteria

species implicated in MIC.


best practices

highly susceptible due to potential alloy inhomogenaity. Highly

stressed components are potential initiation sites for MIC induced

stress corrosion cracking.

Aluminum Alloys—One of the earliest recognized high-profile

cases of MIC was of aluminum jet aircraft fuel tanks in the 1950s.

Water contaminant in the kerosene-based fuel and condensation

in the tanks provided the media in which the bacteria multiplied.

Research indicates some bacteria species may utilize kerosene

and other fossil fuels as a nutrient source. Since this landmark

case, MIC has been widely recognized as a significant problem in

both tank and structural aircraft components.

Copper Alloys—Typically, higher alloy content lowers the corro-

sion-resistance of copper alloys, although relatively pure copper

is also susceptible to MIC. Copper and copper alloys are affected

by a wide range of bacterial by-products including carbon dioxide,

hydrogen sulfide, and organic and inorganic acids. Cold worked

or stressed copper alloy components are especially susceptible

to stress corrosion cracking from ammonia and the bacteria that

generate it. Selective corrosion, such as de-zincification in brass

alloys, has also been observed in MIC failures.Nickel Alloys—

These alloys are often used in high-pressure, high-flowrate appli-

cations, such as pumps, turbine blades, valves and evaporators.

Nickel alloy components in these systems are vulnerable to MIC

during shut down intervals and stagnant water conditions. Nickel-

chromium alloys exhibit a degree of resistance to MIC.

Prevention & AnalysisThe first line of defense against MIC is cleanliness. General corro-

sion prevention techniques are a good starting point, since once

corrosion begins, the introduction of MIC-producing bacteria will

greatly accelerate the process. Once bacteria are established,

both anaerobic bacteria that “tunnel” into metal and other forms

that adhere under biofilms are extremely difficult to completely

remove from the affected system. Water and other fluids should

be monitored for solids and debris content. These contaminants

provide nutrients to bacteria, accelerating their proliferation.

Filtering of fluids is useful in this respect. Water content in fuel,

lubricants and similar products should be monitored and removed

when excessive levels are reached.

Material substitution is of limited value since, as noted, MIC

affects almost all industrial metals. There are, however, several

materials that are impervious or resistant to MIC where cost

and compatibility justify their use. These materials are generally

extremely expensive and in some cases, such as titanium, require

specialized fabrication methods. In the case of underground

pipelines and other fluid transport and storage systems, alternate

non-metallic materials such as PVC have significantly limited MIC

where these materials can be substituted. Local building codes,

however, often exclude this option in structural applications.

Design to minimize low-flow areas, crevices, welds, etc., can

reduce the likelihood of MIC but there are significant limitations

to how far this approach can be taken in the design and manu-

facture of practical systems. Biocides are widely used to treat MIC Failure Example 2

“Weeping” of fluid from fluid transport or storage systems

is a precursor to full blown perforation by MIC. The source

of “weeping” often appears as a subtle discoloration on

the tube or vessel surface as shown at the center of the

circled area.

Examination of these

subtle discolorations

by Scanning Electron

Microscopy reveals

fine micro-pitting and a

“sponge” like morphology

as the interior MIC attack

nears the outer surface.

Probing this “sponge”

like surface collapsed

the thin crust of

remaining metal at the

surface, exposing the

sub-surface cavity cre-

ated by anaerobic bac-

teria and their sulfuric

acid by-product.

A cross section through the discolored feature reveals the

extent of corrosive MIC damage that has penetrated com-

pletely through the material wall thickness.

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best practices

facture of practical systems. Biocides are widely used to treat

incoming water. These, however, are highly toxic and expensive

and require regular monitoring of concentration. Their toxicity

and potential contaminative effect precludes their use in any food

products and many process fluids.

The parameters in which MIC can occur are extremely varied

and include multiple bacteria species, a broad range of affected

materials, and almost endless environmental diversity. As a result,

MIC prevention and mitigation is equally varied. Accurate analysis

of the cause and effects of each individual MIC failure is an

essential first step in selecting from this range of solutions. FC

Rob Hutchinson is managing director of Metallurgical Associates

Inc. (MAI), a materials testing and consulting company with offic-

es in Waukesha, Wis.and Atlanta, Ga. He has 32 years experience

in failure analysis, manufacturing process evaluation, scan-

ning electron microscopy, and energy dispersive spectroscopy.

Currently, he directs strategic planning, marketing and manage-

ment at MAI. Mr. Hutchinson can be reached at robh@metassoc.

com or 262 798-8098.

metassoc.com

References

1. Corrosion Costs and Preventative Strategies in the United

States, Federal Highway Administration (1999)

2. Imported Oil and U.S. National Security, Rand Corporation (2009

MIC Failure Example 3

Pitting and general corrosion are both associated with MIC,

sometimes in the same corrosion failure. The interior of

this carbon steel storage tank exhibits extensive corrosion

of both types.

Examination by

Scanning Electron

Microscopy revealed

numerous tubercles on

the corroded tank ID

surface. Tubercles are

found in association

with MIC producing

iron oxidizing aerobic

bacteria.

The interface of the

tubercle with the metal

substrate beneath it offers

an oxygen depleted envi-

ronment that is ideal for

anaerobic MIC bacteria.

Ultrasonic cleaning of a

section of the corroded

tank to remove the tuber-

cles revealed small deep

pits suggesting connected sub-surface cavities consistent

with sulfur reducing bacteria.

Cross sec-

tions of the

tank confirm

anaerobic

MIC bacterial

activity indi-

cated by the

presence of

characteristic

sub-surface voids. This failure demonstrates the symbiotic

relationship often found between two or more MIC impli-

cated bacterial species, producing two corrosion modes

(general and pitting) in a single corrosion failure.

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automation fileBy Matt Migliore

With the concept of cloud computing

quickly becoming the new norm

for consumer and enterprise appli-

cations, industry now seems to be raising

an eyebrow and seriously evaluating the

cost-benefit of leveraging service-based

software and information technology infra-

structure. Yet, while the economic benefits

of cloud computing are undeniable, the

historically cautious industrial segment

figures to employ cloud-based solutions

in a markedly more conservative fashion

than what is currently being seen on the

consumer and enterprise side.

Cloud Computing DefinedCloud computing is an intentionally nebu-

lous phrase for describing the concept of

deploying software and IT infrastructure

as a service. The core difference between

cloud and traditional methods of comput-

ing is that data, software and computa-

tion over a network are not housed or

facilitated via a personal laptop or desktop

workstation, but rather they are accessed

on a remote server (i.e., in the cloud) via

a Web browser or mobile application. The

key advantage of cloud computing is that

it provides the economies of scale and

ability to manage software and databases

and infrastructure assets on a system-wide

basis, thus providing more flexibility to

make changes and updates without having

to address each and every device within a

given network. For the end-user, this cuts

significant cost out of the IT system and

application administration process.

Areas of ConcernFrom an industrial perspective, the idea of

cloud computing raises some obvious con-

cerns in the form of security and control.

Regarding control, some industrial end-

users considering the jump into cloud com-

puting will likely be uneasy with the fact

that if there is a problem with the network

or the applications running on it, they won’t

be able to scream and yell at an in-house

network admin. Instead, they’ll have to

lodge a complaint (i.e., open a ticket) with

a third-party provider who may or may not

have higher priorities at any given moment.

And on the security side, concern over

remotely hosting sensitive data is, and will

continue to be, an area of significant con-

cern—far more so than it is for consumer

and even enterprise end-users. After all,

while the compromise of data in a Gmail

or SalesForce.com account would certainly

be problematic, it isn’t quite on the level of,

for example, a security breach in a system

responsible for a key pressure control on

an offshore drilling platform.

“When we’ve talked about the cloud to

our customers, one of the things that they

always bring up is the security issue,” says

Joe McMullen, product marketing manager

for Invensys Operations Management.

“They have concerns—and rightfully so—

about exposing something to a service that

may be subject to hacking.”

Areas of OpportunityInvensys Operations Management (iom.

invensys.com), a provider of automation

and information technologies, services,

and consulting to global manufacturing

and infrastructure industries, is a propo-

nent of industrial cloud computing, and it

is working to educate end-users on how

cloud-based solutions can be effectively

employed to the benefit of plant and field-

based systems. Invensys sees the two

obvious areas of opportunity for industrial-

grade cloud computing as business pro-

cess management (BPM) and real-time

reporting. Invensys believes BPM and real-

time reporting are particularly well suited

for cloud computing because they are not

the sort of critical control-based systems

industrial end-users would likely be reluc-

tant to host in the cloud, yet they do pro-

vide real value in terms of the potential for

improved visibility and responsiveness in a

range of process application scenarios.

Along this line, Invensys acquired Skelta

Software (skelta.com), a privately held

company headquartered in Bangalore,

India. Founded in 2003, Skelta provides

enterprise-wide business process man-

agement (BPM) and advanced workflow

software solutions for companies involved

in manufacturing and infrastructure opera-

tions. Following the acquisition, Invensys

this year announced an initiative to migrate

the Skelta BPM platform to the Windows

Azure cloud as part of an alliance agree-

ment with Microsoft Corp. Through its part-

nership with Microsoft, Invensys will also

be hosting its Wonderware Historian tiered

real-time database to the Windows Azure

cloud. Wonderware Historian is designed

to collect a variety of plant data and pres-

ent that data in ways that enable effective

decision-making in support of productivity

improvement initiatives.

In addition, Invensys is working

with Sarla Analytics to leverage Sarla’s

SmartGlance smart phone/device report-

ing server and the Wonderware Mobile

Reporting Connectors to provide real-time

smart phone connectivity to Wonderware

Historian and other Invensys data sources,

such as MES (Manufacturing Execution

Systems) and CEM (Corporate Energy

Management) applications. The solution is

designed to integrate smart phones and

Getting Your Head In the CloudHow IT as a service can benefit the world of industry

“If you can take process information and results and push those results on the cloud and push them to a handheld device, [users] can make quick deci-sions that will really help improve the efficiency of the process and limit downtime.”

cloud computing to keep plant decision-makers and operators

fully aware of the plant’s performance.

Virtualization: A Good First StepAccording to Maryanne Steidinger, director of Advanced

Applications Product Marketing for Invensys Operations

Management, a good first step on the way to hosting IT on the

cloud is virtualization. She says that one of the core goals of

industrial IT systems going forward is to find ways to strategi-

cally roll out applications in ways that enable the deployment

and management of multiple users in ways that are both

economical and efficient. Virtualization, which essentially takes

a piece of software and encapsulates it in a proverbial box so

that any software system can run what is inside it, enables

industrial organizations to achieve these goals. No longer do

users have to worry about buying new hardware and new

software to accommodate operating system upgrades, for

example. Steidinger says this concept is particularly well suited

for industrial end-users, who generally hold onto technology

longer than users on the consumer or enterprise side. “What

virtualization allows you to do is take a physical product

that is running Windows 7, but your software runs on XP, so

instead of buying a new OS and hardware, you virtualize,” says

Steidinger.

The PossibilitiesGiven the conservative nature and security concerns of indus-

trial end-users, Steidinger says she doesn’t see real-time

control of critical processes ever being handled in the cloud.

Rather, she says the flexibility cloud-based solutions offer in

terms of the ability to respond and report based on process

information holds tremendous potential for industrial end-

users.

“Once you take those applications and you host them on

the cloud, you really are changing the whole paradigm,” says

McMullen. “If you can take process information and results and

push those results on the cloud and push them to a handheld

device, [users] can make quick decisions that will really help

improve the efficiency of the process and limit downtime.”

Globalization has made business in general far more com-

petitive than it was even 10 years ago, and, as such, Steidinger

says it is vitally important for businesses to make fast deci-

sions to provide the most cost-effective end product possible.

With cloud computing, much of the expense associated with

hardware and software upgrades and compatibility issues can

be relieved—and that relief is there not only for consumer and

enterprise users, but also for those in the world of industry.

Matt Migliore is the executive director of content for

Flow Control magazine. He can be reached at Matt@

GrandViewMedia.com.



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Literature

Fluid Handling Reference Shelf

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Advertiser Index

BC = Back Cover - IBC = Inside Back Cover - IFC = Inside Front Cover

Name Page RS #Name Page RS #

Alicat Scientific 37 22

Ashcroft Inc 15 10

Assmann Corporation

of America 8 6

Assured Automation 19 12

Badger Meter 45 202

Brooks Instrument 24 14

Burger & Brown

Engineering – Smartflow 45 204

CME Aerospace Control

Products 45, 48 203, 26

Cox Flow Measurement 31 18

Dynamic Flow Computers 27 16

Endress+Hauser IBC, BC 27,28

FLEXIM Americas Corp 39, 43 23, 25

Flow Research Inc 23 13

Fluid Line Products Inc 9,45 7,201

FMC Technologies 33 19

GF Piping Systems IFC 1

GPIMeters.com 13 9

Great Plains Industries 18 11

Haskel International Inc 45 205

John C Ernst Company 6 30

Lee Company, The 5 4

Magnetrol International 41 24

Max Machinery 16 NA

Nanmac Corporation 35 21

Neoperl Inc 34 20

Omega Engineering Inc 1, 45 2, 200

Porter Instrument – Parker 25 15

Pump Guy Seminar 21 NA

Sage Metering Inc 11 29

Spirax Sarco 7 5

Spitzer & Boyes LLC 12,40 8,31

Veris 41 24

Viega 3 3

WEFTEC 29 17

Dwyer Instruments 44 1 104

L.J. Star 44 105

NewAge Industries 28 100

Omega Engineering Inc 44 106

Parker PAGE International

Hose 28 101

Swagelok Company 28 102

TRICOR 44 107

Watson-Marlow 28 103

Name Page RS #

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think tank

BOYLE’S LAW

CAPACITIVE GAUGE

DIAPHRAGM

MANOMETER

PRESSURE

PRESSURE CONTROLLER

PRESSURE GAUGE

PLASMA SHIELD

REGULATOR

REMOTE SENSOR

STRAIN GAUGE

TRANSDUCER

VACUUM

VESSEL

THROTTLE VALVE

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One lucky entrant who has solved the puzzle correctly will win a

$50 Best Buy gift card. Best Buy is North America’s leading con-

sumer electronics retailer. You can use your gift card in the store or

online at www.BestBuy.com.

Fax solution to: (205) 408-3799If there are no completely correct entries, a winner will be

selected from among the entries with the most words found.

Solve This Word SearchWin a $50 Best Buy Gift Card

May Winner: Robert Bruzina, Application Engineer,

Honeywell (Cincinnati, Ohio)GLOSSARY OF TERMS: Pressure Measurement

BOYLE’S LAW: An ideal gas law that states that the pressure of a fixed mass of gas at a constant temperature is inversely proportional to the volume of the gas. Stated another way: the product of the pressure and volume of an ideal gas will always be equal as long as the mass and temperature are constant. (EDITOR’S NOTE: The apostrophe is not included in the word search puzzle.)

CAPACITIVE GAUGE: A type of sensor that measures pressure based on a change in capacitance. Molecules strike a diaphragm inside the sensor and cause its shape to change. The shape change causes the distance between the diaphragm and a second reference plate to change, which is measured as a change in capacitance between the two plates that is proportional to pressure.

DIAPHRAGM: A sheet of semi-flexible material commonly used in a capacitive gauge to measure pressure. The material and the dimensions of the diaphragm are controlled to allow repeatable measurement between instruments, and each gauge is commonly calibrated for accuracy.

MANOMETER: A pressure sensor that compares the pressure where a measurement is desired to a reference pressure. The reference pressure for a pressure gauge is com-monly atmospheric pressure, while a vacuum capacitance manometer commonly uses a hard vacuum for the reference pressure.

PRESSURE: A measure of force per unit area that a medium exerts on a surface. The measured force is the result of the molecules in the liquid or gas striking the surface in question.

PRESSURE CONTROLLER: An automated instrument made up of a pressure sensor, a control valve, and a PID controller that maintains desired gas pressure(s) in a system. After receiving the desired pressure electronically, the pressure controller adjusts the control valve position to let the flowrate necessary to maintain the desired pressure pass through the instrument.

PRESSURE GAUGE: An instrument that provides a display of pressure in the system. These can be configured to provide indication only, some can include an electrical pres-sure alarm, and others can provide an electrical output of the pressure reading.

PLASMA SHIELD: A component in some vacuum capacitance manometers that protect the diaphragm from process byproduct deposits. Process byproducts that deposit onto the diaphragm reduce the accuracy of the measurement and reduce the lifetime of the manometer in the process.

REGULATOR: An instrument used to maintain a fixed level of pressure to a process. These are often paired with pressure gauges, and are commonly used to maintain a desired pressure out of a gas tank that’s being fed into a process.

REMOTE SENSOR: A pressure control configuration where the pressure sensor is mounted remotely in relation to the pressure control device. Some vessel pressure con-trol applications mount the pressure sensor on the vessel itself, and the actual control is performed by a pressure controller on a pipe varying gas flow into the vessel, or some-times by a throttle valve varying gas flow leaving the vessel.

STRAIN GAUGE: A type of sensor that measures pressure based on a change in resis-tance. Molecules strike a strain gauge of a fixed resistance inside the sensor and cause its shape to change. The shape change causes the resistance of the strain gauge to change, which is measured and is proportional to pressure.

TRANSDUCER: An instrument that changes energy from one form to another. A pressure transducer commonly changes the mechanical energy imparted on a strain gauge into an electrical output that represents pressure.

VACUUM: A measure of pressure below atmospheric pressure and above an abso-lute pressure of zero. Pressures in this range are commonly expressed in absolute units.

VESSEL: A closed volume where a desired reaction occurs that typically benefits from pressure control to maximize output. This can be a chemical/biochemical reaction that occurs within a narrow positive pressure range, or a vacuum applica-tion that occurs at certain vacuum levels with certain gases present.

THROTTLE VALVE: A valve that provides a variable restriction to gas flow by incre-mentally rotating between an open and closed position. These are commonly used between a vacuum chamber and a vacuum pump to control the amount of gas leaving the chamber to maintain a desired pressure.

The terms and definitions for this word search were provided by Brooks Instrument (BrooksInstrument.com), a manufacturer of flow, pressure and level technology.


Variable area flowmeters tend to have their accuracy state-

ments expressed as a percentage of:

A. Actual flow

B. Full-scale flow

C. Meter capacity

D. Calibrated span

Commentary Flowmeters that have an accuracy statement expressed as a

percentage of actual flow usually have a well-defined output at

zero flow. For example, with no flow, vortex shedders do not shed

vortices, positive-displacement flowmeters do not rotate, and

differential-pressure flowmeters exhibit zero pressure differential.

All of these are well-defined conditions. This is not the case with

variable area flowmeters where the float may fall, but it will not

necessarily be at a well-defined position.

In addition, the float can stick during operation (and espe-

cially at low flow), causing measurement errors that would

exceed a reasonable percentage of actual flow. Answer A is not

correct.

The accuracy of variable area flowmeters is typically specified

as a percentage of full-scale flow, so Answer B is correct. For

variable area flowmeters, meter capacity is the same as the full-

scale flow, so Answer C is also correct. Answer D could be cor-

rect if the variable area flowmeter is calibrated at full-scale flow.

Additional Complicating FactorsThe percentage of full-scale statement could also be expressed

as an absolute flow error (such as +/-1 liter per minute) by multi-

plying the full-scale accuracy statement by the full-scale flow. FC

David W. Spitzer is a regular contributor to Flow Control maga-

zine and a principal in Spitzer and Boyes, LLC offering engi-

neering, seminars, strategic, marketing consulting, distribution

consulting and expert witness services for manufacturing and

automation companies. He has more than 35 years of experience

and has written over 10 books and 250 articles about flow mea-

surement, instrumentation and process control.

Mr. Spitzer can be reached at 845 623-1830 or

www.spitzerandboyes.com. Click on the “Products” tab in the

navigation menu to find his “Consumer Guides” to various flow

and level measurement technologies.

think tank

quiz corner: Variable Area Flowmeter Accuracy Statements

JUNE SOLUTION: Hose Selection


By David W. Spitzer

The Proline Prosonic Flow B200 is the first true 2-wire,

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content directly in the pipe without additional devices. This

one of a kind feature opens up completely new perspectives:

s Continuous, around the clock monitoring of

gas quantity and quality

s Fast and targeted reaction in case of interference

in the fermentation process

s Efficient process control and energy balancing

by calculating additional characteristic values

(Corrected volume, calorific value, energy flow)

www.us.endress.com/prosonic-flow-b200

New perspectives without the compromise.

Industry-optimized ultrasonic

flowmeter reliably measures biogas

from anaerobic digesters or landfills

Endress+Hauser, Inc.2350 Endress PlaceGreenwood, IN [email protected]

Sales: 888-ENDRESSService: 800-642-8737Fax: 317-535-8498


Endress+Hauser, Inc2350 Endress PlaceGreenwood, IN [email protected]

Sales: 888-ENDRESSService: 800-642-8737Fax: 317-535-8498

Your instruments tuned to perfection.

Just as a piano needs to be tuned to ensure a perfect pitch, so do c ritical process measurement instruments. Calibration servi ces

from Endress+Hauser deliver the skills and tools necessary to ensure your quality, safety, or environmental measurement devi ces

are tuned to perfection. Calibration from Endress+Hauser – let us help you stay in tune! www.us.endress.com/calibration


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