MHICopy 3 B

DEPARTMENT OF THE ARMY FiELD MANUAL

LEADERSHIP

DEPARTMENT OF THE ARMY * MARCH 1951

AGO 3167C-Feb

DEPARTMENT OF THE ARMY FIELD MANUALFM 22-10

This manual supersedes TC 6, 19 July 1948 and Department of theArmy Pamphlet 22-1, 28 December 1948

LEADERSHIP

DEPARTMENT OF THE ARMY · MARCH 1951

United States Government Printing OfficeWashington: 1951

AGO 3167C

DEPARTMENT OF THE ARMYWASHINGTON 25, D. C., 6 March' 1951

FM 22-10 is published for the information and guidarof all concerned.

[AG 353 (17 Jan 51)]

BY ORDER OF THE SECRETARY OF THE ARMY:

OFFICIAL: J. LAWTON COLLINSV'DWARD F. WITSELL Chief of StaffMajor General, USA United States ArmyThe Adjutant General

DISTRIBUTION:

GSUSA (5); SSUSA (5); Adm Svc (2); Tech Svc(2); Arm & Svc Bd (2); AFF (40); AA Comd(5); OS Maj Comd (5); Base Comd (5); MDW(5); A (20); CHQ (5); D (5); B (5); R (5)Bn (5); C (5) except 5, 19 (10), 6, 7, 17, 44 (15);FC (2); Sch (25); PMS&T (2).

-- explanation of distribution formula, see SR 310-

AGO 3167C

FOREWORDPURPOSE OF THE STUDY OF LEADERSHIP

Today, more than ever in history, the Army is inneed of leadership of the highest caliber. With theincrease in the complexity of warfare, the scienceof war is increasingly dependent upon humanguidance. No matter how complicated it may be-come, war is always waged by men. The man wholeads and the men who are led win wars. Everymember of our military force must be a leader,actually or potentially.

The purpose of this manual is to provide mili-tary leaders, actual and prospective, with a prac-tical guide for applying the principles of leader-ship. In the ultimate sense, leadership is notinherent; it depends upon traits which can bedeveloped, and upon the application of techniqueswhich can be learned. It is an art which can beacquired, cultivated, and practiced by anyone whopossesses the mental and physical ability and themoral and ethical integrity expected of a com-missioned or noncommissioned officer. Developingthe art is a continuing process which involves therecognition and practice of the basic traits ofleadership and the understanding and applicationof sound leadership principles and techniques.

This manual stresses the importance of self-improvement. The principles, character traits,and procedures set forth are offered as an assist-ance to the leader in the problem of controllingothers. By applying these procedures to his ownpractice and by analyzing his own traits of char-

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acter, the leader will possess a yardstick for meas-uring his own success or failure.

Despite this guide, it constantly must be bornein mind that successful leaders of the past werenot all of the same pattern; nor did they all use thesame methods of attaining success. All of them,however, consciously or unconsciously understoodthe basic concepts of leadership and successfullypracticed many of the techniques presented in thismanual.

The principles and techniques presented hereinare the result of an analysis of outstanding leader-ship displayed by successful leaders, both militaryand civilian, of this and other countries. Thoroughstudy of these, combined with actual practice withtroops, will develop and foster the high standardof leadership so urgently demanded by our Armytoday.

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CONTENTS

I'aragraph X l'aocCHAPTER 1. BASIC CONCEPTS_ __ _._ _ 1-8 1

2. FUNDAMENTALS OF LEADERSHIP.Section I. Leadership principles and 9-11 10

traits.II. Leadership techniques. _ 12-16 18

CHAPTER 3. SPECIAL LEADERSHIP TECHNIQUES.Section I. Introduction ____.- _______ _-_ 17 36

II. Combat zone _______-___-. 18-20 36III. Communications zone _____. 21-22 45IV. Leadership in mobilization 23-27 48

training.V. Leadership in demobilization __28-30 56

VI. Leadership of occupation 31-33 60forces.

VII. Leadership of minority groups 34-35 63VIII. Leadership of female groups... 36 65

AGO 3167C

This manual supersedes TC 6, 19 July 1948, and De-partnment of the Army Pamphlet 22-1, 28 December 1948

CHAPTER 1

BASIC CONCEPTS

1. DEFINITIONS

a. Commander. A title of an officer in charge ofa company, battery, or larger unit.

b. Leader. A military person who possessesqualities necessary to direct others.

c. Leadership. Leadership is the art of influenc-ing human behavior-the ability to handle men.The techniques will vary depending on the size ofthe command, the types of men, the personality ofthe commander, and the particular situation.

d. Leadership Principle. A leadership principleis one of the fundamental rules, characteristics,traits or policies which is applied by a leader tocontrol or guide the actions of his subordinates.

e. Leadership Technique. A leadership tech-nique is a method of applying leadership principles.

f. Leadership Trait. A leadership trait is a dis-tinguishing personal quality that is helpful in theexercise of leadership.

2. CHARACTERISTICS OF LEADERSHIP

a. Essential Nature of Leadership. The militaryprofession has no monopoly on leadership. Inevery walk of life, in every industry, in every

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government, in every phase of human endeavor,there are leaders and there are followers' Progressand success are dependent upon the quality andefficacy of leadership.

b. Elements of Leadership. Leadership is theart of influencing human behavior-the ability tohandle men. The art of influencing behavior, thevery essence of leadership, in turn involves under-standing, analyzing, predicting, and controllingman's behavior. Also involved in successful leader-ship is the will to lead, together with the characterwhich inspires confidence. Undoubtedly, there arecertain inherent characteristics which may aid inthe development of leadership. Yet, there are as-suredly certain men possessing desirable leader-ship traits who have never attained the stature ofgreat leaders. Likewise, there are men deficient incertain of these traits who have attained this stat-ure. Any theory that leadership is solely inheritedmust be rejected. Leadership is intangible only tothe extent that we make it so. Any reasonably in-telligent, morally sound, forceful man, no matterhow inexperienced, can become acquainted withthe component elements of leadership. These ele-ments may be studied, practiced, learned, and ap-plied, just as any other human accomplishmentmay be learned and mastered.

c. The Leader and the Small Group. Everyleader, whether civilian or military, actually main-tains close personal contact with only a smallgroup, regardless of the number of men ultimatelycontrolled by him. Inevitably, he must dependupon that small group in order to make his will

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known and to execute his purp se. In the realm ofthe military, we refer to the small group as im-mediate subordinates and staff.

d. Military Leadership. Military leadership'isthe art of influencing and directing men to anassigned goal in such a way as to obtain theirobedience, confidence, respect, and loyal coopera-tion. It is indispensable to success in combat. Likeall leadership, it is dependent upon personal traitsand upon the application of recognized techniques.The personal traits can be developed, and the tech-niques can be learned.

3. RELATIONSHIP BETWEEN COMMAND ANDLEADERSHIP

a. Authoritarian and Persuasive Leadership.There are two kinds of leadership, authoritarianand persuasive. One who is predominantly of theauthoritarian type normally is recognized by thedogmatic use of authority or power. The persua-sive type of leadership takes into considerationthe human element with all its complexity andwith all its differentiation of the physical, mental,and moral capabilities and limitations of the indi-vidual. To a great extent, the persuasive leaderbases his skill in leadership upon example andability, with high standards of discipline and effici-ency for himself as well as for his followers. Thismanual is concerned solely with the developmentof the persuasive type of leadership.

b. The Exercise of Command. Command is theauthority that a member of the military profession

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lawfully exerts over subordinates by virtue of hisrank and assignment. Leadership can be exercisedby any one at any time irrespective of the frame-work of command. It is recognized that in anygroup some individual will emerge as the leader,even though no command or organizational struc-ture is present. Individuals in coordinate capaci-ties exercise leadership in their dealing with theirequals outside the immediate command structure.In general, however, we think of military leader-ship as being exercised within the commandframework. Therefore, in one sense, militaryleadership is the proper exercise of command.

c. Accompaniments of Command. Command inthe Army is accompanied by responsibility involv-ing special trust and confidence. Command, withits ramifications of administration, planning, exe-cuting, supervising, and coordinating, is the pri-mary reason for the military leader's existence.The leader is responsible not only for initiating ac-tion, but for supervising all activities within hiscommand. In this responsibility for the general ad-ministration of a group, it is his duty to receive,comply with, and execute instructions with exact-ness and thoroughness, regardless of his personalfeelings.

4. OBJECTIVE OF MILITARY LEADERSHIP

The objective of military leadership is the crea-tion and maintenance of an organization whichwill loyally and willingly accomplish any reason-able task assigned or indicated, and will initiate

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suitable action in the absence of orders. Theproper application of the principles of leadershipto a command can create an efficient well-disci-plined organization possessing high morale andesprit de corps.

5. RESPONSIBILITIES OF LEADERSHIP

a. General. The responsibilities of the leaderare twofold-accomplishment of his mission, andthe fulfillment of his responsibilities to his men.Man is the fundamental instrument of war. Otherinstruments may change, new weapons may becreated and new modes of defense may be devised,but man, the fundamental instrument, remainsconstant. The leader must be concerned with thedesires, needs, and mental state of his men. If theleader knows and understands certain basic prin-ciples of human behavior; if he appreciates thatmost men react in fixed and definite ways under agiven stimulus or influence; if he recognizes, de-velops, and applies those traits of character whichwill produce the correct reactions in his men, hewill possess the basic tools for managing men-hewill be a leader. Since effective leadership inbattle is the ultimate goal of military leadership,it is obvious that, regardless of the leader's abilityto dominate or persuade, his success inevitablydepends upon his skill in the tactical control of hisunit. Tactical control is a technique developed bystudy and by practice.

b. Accomplishment of the Mission. The pri-mary duty of the leader is the accomplishment of

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his assigned mission. Everything else, even thewelfare of his men, is subordinate.

c. Duties to the Men. The next responsibility ofthe leader lies in his duty to his men. It is rarelypossible to accomplish any mission without atten-tion to the morale and esprit of the men. In themilitary service, the follower is peculiarly depend-ent upon his leader; he can do little to improve hislot if his leader neglects him.

6. INDICATIONS OF MILITARY LEADERSHIP

There are four characteristics of a commandthat are accurate indications of success or failurein the exercise of leadership. These qualities arediscipline, morale, esprit de corps, and degree ofefficiency.

a. Discipline. Military discipline is a state oforder and obedience existing within a command.It involves the ready subordination of the will ofthe individual for the good of the group. Militarydiscipline is an extension and a specialized applica-tion of the discipline of any organized society.True discipline demands habitual but reasonedobedience to command, an obedience that pre-serves initiative and functions unfalteringly evenin the absence of the commander. Discipline iscreated within a command by training, by judi-cious use of punishment and reward, and by in-stilling a sense of confidence and responsibility ineach individual. Discipline demands correct per-formance of duty. The need for discipline is bestinculcated in an individual by appealing to his

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sense of reason. In the few instances where ap-peal to reason fails, the use of punishment is effec-tive in causing the recalcitrant individual to con-form and perhaps to appreciate the need for dis-cipline. Commendation and earned praise fromthe senior to his subordinate, either individuallyor collectively, for a task well done, serve tostrengthen the disciplinary bonds which bind to-gether the smooth-functioning team.

b. Morale. Morale is a mental and emotionalstate. The importance of morale cannot be over-estimated since it is a great contributing factor tothe efficiency of a unit. Good morale is indicatedby-

(1) Zeal, or the voluntary effort which mengive to their tasks over and beyond theperfunctory obedience to commands andregulations.

(2) A basic sense of personal worth foundedon confidence in leaders, training, weap-ons, and equipment.

(3) Satisfaction, or the pride of the individ-ual in the accomplishment of the assignedmission.

c. Esprit de corps. Esprit de corps is the mentaland emotional state of the unit. It is distinguishedfrom morale, which is described as the mental andemotional state of the individual. Esprit de corpsis not a simple summation of the morale of theindividuals in the unit. Rather, it results from thetotal interaction of the personnel of the unittoward one another and with the circumstances in

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which the unit is placed. When unit esprit is high,the collective goals of the unit overshadow those ofthe individual members. In such instances, thepersonal dissatisfactions of some individuals areovershadowed by the prevailing group spirit. Unitachievement, both past and present, is a strongforce in raising esprit de corps. A unit with a highesprit de corps can accomplish its mission in spiteof seemingly insurmountable odds. Esprit de corpsis enhanced when the group identification is in-creased and, conversely, is lowered when it is de-creased. It has been proved that pride in the unitwas the outstanding manifestation of good moralein World War II; this was accompanied by goodofficer-enlisted personnel relationships.

d. Efficiency. Efficiency is the ability to accom-plish successfully an assigned task in the short-est possible time, with the minimum expenditureof means, and with the least possible confusion.Efficiency in a command is built by sound train-ing and by effective administration. It is en-hanced by good discipline, high morale, and espritde corps.

7. ROLE OF PSYCHOLOGY

Leadership is closely linked with psychology,the study of human behavior. Proved principles ofleadership include proved principles of psychol-ogy. It is known that human beings tend to reactsimilarly under a given set of conditions. From aleadership standpoint, some of these reactions arefavorable, some unfavorable. With a knowledge

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of how human beings tend to respond to a particu-lar set of circumstances and with a comprehensionof the basic factors that control human behavior,the leader can capitalize on favorable reactionsand minimize tendencies toward unfavorable ones.It is evident therefore that a knowledge of psychol-ogy is helpful to the leader.

8. ROLE OF ETHICS

Ethics, the science of moral duty, is closely alliedwith the art of leadership. In order to set the ex-ample for his men and to win their confidence andrespect, the leader must be capable of decidingwhether a given course of action is morally rightor wrong. A knowledge of ethics will materiallyassist the leader in making such a decision. It willinsure against his losing stature in the eyes of hiscommand by embarking upon a course of actionthat is contrary to moral principles. Temporizingwith principles and moral standards may secure atemporary advantage, or fleeting popularity. But,in the end, only strict adherence to high standardsof honor and integrity will prove of value to theleader.

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CHAPTER 2

FUNDAMENTALS OF LEADERSHIP

Section I. LEADERSHIP PRINCIPLES AND TRAITS

9. LEADERSHIP PRINCIPLES

Leadership principles apply equally in all com-mands. These are-

a. Principle I. Know your job.

b. Principle II. Know yourself and seek self-improvement.

c. Principle III. Know your men and look outfor their welfare.

d. Principle IV. Keep your men informed.

e. Principle V. Set the example.

f. Principle VI. Insure that the task is under-stood, supervised, and accomplished.

g. Principle VII. Train your men as a team.

h. Principle VIII. Make sound and timely de-cisions.

i. Principle IX. Seek responsibility and developa sense of responsibility among subordinates.

j. Principle X. Employ your command in ac-cordance with its capabilities.

k. Principle XI. Take responsibility for youractions.

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10. DISCUSSION OF PRINCIPLES OF MILITARYLEADERSHIP

The principles of leadership discussed below areequally applicable to all levels of command fromthe squad to the army group.

a. Principle I-Know Your Job. To know hisjob thoroughly, the leader must possess a widefield of knowledge. He must understand the tech-nical aspects of the operation of his command andthe methods and procedures of organization, ad-ministration, instruction, and personnel manage-ment. The leader also should possess a sound un-derstanding of human relations. Further, heshould have a working knowledge of the duties,responsibilities, and problems of his subordinates.If he commands a service unit, he should have aknowledge of combat operations.

b. Principle II-Know Yourself and Seek Self-improvement. It is the duty of every leader toevaluate himself and to recognize his strengthsand weaknesses. An individual who does notknow his own capabilities and limitations is notmaster of himself and can never hope to be aleader. Likewise, an individual who realizes hisdeficiencies but makes no effort to correct themwill fail as a leader. Study of leadership principlesand practice of sound leadership techniques willdevelop leadership ability.

c. Principle III-Know Your Men and Look outfor Their Welfare. By making a conscientiouseffort to observe the members of his command asoften as possible, to become personally acquainted

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with them, to recognize their individual differ-ences, and to share in their joys and sorrows, theleader will have a better understanding of how hissubordinates react and function under variousconditions. He then will be able to employ themmore effectively. By assuring himself that themembers of his command are as comfortable, wellcared for, and contented as circumstances will per-mit, the leader wins their confidence, respect, andcooperation. By neglecting their welfare, theleader indicates indifference and, as a consequence,forfeits the trust and confidence of his men.

d. Principle IV-Keep Your Men Informed.The soldier who is well informed about the mis-sion and situation and about the purpose of hisparticular task is considerably more effective thanthe one who is not so informed. The better he isinformed, the better he can perform his tasks withmaximum initiative. The commander who fails tomake essential information available to his menwill soon find that they are performing blindlywithout purpose. At the same time, commandersat all levels must realize that security require-ments impose limitations on information whichmay be imparted to the men.

e. Principle V-Set the Example. Men instinc-tively look to their leaders for patterns of conductwhich they may either emulate or use as an excusefor their own shortcomings. The classic exampleof the military leader is that of an individualwhose appearance and conduct evoke from his sub-ordinates, praise, pride, and the desire to emulate

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him. By his outstanding performance of duty, theleader must set the standard for the entire com-mand. The commander who appears in an un-favorable light before his men destroys the respectthat must exist mutually between him and his menbefore leadership can be exercised.

f. Principle VI-Insure That the Task is Under-stood, Supervised, and Accomplished. The leadermust give clear, concise orders that cannot be mis-understood; then, by close supervision, he mustinsure that those orders are properly executed.The issuance of an order is the initial and rela-tively small part of the commander's responsibil-ity. His principal responsibility lies in supervi-sion to make sure that the order is properly exe-cuted. It is this responsibility that is most diffi-cult to carry out. The able leader will make wiseuse of his subordinates to carry out his super-vision effectively. Any commander of a large unitwho fails to make proper and adequate use of hisstaff and subordinates demonstrates a fundamen-tal weakness in leadership ability.

g. Principle VII-Train Your Men as a Team.The duty of every leader includes the developmentof teamwork through the thorough training ofhis command, whether it be a-squad or an armygroup. Modern armies are complex organizationsinvolving many different arms and services, allworking together as a team toward a common end.Each part of the team must understand where itfits into the common effort. The commander whofails to foster teamwork while training his com-

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mand will not obtain the desired degree of unitefficiency.

h. Principle VIII--Mtke Sound and Timely De-cisions. The ability to make a rapid estimate ofthe situation and arrive at a sound decision is es-sential to a leader. He must be able to reasonlogically under the most trying conditions. Hemust decide quickly what action is necessary inorder to take advantage of opportunities as theyoccur. The vacillating commander not only willbe unable to employ his command effectively butwill create vacillation, lack of confidence, hesi-tancy, and indecision, within the command itself.The ability to make sound and timely decisionscan be acquired by constant study and by trainingin making estimates. On the other hand, whencircumstances dictate a change in plans, the ableleader will act promptly without fear that thecommand may consider such action as a vacilla-tion.

i. Principle IX-Seek Responsibility and De-velop a Sense of Responsibility Among Subordin-ates. The leader must be quick to seize the initia-tive in the absence of instructions from his supe-rior. By seeking responsibility, the leader developshimself professionally and increases his potentialability. Proper delegation of authority is a soundattribute of leadership. The commander then holdshis subordinate strictly responsible for results,and rarely for methods of procedure. Such actionby the commander engenders trust, faith, and con-fidence. It develops initiative and wholehearted

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cooperation. Reluctance to delegate authorityoften is a mark of retarded growth in leadership.

j. Principle X-Employ Your Command in Ac-cordance With its Capabilities. To employ hiscommand properly, the leader must have a thor-ough knowledge of the tactical and administrativecapabilities and limitations of his command. Hemust assign objectives that are possible of attain-ment, properly evaluate time and space factors,and employ his command with sound judgment.To do less than this may spell failure in accom-plishing the mission. Recurrent failure bringsabout collapse of morale, esprit de corps, and effi-ciency. However, on occasion, when the situationdemands, men must be pushed without hesitationbeyond their considered capabilities in order toachieve a quick and cheap victory or to avoid acostly defeat.

k. Principle XI-Take Responsibility for YourActions. The commander of a unit is responsiblefor all his unit does, or fails to do. The leaderrecognizes and acknowledges this responsibilityon all occasions. Any effort to evade this responsi-bility destroys the bond of loyalty and respect thatmust exist between the commander and his sub-ordinates.

11. LEADERSHIP TRAITS

Leadership traits are human qualities that areof great value to the leader. Possession of thesetraits simplifies the task of applying leadershipprinciples and assists greatly in winning confi-

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dence, respect, and cooperation. An individual canbenefit by studying the traits considered importantto the leader. By careful self-analysis and applica-tion, he can develop those traits in which he is de-ficient and further strengthen those in which he isstrong. A study of our Nation's great militaryleaders reveals that none possessed all the leader-ship traits to the maximum degree, but that aweakness in some traits was more than compen-sated for by strength in others. Critical self-analysis will enable an individual to realize thetraits in which he is strong and to capitalize uponthem. At the same time, he must endeavor to im-prove those traits in which he is weak. The follow-ing list of leadership traits is by no means all-inclusive but does contain those of paramount im-portance to the leader:

a. Alertness is vigilance, promptness, and wide-awakeness.

b. Bearing denotes desirable physical appear-ance, dress, and deportment.

c. Courage must be both physical and moral.

d. Decisiveness is the ability to make decisionspromptly when indicated and announce them au-thoritatively, concisely, and clearly.

e. Dependability is the doing of one's duty withor without supervision.

f. Endurance both mental and physical, is nec-essary to continue and complete any reasonabletask.

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g. Enthusiasm is the positive zeal or interest inthe task at hand. It is easily communicated tosubordinates.

h. Force is the ability to impose one's will uponanother.

i. Humility is freedom from arrogance and un-justifiable pride.

j. Humor is the capacity to appreciate the manyamusing or whimsical happenings of our every-day life, especially those which pertain to theleader himself.

k. Initiative is the willingness to act in the ab-sence of orders and to offer well-considered recom-mendations for the improvement of the command.

1. Integrity is the honesty and moral characterof the leader that must be unquestioned.

m. Intelligence is the intellect of the leaderwhich must be adequate to master the problemspresented by his level of command.

n. Judgment is the power of the mind to weighvarious factors and arrive at a wise decision.

o. Justice is being equitable and impartial inbestowing favors and punishment.

p. Loyalty must extend both up and down. Aleader cannot expect loyalty from his subordinatesunless he is conspicuously loyal to them and to hissuperiors.

q. Sympathy is the capacity of sharing the feel-ings of those with whom one is associated.

r. Tact is the ability to deal with subordinatesand superiors in an appropriate manner withoutgiving offense.

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s. Unselfishness is the studied avoidance of car-ing for or providing for one's own comfort or ad-vantage at the expense of others.

Section II. LEADERSHIP TECHNIQUES

12. GENERAL

a. It is important to note that in small units theleader can influence and direct his men throughclose personal contact, whereas in large units hemust rely in great measure upon his staff and sub-ordinate commanders to assist him in making hisleadership effective. The larger the unit, the morecomplex become the problems of leadership, butthe greater become the means available to the com-mander to assist him in the exercise of leadership.The larger unit commander must consider care-fully the leadership aspect of all basic policieswhich he prescribes or tolerates.

b. Obviously, it is not feasible to cite all possibleleadership techniques pertinent to a particularleadership principle, since techniques vary withthe size of the command, the personality of thecommander, and the situation. In the followingparagraphs, some of the more common techniquesare listed under each principle. These techniquesare methods of applying a principle that are effec-tive under most circumstances. Over a period oftime, the leader will develop techniques of his ownwhich will be better suited to his own personalityand which he himself will be able to employ effec-tively.

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13. LEADERSHIP TECHNIQUES WHICH AREAPPLICABLE TO ALL LEADERS

a. Principle I-Know Your Job.

(1) Seek a well-rounded military educationthrough attendance at service schoolsand through independent reading, re-search, and study.

(2) Keep abreast of latest techniques in thefield of communication in order to facili-tate control of your unit and to dissemin-ate information.

(3) Seek out and foster association withcapable leaders. Observe and study theiractions and application of leadershiptechniques.

(4) Broaden your field of knowledge throughassociation with officers and men of otherarms and services.

(5) Seek opportunity to apply knowledgethrough the exercise of command. Realleadership is acquired only through con-stant practice.

(6) Avoid overspecialization in too narrow afield.

(7) Keep abreast of current military devel-opments.

(8) Familiarize yourself with the capabili-ties and limitations of all elements ofyour command, by study and throughfrequent visits to subordinates.

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b. Principle II--Know Yourself and Seek Self-improvement.

(1) Analyze yourself objectively to deter-mine the strong and weak points of yourcharacter.

(2) Recognize your weak points and make aneffort to overcome them.

(3) Solicit, when appropriate, the candidopinions of others as to how you canmake the most of your desirable qualitiesand eliminate the undesirable ones.

(4) Profit by studying the causes for thesuccess or failure of other leaders pastand present.

(5) Develop a genuine interest in people;acquire the human touch.

(6) Practice the "Golden Rule."

(7) Master the art of good writing andspeaking.

(8) Cultivate cordial relations with membersof the other arms and services and withcivilians.

c. Principle III-Know Your Men and Look outfor Their Welfare.

(1) See the members of your command andlet them see you; be friendly and ap-proachable.

(2) Develop an intimate knowledge and un-derstanding of your subordinatesthrough personal contact and availablerecords. In small commands, it is im-

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perative not only that the leader knowand address his subordinates by name,but also that he be familiar with theircharacteristics.

(3) Interest yourself in the living conditionsof the members of your command, in-cluding their family environment, food,clothing, and billeting.

(4) Make ample provision for, and give per-sonal and visible attention to, the variouspersonnel services, particularly thoseconcerned with the personal problems ofindividuals.

(5) Provide for the spiritual welfare of yourcommand by supporting religious activi-ties.

(6) Protect the health of your command byactive supervision of hygiene, and sani-tation.

(7) Support actively a safety program.(8) Determine the mental attitude of mem-

bers of your command by frequent in-formal visits and by using fully all avail-able sources of information.

(9) Administer justice impartially to allwithout fear or favor. When punishmentis necessary, the commander should-

(a) Be fair, consistent, and impersonal.(b) Punish in private, with dignity and

with human understanding.(c) Never award degrading punishment.

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(d) Avoid punishing a group for the faultsof an individual.

(e) Always make the individual feel thatthe punishment is temporary and thatimprovement is expected.

(10) Insure fair and equitable distribution ofprivileges such as passes, leaves, androtation.

(11) Encourage educational development byproviding educational opportunities formembers of your command.

d. Principle IV-Keep Your Men Informed.

(1) Explain to your principal subordinateswhy any particular task must be accom-plished and how you propose to do it.

(2) Assure yourself by frequent inspectionsand visits that subordinates are trans-mitting necessary information to themen.

(3) Keep your principal subordinates in-formed of plans for future operations,subject only to security restrictions.

(4) Disseminate information concerning thecapabilities of our weapons compared tothose of an active or potential enemy.Where an enemy has an initial advan-tage, show how this can be overcome.

(5) Be sure the troops are informed of thecapabilities and limitations of supportingunits, arms, and services.

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(6) Be alert to detect the spread of falserumors. Stop rumors by replacing themwith truth.

(7) Build confidence and esprit de corps byexploiting all information concerningsuccesses of the command.

e. Principle V-Set the Example.

(1) Be at all times physically fit, mentallyalert, well groomed, and correctlydressed.

(2) Master your emotions. The commanderwho is subject to intemperate bursts ofanger or to periods of depression willhave difficulty in gaining and holding therespect and loyalty of his subordinates.

(3) Maintain an optimistic outlook. The willto win is infectious. The leader fosters itby capitalizing on his unit's capabilitiesand successes, not on its limitations orfailures. Maintain an air of outwardcalmness. The more difficult the situa-tion, the more important this becomes.

(4) Conduct yourself so that your personalhabits are not open to censure. Coarsebehavior and vulgarity are the marks ofan essentially weak and unstable charac-ter; these, together with a failure to bepunctual, and a tendency toward selfish-ness and self-indulgence in luxuries notavailable to the command in general, areinevitably resented by all ranks.

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(5) Cooperate in spirit as well as in fact.Cooperation must work in two directions.It arises from a wholehearted desire byall members to further the effectiveoperations of the team.

(6) Exercise initiative and promote thespirit of initiative in your subordinates.

(7) Be conspicuously loyal to those belowyou as well as to those above you. Sup-port those under you as long as the in-dividuals concerned have been discharg-ing their duties competently. The com-mander who seeks, however, to protectan incompetent subordinate from correc-tion by a higher commander is being dis-loyal himself. Loyalty is a primary traitof leadership and demands unqualifiedsupport of the policies of superior offi-cers, whether the individual concernedpersonally favors them or not.

(8) Avoid the development of a clique offavorites. While it is difficult to avoidbeing partial to subordinates who haverendered loyal and superior service overa period of time, the temptation to showpartiality should be vigorously resisted.

(9) Be morally courageous. The commanderwho fails to stand by his principleswhere the welfare of his command isconcerned, or who attempts to avoid theresponsibility for mistakes of his com-

24 AGO 3167C

mand, will fail to gain or hold the re-spect of his associates or subordinates.

(10) Share danger and hardship. A leaderwho has elements of his command sub-ject to danger or to hardship of any kindshould visit them as often as possible todemonstrate without ostentation his will-ingness to assume his share of the diffi-culties.

f. Principle VI-Insure That the Task Is Un-derstood, Supervised, and Accomplished.

(1) Through study and practice, develop theability to think clearly and to issue clear,concise, positive orders.

(2) Encourage subordinates to seek immedi-ate clarification about any point in yourorders or directives that they do not un-derstand perfectly.

(3) Question your subordinates and assist-ants to determine if there is any doubt ormisunderstanding as to the task to beperformed.

(4) Supervise the execution of your orders.

(5) Make every means possible available toyour subordinates to assist them in ac-complishing their mission.

g. Principle VII-Train Your Men as a Team.

(1) Insure by inspections and training teststhat your command is being trained inaccordance with training programs anddoctrine prescribed by higher authority.

AGO 3167C 25

(2) Make sure that the best available facili-ties for team training are provided andthat maximum use is made of such de-vices as communications drills, battledrills, and realistic field exercises.

(3) Insure that all training is purposeful andthat the reasons for training are stressedand are understood by all members of theteam.

(4) Insure that each element of the commandis acquainted with the capabilities andlimitations of all other elements, therebydeveloping mutual trust and understand-ing.

(5) Insure that each subordinate leader un-derstands the mechanics of tactical con-trol for his own echelon of command.

(6) Predicate team training on modern re-alistic conditions.

(7) Insist that each officer and enlisted manknow the functions of each other officerand enlisted man with whom he habitual-ly operates. Insist that each of theseknow and understand each other, theirtraits, peculiarities, strengths, and weak-nesses.

(8) Demand the highest standard of disci-pline and teamwork in all training.

(9) Seize opportunities to train with otherunits, both combat and service.

26 AGO 3167C

h. Principle VIII-Make Sound and TimelyDecisions.

(1) Develop a logical and orderly thoughtprocess by constant practice in makingobjective estimates of the situation.Making an estimate is not restricted tothe military. It is employed in the every-day life of all persons.

(2) Insofar as time and occasion permit,plan for every contingency that canreasonably be foreseen.

(3) Consider the advice and suggestions ofyour subordinates before making yourown decisions.

(4) Announce decisions in time to allow sub-ordinates to make necessary plans.

i. Principle IX-Seek Responsibility and De-velop a Sense of Responsibility Among Subordi-nates.

(1) Learn the duties and responsibilities ofyour immediate supervisor.

(2) Seek diversified assignments which willgive you responsibility and command ex-perience.

(3) Take advantage of any opportunitywhich offers increased responsibility.

(4) Perform every task, large or small, to thebest of your ability. Your reward willconsist of increased opportunity todemonstrate your fitness to performbigger and more important tasks.

AGO 3167C 27

(5) Tell your subordinates what to do, nothow to do it; hold them responsible forresults. Delegate and supervise, but donot intervene except when urgently nec-essary. Avoid usurping the prerogativesof your subordinates.

(6) Provide all possible personnel with fre-quent opportunities to perform duties ofthe next higher echelon.

(7) Be quick to recognize accomplishmentsof your subordinates when they demon-strate initiative and resourcefulness.

(8) Correct errors in the use of judgmentand initiative in such a way as to encour-age the individual. Avoid public criti-cism or condemnation. Be liberal, how-ever, in openly giving praise which isdeserved.

(9) Give unstintingly of help and advicewhen such are requested by those underyour command.

(10) Insure that your personnel are assignedpositions commensurate with demon-strated or potential ability.

(11) Be prompt and fair in backing subordi-nates to the limit. Until convinced other-wise, have faith in each subordinate.

(12) Demonstrate to your command that youare ready and willing to accept responsi-bility.

28 AGO 3167C

j. Principle X-Employ Your Command in Ac-cordance With its Capabilities.

(1) Know, understand, and apply the Prin-ciples of War. See FM 100-5.

(2) Keep yourself informed as to the relativeoperational effectiveness of various ele-ments of your command.

(3) Be sure that the tasks assigned to sub-ordinates are reasonably possible of ac-complishment, but do not hesitate to de-mand their utmost effort when necessitydictates.

(4) Analyze any task assigned. If means atyour disposal appear inadequate, informyour immediate commander and requestadditional means.

(5) Make every effort to equalize tasks pro-portionately, over appropriate periods oftime, among the several elements of yourcommand.

k. Principle XI-Take Responsibility for YourActions.

(1) Remember that you are responsible forall your command does or fails to do.

(2) Accept justified criticism.(3) Adhere to what you think is right; have

the courage of your convictions.

14. ADDITIONAL LEADERSHIP TECHNIQUES USEFUL TONONCOMMISSIONED OFFICERS

The noncommissioned officer has certain ad-vantages and certain disadvantages in the exer-

AGO 3167C 29

cise of leadership. His constant and close associa-tion with his subordinates affords him an oppor-tunity to impress his leadership upon them almostcontinuously. On the other hand, close associationrobs him of many advantages enjoyed by thosewhose station is more remote from their command.The following techniques are particularly usefulto the noncommissioned officer:

a. Principle III-Know Your Men and Look outfor Their Welfare.

(1) Cultivate an intimate knowledge of thepersonal and family background of yourmen without invading their personalprivacy.

(2) Be attentive to the health of your men;your close contact with them will permityou to detect evidence of ill health quiteearly.

(3) Equalize the unpopular or dangerous de-tails among your men.

(4) Assist your commanders by reportingany conditions which obstruct yourefforts to provide for the welfare of yourmen.

(5) Avoid the appearance of awarding pun-ishment upon your own authority.

b. Principle IV-Keep Your Men Informed.(1) Pass on all information to your men

which will help them in the performanceof their duty.

(2) Show your men how their efforts assistin accomplishing the mission of thelarger unit.

30 AGO 3167C

(3) Remember that you will be one of thefirst to hear false rumors; stop thembefore damage is done.

(4) Seek information which is desired andwhich will be useful to your men.

15. ADDITIONAL LEADERSHIP TECHNIQUES USEFUL TOREGIMENTAL AND LOWER UNIT COMMANDERS

Commanders of regiments and lower unitshave the distinct advantage of participating in theactual accomplishment of missions assigned totheir units. Superior leadership of the men inplatoons, companies, battalions, and regiments isessential. The soldier's opinion of all officersusually will be the result of the opinion he formsof the few officers with whom he is closely associ-ated. The following techniques are particularlyuseful to officers commanding regiments and lowerunits:

a. Principle I-Know Your Job.(1) Avoid overspecializing in too narrow a

field to the extent that you lose your per-spective.

(2) Learn and cultivate the use of at leastone foreign language. Lack of languagefacility is a marked handicap to leaderswho must be prepared to serve the far-flung interests of the United States.

(3) Obtain a working knowledge of the char-acteristics, habits of living, psychology,and ideological concepts of people otherthan your own.

AGO 3167C 31

(4) Broaden your global knowledge by astudy of geography and its influence onpeoples and on military operations.

b. Principle III-Know Your Men and Look outfor Their Welfare.

(1) Recognize the importance of morale-supporting activities and welfare serv-ices and give them your wholeheartedinterest and support.

(2) Protect the health of your command bytakingan active interest in your medicalservice.

16. ADDITIONAL LEADERSHIP TECHNIQUES USEFUL TOCOMMANDERS OF DIVISIONS AND HIGHER UNITS

The higher commanders control the destiny ofmany men and the responsibility therefore isgreater. The following techniques are particularlyuseful to commanders of divisions and higherunits:

a. Principle I-Know Your Job.

(1) Keep informed of the relative develop-ment of all units under your control byfrequent visits and command inspections.Visits and inspections by a commanderand his staff are the most effectivemethod of determining whether leader-ship principles are being applied cor-rectly not only by the commander butalso by subordinate leaders.

(2) Study those aspects of war upon whichbasic policy is laid in high command.

32 AGO 3167C

(3) Employ your staff as extensions of yourpersonality during staff visits, and forthe primary purpose of fostering friendlyand efficient relationships between your-self and your subordinate commanders.

b. Principle III.-Know Your Men and Look outfor Their Welfare.

(1) Protect the health of your command byactive supervision of hygiene, sanitation,and your medical service.

(2) Establish and support a safety program.

(3) Use command channels and surveys todetermine mental attitude of the officersand men of your command.

(4) Establish fair and equitable pass, leave,and rotation policies. Insure that soundpromotion, assignment, and transferpolicies are carried out.

(5) Establish appropriate standards andpolicies for decorations and awards formembers of your command.

(6) Make certain that your staff has doneeverything to assist subordinate com-manders in providing for their men.

(7) Make certain that disciplinary measurestaken by subordinate commanders areconsistent and just.

c. Principle IV-Keep Your Men Informed.Make full use of orders, memorandums, confer-ences, talks, informational and educational mate-

AGO 3167C 33

rial, and unit newspapers to keep your commandwell informed. Nevertheless, avoid the dissemina-tion of administrative matters that are not actu-ally necessary.

d. Principle VI-Insure That the Task Is Un-derstood, Supervised, and Accomplished. Super-vise the execution of your orders by personal visitsto the subordinate commands and by requiringyour staff officers to do the same.

e. Principle VII-Train Your Men as a Team.(1) Provide for progressive training and for

training exercises which involve combin-ations of appropriate arms and services;show the battlefield application in thetraining of service troops.

(2) Hold realistic command post and fieldexercises in which the situation is al-lowed to develop without prearrange-ment by the commander and staff con-cerned, and which are designed to pro-mote leadership, staff supervision, andteamwork in all echelons.

(3) Seize opportunities to train with unitsof the Navy and Air Force.

f. Principle VIII-Make Sound and Timely De-cisions.

(1) Direct and guide your staff to plan forevery contingency that can reasonably beforeseen. Keep subordinate commandersinformed of contingencies as you antici-pate them whenever security and otherconsiderations permit.

34 AGO 3167C

(2) Encourage concurrent estimates andplanning in the various echelons of yourcommand.

(3) Always make sure that your staff isfamiliar with your current policies andplans.

g. Principle IX-Take Responsibility for YourActions.

(1) Remember that regardless of your staffand subordinates, responsibility for yourdecisions and for their application isvested in you.

(2) Insure that an unsuccessful commander'sfailure was not due to some error on yourpart before considering his removal.

AGO 3167C 35

CHAPTER 3

SPECIAL LEADERSHIP TECHNIQUES

Section I. INTRODUCTION

17. GENERAL

It is by no means true that every situation whichthe commander encounters requires a special lead-ership technique. The techniques listed in chapter2 have an inherent elasticity and flexibility andare adaptable to any situation. Special supple-mentary leadership techniques are required, how-ever, to meet certain problems such as duty in thecombat zone or communications zone, mobilizationtraining, demobilization, occupation duty, andleading minority groups. This chapter presentscertain techniques useful in the solution of thesespecial problems.

Section II. COMBAT ZONE

18. ADDITIONAL LEADERSHIP TECHNIQUES FORCOMBAT

a. Training in leadership is essential to successin combat. Battle conditions demand decisionsand operations which test the leadership of all

36 AGO 3167C

officers and all noncommissioned officers, of allgrades, to an extent which does not exist underother conditions. It is impossible to bridge com-pletely the gap between training and conditionsexisting on the battlefield. Therefore, in combatthere are certain additional techniques which mustbe applied to meet these special conditions.

b. The problem of the leader is to attain theobjective with the maximum of effectiveness andeconomy. To attain this objective

(1) Develop fully the combat power of allelements of your command.

(2) Coordinate and control combat power soas to gain maximum effectiveness in de-stroying the enemy.

(3) Restore promptly any part of the poten-tial combat power which mL.y have beenreduced or destroyed.

(4) Recognize battlefield conditions whichmight damage the combat potential ofyour command.

c. Combat power is developed by creating andsustaining a desire to close with and destroy theenemy. In large measure, it is gained by experttraining, by the fostering of confidence, and by aknowledge of the fact that forward movementtends to reduce casualties. In developing aggres-siveness, the leader will-

(1) Strive to eliminate factors which produceinertia, timidity, or uncertainty.

(2) Stimulate in all echelons implicit confi-dence in weapons and leaders.

AGO 3167C 37

(3) Encourage all leaders to exercise initia-tive and to exploit favorable situations.

(4) Condemn all forms of complacency, how-ever temporary, that may arise from afalse feeling of security.

(5) Indoctrinate his command with the ne-cessity for maintaining the momentumof the attack.

(6) Reward evidence of aggressiveness byevery means feasible, including decora-tions and unit awards.

d. Firepower produces combat power. Lack offirepower is uneconomical, in that such lack mustbe compensated for by commitment of dispropor-tionate forces. Combat training must lay emphasisupon economy and effectiveness of fire. To de-velop firepower, the leader will-

(1) Stress control and coordination of thefire of all weapons and emphasize firedistribution.

(2) Emphasize the necessity of firepoweragainst areas or positions without spe-cific target designation or identification.

(3) Emphasize the necessity to economize onammunition, along with the need foreffectiveness of fire. Guard against thetendency toward "trigger happiness"which is manifested by inexperiencedtroops.

e. To gain maximum effectiveness in destroyingthe enemy, coordination and control of combatpower is essential at all times. To maintainmomentum of attack, operation plans must be

38 AGO 3167C

supervised to their execution. The commandermust be accurately informed of the location of allelements, particularly of the forward elements, ofhis command. The leader will-

(1) Issue orders in time for subordinates tocoordinate their own plans.

(2) Insure the establishment and full use ofadequate signal communication.

(3) Encourage direct coordination betweencommanders of attacking echelons.

(4) Make full use of phase lines, forwardand rear echelons of control, and othercoordination agencies.

(5) See that communication and liaison withhigher, lower, and adjacent units are es-tablished. Make sure that command chan-nels of specially organized forces areadequately and clearly defined.

(6) Insofar as practical, personally observethe progress of the battle and the effici-ency of control. The commander who re-mains in his command post is courtingdisaster.

f. Attainment of objectives is dependent uponrestoration of the potential combat power of anypart of the command which has been weakened ordestroyed by enemy action. With the rapidity ofmovement in modern warfare, it is imperative thatmen and equipment be replaced rapidly. This en-tails efficient movement, proper reserve and sup-port positions, and assignment of units to missionswithin their capabilities. To maintain potentialcombat power, the leader must-

AGO 3167C 39

(1) Insure that the chain of command re-mains intact. Make necessary replace-ments of subordinates promptly.

(2) Permit adequate time in reserve positionfor units to assimilate replacements, toreorganize and regroup, to train, and toreplace and maintain equipment.

(3) Devote special attention to units whichhave failed in combat, to restore theirconfidence and esprit de corps.

(4) See that subsequent missions of suchunits are within their capabilities.

(5) When advisable, make prompt replace-ment of commanders. Wholesale replace-ments, however, may serve to accentuatefailure to the unit and thus lower espritde corps.

g. Factors adversely affecting the combat po-tential of the command include fear; panic; dis-couragement; isolation; and lack of confidence inself, unit, or leaders. The presence of fear andpanic fluctuates in accordance with the conditionof troops, the degree of tactical success, and thephysical conditions of the battlefield. The greatestsusceptibility to fear and panic usually exists dur-ing baptism of fire, retrograde movement, or whenthe unit is dispersed or isolated. Normally, it isthe commander of the small unit who must coun-teract such elements. However, it is the leader ofthe large unit who trains and indoctrinates himand who enunciates policies which should be in-strumental in counteracting possible fear or panic.

40 AGO 3167C

To counteract these factors, the leader should-(1) Insure that his troops are fed and rested

whenever possible, since hunger or ex-haustion leads to lowered morale and re-duces combat efficiency.

(2) Combat the effect of false rumor bybuilding up a reputation for truthfulnessand frankness.

(3) Minimize or eliminate, when possible,those physical and combat conditionswhich might produce fear or panic.

(4) Inculcate in his command those factorswhich oppose such psychological condi-tions as anxiety, tension, insecurity, anduncertainty, by keeping his men in-formed and by promoting group identi-fication.

(5) Furnish every possible support, physicaland moral, for units which are isolated.Do not allow such units to feel that theyare neglected, abandoned, or fighting asacrifice mission.

(6) Emphasize indoctrination which willprepare the unit to wage aggressive com-bat in the fact of reverses, of isolation,and of the unexpected.

19. LEADERSHIP FOR ATTACHED UNITS

a. One of the major leadership problems thatconfronts the commanders of larger combat unitssuch as divisions, corps, and armies is the properhandling of attached units. In corps especially,

AGO 3167C 41

there is a continuous turn-over of divisions andseparate units during the course of a campaign.The corps commander has the difficult problem ofintegrating newly attached units into the corpseffort and of giving them a sense of belonging tothe team. This calls for certain leadership tech-niques of a special nature in addition to the moregeneral techniques previously discussed.

b. To integrate newly attached units into hiscommand, the commander should-

(1) Establish communication with a newlyattached unit at the earliest practicabletime.

(2) Insure that liaison is established with aunit as soon as he learns it is to be at-tached.

(3) Deliver promptly a brief of all currentstanding operating procedures and ad-ministrative policies to the commanderand staff of a newly attached unit.

(4) Make all necessary administrative ar-rangements for the efficient reception ofa unit newly attached to his command.

(5) Insure that administrative responsibilityfor attached units is clearly defined andpromptly accepted.

(6) Prevent unnecessary administrative re-porting to his headquarters by attachedunits.

(7) Require his staff to observe the chain ofcommand in dealing with attached units.

42 AGO 3167C

(8) Visit attached units, even though theymay be further attached to subordinateunits.

(9) Require his staff to visit newly attachedunits to ascertain what assistance hiscommand can render.

(10) Be familiar with the history of everyunit attached to his command.

(11) Insist that subordinate commanders in-clude attached units in recommendationsfor decorations and awards.

(12) Encourage commanders of attachedunits to make their problems or sugges-tions known to him.

(13) Check plans of subordinate commandersto see that attached units are not dis-criminated against in missions assigned.

(14) See that attached units receive their fairshare of all privileges and welfare activi-ties. Make these units feel that they arean integral part of his team.

(15) Write a letter of appreciation to a de-parting unit whenever its service meritssuch action.

20. SIGNAL COMMUNICATION

a. Just as leadership and command are insepar-able, so, in turn, are command and signal com-munication inseparable. Thus it follows thatleadership and communication are in equally closeassociation; it is therefore essential that the leader

AGO 31lf7C 43

use all available signal communication facilities Inthe application of the techniques of leadership.

b. The establishment and operation of signalcommunications in the communications zone is notdifficult, since methods follow peacetime commer-cial practices. Technological improvements in sig-nal communication facilities, however, introducetwo important factors into the problem of leader-ship in battle:

(1) The ability of the commander to exerciseleadership and tactical control is beingconstantly extended.

(2) Senior officers who are not in frequentcontact with modern signal equipmentexperience difficulty in becoming, or inremaining, adept in its use.

c.' To know his job, it is essential that a com-mander become thoroughly acquainted with thecapabilities and limitations of the signal communi-cation equipment which is furnished. For highercommanders it is not necessary to know the detailsof its functioning, but only what it can accomplish.However, any commander, who may be even tem-porarily required to use voice radio personallyshould become familiar with the operation of theequipment.

d. With the continued development of modernsignal communication facilities, the commander ofhigher units are afforded increasing opportunityto comprehend quickly the conditions faced bytheir troops. Consequently, it enables the com-mander to exert his leadership ability to a degree

44 AGO 3167C

hitherto unknown. By creating a staff-observerradio net, it is possible to emphasize most prin-ciples of leadership, though the chief applicationmust be that of tactical control.

e. The use of staff observers to assist the leaderhas long been established practice. The practice isgreatly facilitated by the designation of a specialradio frequency for staff use. The commander andthe staff officer thus are enabled to become per-sonally mobile, to have the advantage of on-the-spot observation, and to keep in touch with thesituation, with one another, and with staff sectionsat the command post. Staff observers equippedwith vehicular-mounted radios may travel withthe headquarters of subordinate commands whoseaction may be critical. They operate in the samenet as the commander and staff and report theposition of the units accompanied and the salientfacts of the situation. Staff observers are not in-vestigators. Their primary function is to help thecommand to which they are attached or areaccompanying.

Section III. COMMUNICATIONS ZONE

21. GENERAL

While service in the communications zone usu-ally entails less hardship and danger than is en-countered in the combat zone, close attention toleadership principles and techniques is still nec-essary. The troops lack the incentive of combatservice. The commander does not have the ad-

AGO 3167C 45

vantage of unit identification with its attendanthistory and background. The emphasis that hasbeen placed upon service with combat units hasoften reacted to the detriment of the morale ofservice troops. Yet the opening of ports, the de-livery of supplies, and similar activities in recordtime can be employed to generate pride and de-velop esprit de corps.

22. TECHNIQUES

There are additional techniques applicable toleadership of larger units in the communicationszone. The commander of these units should-

a. Utilize his staff, particularly the special staff,to familiarize him with the various types of serviceunits under his command.

b. Delegate authority to his staff, especially tothe chiefs of technical services, for supervision ofunits and accomplishment of assigned tasks. Re-member, however, that final responsibility alwaysrests with the highest commander.

c. Determine the requirements and obtain abalanced troop list that is adequate for the task.

d. Plan so that logistical support will be avail-able when needed.

e. Maintain the highest possible standard ofliving consistent with avoidance of justified criti-cism by combat zone personnel. However, heshould avoid requiring service troops to be uncom-fortable merely because discomfort is unavoidablein the combat zone.

46 AGO 3167C

f. Prevent the diversion of personnel and meansintended for the combat zone.

g. Prescribe a uniform for his troops appropri-ate to the work performed. Service troops shouldnot be required to dress as combat troops unless areal need exists.

h. Make special arrangements for combat troopswho are temporarily stationed in the communica-tions zone. Conferences between commandersshould develop an interpretation of regulationswhich does not cause resentment by either combator service troops.

i. Identify each project with the combat effortof the theater of operations. Stress the part eachparticular unit has in support of major operations.Devise ways by which the command will knowwhat it has accomplished and how it can do better.

j. Subject to security restrictions, maintainsituation maps in each unit to keep troops in-formed of the progress of operations.

k. Assure himself that the administrative re-quirements of supported commands are promptlyand adequately met. Maintain liaison with sup-ported commands.

1. When troops must be worked for excessivelylong hours on a particular job, insure that theyunderstand their contribution to the over-all effort.

m. Employ units in the role for which they wereorganized and trained except in emergency. Beprepared to select and train physically able troopsfor combat duty in case of emergency.

AGO 3167C 47

n. Maintain a high standard of discipline andservice efficiency. Take advantage of ceremoniesto engender unit esprit de corps, but avoid en-croaching on essential duties or recreational time.

o. Where personnel stability permits, provideeducational facilities for those desiring to partici-pate on a voluntary basis.

Section IV. LEADERSHIP IN MOBILIZATION TRAINING

23. GENERAL

a. The material which follows is primarily re-lated to training. It is included in this text becauseit directly affects the study and development ofleadership in all units.

b. The commander charged with the trainingof newly activated units must consider not only theleadership which he himself exerts, but also thatof his subordinate commanders as well. The effi-cacy of his leadership will be reflected in the sumtotal of their command abilities. It is of para-mount importance that he develop leadership qual-ities in his subordinates: first, those manifested bytraits of character; and second, those based onconfidence which arises from knowing the job andwhich are demonstrated by the ability to maneuverand control troops in a coordinated effort.

c. One of the most important leadership respon-sibilities of the commander both before and duringmobilization training is the establishment of har-monious relations with the members of the adja-

48 AGO 3167C

cent civilian communities. The commander muststimulate public support and cooperation by per-sonal appearances before civic groups and per-sonal yisits to important civic officials such as themayor and chief of police. During such visits, thecommander and members of his staff must explainthe mission of the units undergoing mobilizationtraining and point out various problems that arelikely to arise when a large military organizationis suddenly superimposed upon a civilian com-munity. Through mutual understanding betweenthe civilian and the military of each other's prob-lems, undesirable incidents involving misunder-standing or animosity between soldier and civilianwill be held to a minimum. Moreover, the civilianwill not only accept but also welcome the soldierand thus make a substantial contribution to thesoldier morale and esprit de corps.

d. Still another important leadership responsi-bility of the commander during mobilization train-ing is the proper indoctrination of the cadre dur-ing their training prior- to the arrival of fillers.The commander must impress upon all membersof the cadre that they will be the backbone of theunit that is being formed around them; that theymust establish and maintain the highest standardsof discipline, training, and military courtesy sothat they, in turn, can suitably train and set theexample for the fillers. The commander who effec-tively applies the principles of leadership duringthe cadre training period produces a cadre that isefficient and well disciplined-a cadre that will bethe nucleus for an efficient and well-disciplined

AGO 3167C 49

organization. The unfit must be eliminated fromthe cadre.

24. COMBAT LEADERSHIP TRAINING

a. In training a new unit, the commander willrecognize that ability to lead troops in combat isthe prime requirement of junior leaders. More-over, facility in handling troops is a technique andas such is far easier for a commander to developin his subordinates than is leadership of the in-spirational type. Men do not learn to lead troopsfrom theoretical instruction alone. They learnmainly by experience in command. Therefore, thecommander must insure that the opportunity tocommand exists. For example, he must insist thatall echelons of command follow strictly the provi-sions of the mobilization training programs which,for most divisional units, require that nearly 50percent of training time be spent in unit fieldexercises.

b. In this phase, "know your job" is a basicelement in instruction of new units. Realistic ad-herence to high standards of duty in all training isthe fundamental.

c. Techniques available to the leaders of allunits by which their own leadership training, andthat of their subordinates, can be greatly facili-tated are-

(1) Map exercises and maneuver.(2) Command post exercises.(3) Field exercises.

50 AGO 31i7C

d. Instructions for the conduct of these exer-cises are found in appropriate manuals. Correcttraining methods and logical training progression,however, are of such importance in the develop-ment of battle leadership that some elaboration ofthese subjects is considered desirable and will becovered in succeeding paragraphs.

e. Whenever possible, combination of the threetypes of exercises laid on the same terrain is usefulfor training in leadership as well as in the tacticalhandling of troops. Initially, the exercise may beconducted on a map, then be repeated on theground as a command post exercise. Finally, whenthe training of the troops has progressed suffici-ently, the same situation may be portrayed as afield exercise. Thus, through logical progressionthe commanders learn the theoretical aspects ofleadership in the map exercise, map maneuver,and command post exercise, and then apply thistheory to the field exercise, employing actualtroops.

25. MAP EXERCISES AND MAP MANEUVERS

a. General. The definitions and conduct of mapexercises and map maneuvers are found in FM21-5. These are devices for training commandersand staff officers in the theoretical conduct of mili-tary operations by means of a map. Map exercisesand map maneuvers are not substitutes for com-mand post exercises and field exercises.

b. Techniques.(1) Whenever possible, base the exercise or

AGO 3167C 51

maneuver on local terrain so that thesame tactical situation can later beplayed in the field by subordinate head-quarters and subordinate units.

(2) Prepare the map maneuver so that allsections of the staff will participate.

(3) Stress realism by introducing require-ments for staff supervision of the actionportrayed and approved techniques forcarrying it out.

26. COMMAND POST EXERCISES

a. General. A command post exercise can beone of the most important leadership-training de-vices, depending on the manner in which it is exe-cuted. Where many artificialities are employed,where the senior commander faces a situation re-quiring no leadership or command decisions on hispart, or where the exercise fails to develop logi-cally, very little value is realized. It is possible toavoid such adverse factors through the applicationof realism, to include a freely developing situationwhich demands a series of command decisions onthe part of all echelons. A command post exercisefills its primary purpose only when it affordsleadership training for all commanders and theirstaffs.

b. Techniques.(1) Require command post exercises in all

echelons, down to and including bat-talions. Schedule these to precede thefield exercises for small units which are

52 AGO 2167C

required by the mobilization trainingprogram. These two exercises should bebased on the same situation.

(2) Wherever possible, hold command postexercises on the ground. Require' allheadquarters elements to be deployed atappropriate distances and to move in ac-cordance with the developments of thesituation.

(3) In all command post exercises, requireunits to pass information back to thenext higher echelon, using organic meansof communication.

(4) Require all echelons to act on the factualor imaginary information furnished byexecuting their original plan of action,revising it, or calling for additionalmeans.

(5) Adopt an attitude that the exercise is forthe training of all, including the com-mander. Stress the fact that neither thecommander nor any other leader can de-velop command. facility without practice,and that the command post exercise givesexperience in correcting mistakes with-out causing the troops to suffer for them.

(6) Schedule command post exercises in anyone echelon'only after the next lowerechelon has become proficient in passingon the battle reports which actuate thesituation for its commander.

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(7) Use the chain of command in makingnecessary corrections in the progress ofthe exercise.

(8) Realize that, while a command post exer-cise may be held for a commander andhis headquarters with only the nextlower echelon present, the exercise willalways benefit by the presence of as manyheadquarters as can be spared at thatstage of training.

(9) Insist that staffs be used in a realisticmanner to plan and supervise all phasesof the exercise.

27. FIELD EXERCISES

a. General. Field exercises, particularly thosefor small units, provide the best training test ofcombat leadership ability and the best trainingexperience in developing it. Next to battle itself,they are the end toward which all training isdirected. Failure to stress this type of trainingresults in low standards of leadership beingbrought to the battlefield. The techniques of con-ducting field exercises are covered in appropriatetraining manuals. However, because of their di-rect relation to leadership training, the followingtechniques are given special emphasis.

b. Techniques.(1) Stress realism. The modern battlefield

under conditions of mobile warfare ap-pears empty. Since the battlefield doesappear empty, normally plan exercises

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which involve an advance to seize terrainobjectives.

(2) Require repeated drills in the executionof simple tactical maneuvers designed tocapture the planned objectives.

(3) Stress logical progression of training.Precede field exercises with instructionin evaluation of terrain, with combatorders, and with command post exercisesdrawn for the same terrain and situa-tion.

(4) State the conditions of enemy fire whichare supposed to exist over the groundtraversed, or specific parts thereof. Donot introduce complicated artificialities;these only detract from the commander'sability to concentrate on the control ofhis unit and on the selection of a forma-tion appropriate to the conditions of fire.The end in view is leadership ability asexemplified by facility in handling theunit.

(5) Stress the importance of each leader soplacing himself and his headquartersthat he can most readily coordinate allefforts of his command and of the ele-ments that may be supporting it.

(6) Do not permit exercises against flaggedenemy positions, or two-sided maneuvers,until leadership facility in command andcontrol has been demonstrated.

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(7) Wherever possible, employ current meth-ods for marking support fires. Requirethat such marking, with accompanyingmovement, simulate battle conditions, iffeasible.

(8) Stress the importance of exchange ofinformation by all appropriate means.

(9) Have a well-planned critique immedi-ately after each field exercise.

Section V. LEADERSHIP IN DEMOBILIZATION

28. DEMOBILIZATION

After each war, the Army is confronted withthe difficult problem of demobilization. Divergentand often conflicting objectives usually face theArmy at such a time. Some of these are-

a. To return personnel to civilian life quickly.h. To demobilize personnel in a just and fair

order.c. To retain and maintain highly efficient forces

for occupation duties and for other commitmentsof armed security at home and abroad.

d. To care for billions of dollars worth of sup-plies and equipment, and to assist in the disposalof surplus.

e. To maintain morale in the Armed Forces andcivilian population.

f. To continue the induction or enlistment ofpersonnel as required.

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g. To secure public acceptance of the demobili-zation plan.

29. TECHNIQUES

Leadership techniques that particularly applyto demobilization are-

a. Early Planning in all Elements of the Com-mand.

(1) The essence of a demobilization plan, re-gardless of the size of the military unitinvolved, is that it is fair and just to theindividual, does not leave a weak, ineffec-tive defense force, and can be carried outexpeditiously with the means available.Mass demobilization procedures whichovertax facilities, both in the theater andin the continental United States, andwhich strip fighting and service units ofessential personnel are not justified solelybecause of personal desires. These de-sires, expressed individually or in mass,exert strong pressure for the rapid re-lease of personnel from service withoutregard to military expediency.

(2) Early planning in division and highercommands is dependent upon directivesreceived from higher authority. It ishere that new leaders must be trained totake over the responsibilities of experi-enced demobilized veterans. All troopsmust be carefully oriented on the whyand how of the demobilization plan.

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b. Education of Both Army Personnel and Civil-ians. One of the most important objectives of ademobilization program is public acceptance. Al-though all Army personnel must know and under-stand the plan, basic support must come from thecivilian population. This support can be gainedonly by providing a sound, fair plan which is madeknown through a carefully conceived, forcefullyexecuted public information program. Initial im-petus is gained through indoctrinating officersand men who will, in turn, inform friends andrelatives. Continuous emphasis must be placed onthe responsibilities of the Armed Forces for fur-thering national interest. The press and the pub-lic must be solidly behind procedures of the de-mobilization plan.

c. Fairness to the Individual. A war of any ap-preciable duration will find practically all unitscontaining personnel with wide differences in age,service, and family responsibility. If, at the endof any future war, demobilization is based on in-dividual criteria, those parts of the plan dealingwith the interests of individuals must be plannedand executed fairly.

d. Maintenance of Morale and Esprit de corps.Any method of demobilization based entirely onindividual criteria will ultimately destroy groupidentity. This is true not only of units that areselected to remain in being, but also of units thatare used as vehicles for returning individualsfor demobilization. Large groups of personnel willsuddenly find themselves among strangers, instrange surroundings, and under strange leaders.

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Some methods that may prove useful in such unitsfor builaing and maintaining morale and esprit decorps are-

(1) To keep troops busy on useful work.

(2) To separate as quickly as possible per-sonnel to be demobilized from those whoare to remain in the service.

(3) To make every effort to insure that de-mobilization plans work smoothly.

(4) To make men leaving the Army feel thattheir service has been appreciated andthat every effort has been made to separ-ate them from the service in an efficientmanner.

(5) To indoctrinate remaining men with theimportance of their work and service.

30. ADDITIONAL TECHNIQUES FOR UNITS COMPOSEDOF PERSONNEL TO BE DEMOBILIZED

a. Welcome veterans to the unit. Foster a"sense of belonging" among those assigned fromother units.

b. Orient and inform personnel. Officers andmen must be kept informed of the status of de-mobilization as it affects them and of any reasonsfor delays which may develop.

c. Include preparation for return to civilian lifein training. Courses of study in civilian pursuitsshould be made available. Training should pro-mote the health of the individual, and disciplineand pride in his unit.

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d. Provide good food, billets, living conditions,and recreation.

e. Stress discipline, appearance, saluting, uni-form, and unit athletics. Encourage men to wearservice ribbons, decorations, and any other author-ized symbols of previous service. Where practic-able, arrange for officers and men from the samecombat unit to remain together until separationfrom the service.

f. Avoid rash promises and commitments.Keep in mind that the best of plans go astray forunforeseen reasons.

g. Avoid changes and counterorders. By thor-ough planning, seek stability for the unit and forits individuals. Keep changes in orders and shiftsof personnel to a minimum.

Section VI. LEADERSHIP OF OCCUPATION FORCES

31. OCCUPATION MISSIONS

Primary missions of occupation forces are tosupport the military government of the occupiedterritory and to protect that territory from ex-ternal aggression and from internal uprising.Secondary missions may include supervising andregulating certain activities of the inhabitants ofthe occupied territory; supervising and directingessential rehabilitation and reconstruction; sup-plying necessities to the population; controllingborders; supporting civil police; and conductingtraining not only to fit the forces for carrying out

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their occupation missions, but also to maintainthem as capable combat forces.

32. SPECIAL FACTORS

Some factors peculiar to occupation dutieswhich bear on leadership are-

a. Foreign Duty. A large proportion of thetroops may not be serving overseas from choice.The foreign population may naturally resent thepresence of an occupying force and may oppose itby various means.

b. Incentive. Generally, it is difficult to converttroops from their combat missions to those of oc-cupation. The commander must expect a naturallet-down of interest on the part of the occupationtroops if no new incentives are provided and ac-cepted by them.

c. Availability of Forces. The early stages ofthe occupation are likely to be characterized by anabundance of troops for occupation tasks. Later ashortage may exist. Furthermore, a rapid turn-over of personnel of the occupation forces may re-sult from short-term enlistments, time requiredfor training replacements in the continentalUnited States, shipping time from the continentalUnited States, demobilization criteria, and otherfactors beyond the control of the occupation forcecommanders. These factors will increase thetraining problems of the occupation forces, partic-ularly with respect to junior officers and noncom-missioned officers.

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d. Maintenance of High Standards of Disci-pline. Not only is it necessary to carry out thenormal administrative duties of occupation effici-ently, but also it is essential to gain and maintainthe respect of the conquered populace. A highlydisciplined force will have little trouble controllingthose who respect its military efficiency.

33. TECHNIQUES TO BE EMPHASIZED

All leadership techniques discussed previouslyapply equally well to the commander of occupationforces. Some additional techniques are-

a. To keep occupation forces informed of thepurpose and importance of their mission.

b. To do everything possible to make the tour ofoccupation duty interesting for the command. Pro-vide recreation facilities, tours within the occupiedand adjacent countries, comfortable billets, goodfood, and freedom from menial tasks that can beperformed by the conquered population. Provideinstruction for the troops in the language of theoccupied country.

c. To treat the civil population fairly, firmly,and courteously. Proper relations will greatly as-sist in breaking down the people's natural resent-ment towards occupation forces.

d. To keep troops busy on essential work andtraining, or at interesting and wholesome recrea-tion.

e. To provide the best in uniforms, arms, andequipment, and insist upon outstanding appear-ance.

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f. To select leaders carefully. Popularity alonewithin the unit is one of the poorest criterions inthese selections.

g. To demonstrate to your command that youare part of it. The failures of the men are yourfailures, and their successes are likewise yours.

Section VII. LEADERSHIP OF MINORITY GROUPS

34. MINORITY GROUPS

Within our nation there are many groups whichare considered minority groups-racial, religious,and cultural. Since the Army's concern is only theemployment of men on their individual merit sothat they may contribute most efficiently and effec-tively to the national effort, it follows that theArmy's interest in any minority group extendsonly to distinctive differences which may necessi-tate special handling. These differences lie in suchfactors as general ability, physical strength, dietneeds, mechanical skills, language, and education.The problem of using certain minority groups withgreater efficiency has caused grave concern duringthe past two wars. In a future war, this problemmay be of greater magnitude. For this consider-able portion of our National manpower resources,the Army must accept the responsibility for pro-viding competent leadership. At the same time,leaders must avoid any effort to foster social ex-periments within the structure of the MilitaryEstablishment except when expressly ordered byhigher authority to do so. The principles in chap-

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ter 1 apply to the leading of any minority group inthe United States. The greatest sources of diffi-culty lie in the lack of thorough understanding ofthe characteristics of the group, and in the failureto recognize the fact that individual differencesare greater and more significant than are groupdifferences.

35. TECHNIQUES

A need for outstanding leadership is imperativein units composed of personnel from recognizedminority groups. This need cannot be met by in-creased quantity of leaders alone; the quality ofleadership must be of the highest order. The fol-lowing techniques are presented for the purposeof amplifying the basic principles of leadershipand of applying them to minority group units:

a. Recognize that all soldiers are entitled toidentical treatment and to fundamental rights,privileges, and opportunities regardless of differ-ences in race, color, creed, or cultural background.To accept less for your unit invites unfavorablecriticism; to demand more creates an undesirablereaction from all elements.

b. Set the example in tolerance, understanding,and freedom from prejudice. Become worthy ofbeing emulated as a broad-minded, unprejudicedleader.

c. Avoid creating the impression of either hos-tility or patronizing condescension.

d. Develop an understanding of minority groupproblems and feelings by observation and study.

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It is only by first-hand knowledge that any race orgroup may be understood. Diligent study of groupproblems tends to destroy false beliefs and con-ceptions.

e. Develop in your men initiative and a sense ofresponsibility by providing means and opportuni-ties for fostering and improving these traits.

f. Impress your unit with the fact that theArmy is concerned primarily with the developmentof soldiers and leaders and that each man will beafforded opportunity to develop his own capabili-ties and capacities.

g. Be sure that adequate provisions are madefor off-duty time. When civilian facilities arelimited or restricted, increase the military recrea-tional program accordingly.

h. Be patient in training progress. It is betterto build slowly toward high standards than toneglect details.

i. Maintain the same standards as are requiredof comparable units.

Section VIII. LEADERSHIP OF FEMALE GROUPS

36. FEMALE GROUPS

While WAC's, nurses, and female civilian em-ployees, Red Cross workers, and USO entertainersdo not constitute a minority group, their presencewith the Army poses certain problems of leader-

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ship. Individually, or as a group, women requirecertain facilities and items not essential to malepersonnel; among these are-special facilities forbilleting, transportation, hospitalization, and rec-reation, and special items of individual equipmentand supply. The particulars concerning leader-ship of women are contained in appropriate pub-lications prepared by the Women's Army Corps.

U. S. GOVERNMENT PRINTING OFFICE: 1951-914944

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