fodder production through agro-forestry: a boon for ... · (cafri, 2015). presently, in india,...
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Fodder production through agro-forestry: A boon for profitable dairy
farming
Dr. R. K. Mathukia and Prof. C.N. Jadav
Department of Agronomy, College of Agriculture
Junagadh Agricultural University, Junagadh - 362 001
ASCAD training on “Advances in animal nutrition and management practices to
maximize production”during 12-17 October, 2015
In Indian agriculture, livestock
plays a pivotal role in the development and
progress of mankind with crop production
programme as a complementary enterprise.
However, livestock productivity is
constrained by an acute shortage of feed and
fodder. A general agreement is that there is a
shortage of 40.4% dry fodder and 24.7%
green fodder against the requirement of
650.7 and 761.5 million tonnes (MT) for dry
and green fodder, respectively (Singh et al.,
2011). In India, there is a deficit of green
fodder particularly during summer season. In
India, only 4.4% of the cultivated area is
under fodder crops with annual total forage
production of 846 MT. In Gujarat, the total
area under forage crops is about 7.96
thousand hectares and the production of
green and dry fodder in Gujarat is 57.64 and
15.25 MT (http://kashvet.uni.cc).
Agroforestry
Agroforestry is a collective name for
land use systems and practices in which
woody perennials are deliberately integrated
with crops and/or animals on the same land
management unit (ICRAF; FAO, 2005).
There are different types of
agroforestry practices that can be used, these
includes improved fallow, Taungya, home
gardens, alley cropping, growing
multipurpose trees and shrubs on farmland,
boundary planting, farm woodlots, orchards
or tree gardens, plantation/crop
combinations, shelterbelts, windbreaks,
conservation hedges, fodder banks, live
fences, trees on pastures and apiculture with
trees (Nair 1993; Siclair 1999). The different
types of agroforestry technologies have been
found to address specific human and
environmental needs. One of the important
benefits is production of fodder to feed
livestock. Farmers have enjoyed increased
incomes from livestock production,
increased crop production, and reduced
labour especially for herding cattle from
adoption of agroforestry practices (FAO,
2005). Improved soil fertility through
production of leguminous and other
agroforestry trees is another benefit. Planting
shrubs in fallow for two years and rotating
with maize has improved maize yields
compared with planting continuous
unfertilized maize (Franzel et al., 2014).
Timber and firewood as well as
environmental services such as wind breaks,
carbon sequestration and biodiversity among
others are more benefits that can be obtained
from agroforestry practices (FAO, 2005).
Global Scenario
Agroforestry is practiced in all
continents of the world. A high percentage
of tree cover is found in nearly all continents
of the world, highest being in Central
America and Southeast Asia. There is now
general agreement about the magnitude and
scale of the integration of trees into
agricultural lands and their active
management by farmers and pastoralists.
Dixon (1995) estimated a total 585-1215
million hectares (Mha) of land in Africa,
Asia and the Americas under agroforestry,
while Nair et al. (2009) estimated a land area
of 1023 Mha under agroforestry worldwide.
Almost half of the world’s agricultural lands
have at least a 10% tree cover, suggesting
that agroforestry, an integrated system of
trees, crops and/or livestock within a
managed farm or agricultural landscape, is
widespread (Zomer et al., 2009).
Agroforestry is contributing substantially in
economic growth of various countries. The
economic importance of agroforestry can be
partly understood by examining data on the
export value of major tree products.
FAOSTAT (2011) shows that conservative
estimates of international trade of this list of
tree products was valued at a whopping
US$140 billion in 2009. The actual
production levels are much higher,
considering that the list includes only well-
known and common tree products and that
many tree products in developing countries
are not marketed internationally (e.g.
firewood, fodder, medicinal uses) and for
products such as fruit, as much as 90% of
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ASCAD training on “Advances in animal nutrition and management practices to
maximize production”during 12-17 October, 2015
production is consumed domestically. In
addition, the positive externalities (or
ecosystem services) represented by trees
(e.g. carbon sequestration, nutrient cycling,
provision of shade, etc.) are not counted.
Indian Scenario
Indian agriculture is facing diverse
challenges and constraints due to growing
demographic pressure, increasing food, feed,
pulp, fodder and timber needs, natural
resource degradation and climate change.
Diversification of land use with agroforestry
as a component can address some of these
challenges. Agroforestry has traditionally
been a way of life and livelihood in India for
centuries. The country has also been in the
forefront since organized agroforestry
research started worldwide. It developed
robust agroforestry science, innovations and
practices that are attracting global interest.
India faces a critical imbalance in its
natural resource base with about 18% human
and 15% livestock population of the world
being supported only on 2.4% geographical
area, 1.5% forest and pasture lands and 4.2%
water resources. Agriculture sector
contributes about 15% national GDP,
employs 56% of the total workforce and
supports about 58% of the total population.
Thus, this sector is very vital not only to
provide income support, but also to ensure
livelihood security for majority of the people
(CAFRI, 2015).
Presently, in India, about 60% the
cropped area is rainfed, which contribute
about 44% food-grain production. Its
contribution in coarse cereals & pulses is
about 90%, in oilseeds 60% and in case of
cotton it is about 80%. Significant
proportion of livestock population (66%) is
also in the rainfed areas. However, these
areas are characterized by low input use and
low yield levels. The yield levels are highly
prone to variety of risks. For such areas,
diversification of land use systems with
agroforestry is a necessary strategy for
providing variety of products for meeting
requirements of the people, insurance
against risks caused by weather aberrations,
controlling erosion hazards and ensuring
sustainable production on a long-term basis.
Besides, 90% of the forests in the country
are performing the critical functions of
protecting fragile watersheds and are not fit
for commercial exploitation (Dhyani et al.,
2007).
Agroforestry is playing the greatest
role in maintaining the resource base and
increasing overall productivity in the rainfed
areas in general and the arid and semi-arid
regions in particular. Agroforestry land use
increases livelihood security and reduces
vulnerability to climate and environmental
change. There are ample evidences to show
that the overall (biomass) productivity, soil
fertility improvement, soil conservation,
nutrient cycling, microclimate improvement,
and carbon sequestration potential of an
agroforestry system is generally greater than
that of an annual system (Dhyani et al.,
2009). Agroforestry has an important role in
reducing vulnerability, increasing resilience
of farming systems and buffering households
against climate related risks. It also provides
for ecosystem services - water, soil health
and biodiversity. Therefore, agroforestry
will be required to contribute substantially to
meet the demands of rising population for
food, fruits, fuel wood, timber, fodder, bio-
fuel and bio-energy as well as for its
perceived ecological services (Fig.1).
Table 1: Total domestic demand for various
commodities (CAFRI, 2015)
Items 2010-11 Projected
for 2050
Contribut
ion from
Agrofores
try in
2050
Food grains
(MT)
218.20 457.1 41.14*
Fruits (MT) 71.20 305.3 47.74*
Fodder (MT) 1061.00 1545 154.50
Fuel wood
(MT)
308.00 629 308.00
Timber (MT) 120.00 347 295.00
Biodiesel
(MT) required
for 20%
blending of
diesel
12.94 37.92 30.34
Area (Mha)
required for
TBOS
12.32 21.67 17.34
*Food-grains/fruits production from
systematic agroforestry systems viz. agri-
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ASCAD training on “Advances in animal nutrition and management practices to
maximize production”during 12-17 October, 2015
silviculture/ agri-horticulture only
considered
In order to meet the requirement of
the population in 2050 an increase by 1.5
times in fodder, two times in food grains and
fuelwood and three times in timber
production will be required (Table 1). Also,
to meet the energy requirement from
biodiesel and achieve 20% blending in
diesel, a three-fold increase in production of
biodiesel will be required (Dhyani et al.,
2013).Agroforestry has the potential to
provide most or all the ecosystem services.
The Millennium Ecosystem Assessment
(2005) has categorized the ecosystem
services into provisioning service (e.g.,
fuelwood, fodder, timber, poles etc.),
regulating service (hydrological benefits,
microclimatic modifications), supporting
service (nutrient cycling, agro-biodiversity
conservation), and cultural service
(recreation, aesthetics).
Agroforestry systems on arable lands
envisage growing of trees and woody
perennials on terrace risers, terrace edges,
field bunds, as intercrops and as alley
cropping. Agroforestry practices for non-
arable degraded lands such as bouldery
riverbeds, torrents, landslide, shifting
cultivation areas, waterlogged soils, control
of desertification, mine spoil rehabilitation
and treatment of saline and alkaline lands
have been developed and demonstrated.
Agroforestry land use in conjunction with
soil and water conservation and animal
husbandry needs to be emphasized.
Organized agroforestry research in
India began in the late eighties when the
Indian Council of Agricultural Research
(ICAR) launched the All India Coordinated
Research Project (AICRP) on Agroforestry
in 1983. Further, National Research Centre
for Agroforestry (NRCAF) was established
in 1988 at Jhansi to accelerate basic,
strategic and applied research in
agroforestry, now named as Central
Agroforestry Research Institute (CAFRI) in
December 2014. At present there are 37
Centres under AICRP on Agroforestry
representing the major agro-ecologies of the
country with the project coordinating unit at
CAFRI, Jhansi.
In fact, agroforestry has proven as an
important tool for crop diversification.
National Agriculture Policy, 2000
recommends agroforestry for sustainable
agriculture and advocates bringing up
agroforestry in areas currently under shifting
cultivation. National Forest Policy, 1988 sets
a goal of increasing forest cover on one-third
geographical area of the country. Major
Policy initiatives including National Forest
Policy 1952, 1988 and the National
Agriculture Policy 2000, Task Force on
Greening India 2001 and National Bamboo
Mission 2002 emphasized the role of
agroforestry for efficient nutrient cycling,
organic matter addition for sustainable
agriculture and for improving forest cover.
India launched the much-needed
National Agroforestry Policy (NAFP) in
2014. The NAFP is a path-breaker in making
agroforestry an instrument for transforming
lives of rural farming population, protecting
ecosystem and ensuring food security
through sustainable means. The major
highlights of the policy are: establishment of
institutional setup at national level to
promote agroforestry under the mandate of
Ministry of Agriculture; simplify regulations
related to harvesting, felling and
transportation of trees grown on farmlands;
ensuring security of land tenure and creating
a sound base of land records and data for
developing an market information system
(MIS) for agroforestry; investing in research,
extension and capacity building and related
services; access to quality planting material;
institutional credit and insurance cover to
agroforestry practitioners; increased
participation of industries dealing with
agroforestry produce; strengthening
marketing information system for tree
products.
Table 2: Land use (Mha) scenario at present
and projected for 2050.
Classification 1970 2010 2050
Forest cover# 63.83 69.63 69.63
Net area sown 140.86 140.86 142.60
Other
uncultivated land
(Fallow,
pastures,
cultivable waste,
misc. tree crops
and groves)
54.46 55.18 53.44
Not available for
cultivation
44.60 40.00 40.00
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ASCAD training on “Advances in animal nutrition and management practices to
maximize production”during 12-17 October, 2015
Reporting area 303.75 305.67 305.67
Agroforestry$ - 25.32 53.00
*Source: Agricultural Statistics at a Glance,
2010, Directorate of Economics and
Statistics, Ministry of Agriculture, Govt. of
India. #Forest Survey of India, State of
Forest Report 2009. $Dhyani et al. (2013).
The current area under agroforestry
in India is estimated as 25.32 Mha or 8.2%
of the total geographical area of the country.
There is further scope of increasing the area
under agroforestry in future by another 28.0
Mha. The major share of the land to be
brought under agroforestry will come from
fallows, cultivable fallows, pastures, groves
and rehabilitation of problem soils. Thus, a
total of 53.32 Mha (Table 2), representing
about 17.5% of the total reported
geographical area (TRGA) of the country,
could potentially be brought under
agroforestry in the near future, which will
make agroforestry a major land-use activity,
after agriculture (140.86 Mha, 46.08% of the
TRGA) and forestry (69.63 Mha, 22.78% of
the TRGA) in India (Dhyani et al., 2013).
At present agroforestry meets almost
half of the demand of fuelwood, 2/3 of the
small timber, 70-80% wood for plywood,
60% raw material for paper pulp and 9-11%
of the green fodder requirement of livestock,
besides meeting the subsistence needs of
households for food, fruit, fibre, medicine,
timber etc. However, current biomass
productivity per unit area and time is less
than 2 t/ha/y. Agroforestry practices have
demonstrated that this could be safely
enhanced to 10 t/ha/y by carefully selecting
tree-crop combinations. Area under forest is
degrading due to tremendous demographic
pressure and infrastructure growth needs,
while agricultural area is almost stable. In
India, nearly 120.72 Mha land or 37% of the
total geographical area is under one or the
other forms of soil degradation (e.g., water
erosion: 93 Mha, wind erosion: 11 Mha, salt
affected soils: 6.74 Mha, and 16.53 Mha of
open forest area; ICAR, 2010). About 56.54
Mha area has been treated under various
watershed development programmes,
however a sizeable area is yet to be treated.
Trees are known to grow even in areas
polluted by heavy metals and other
hazardous industrial chemicals. In fact, there
are trees, which can absorb and tolerate such
pollutants, which not only reduce crop yields
but also impair quality of crop produce. A
number of agroforestry tree species e.g.
Terminalia arjuna, Eucalyptus hybrid,
Morus alba and Syzygium cummini etc. have
been evaluated and identified for their
potential for phytoremediation (Dhillon et
al., 2008). In India, 24.68 Mha area is
affected by chemical pollution. These areas
can be brought under cultivation through
biological amelioration. Agroforestry can
play vital role in such endeavours. Meeting
diverse needs of people and livestock from
limited land resources is only possible, when
agroforestry becomes common land use on
majority of arable and non-arable lands. This
will not only avert degradation, but also
enhance total productivity and restore eco-
balance simultaneously. Agroforestry
answers many problems that are faced by
today’s agriculture in terms of stability in
production, regular returns, restoration of
fertility, indiscriminate deforestation,
drought mitigation and environmental
pollution.
Features of Agroforestry Agroforestry practices are
intentional systematic combinations of trees
with crops and/or livestock that involve
intensive management of the interactions
between the components as an integrated
agro-ecosystem. To be called agroforestry, a
land-use practice must be intentional,
intensive, interactive and integrated.
Classification of Agroforestry Systems
Nair (1993) classified agroforestry
on structural, functional, socioeconomic and
ecological basis.
1. Based on Structure (Composition and
dimension of crop)
(a) Agri-silviculture: In this system,
tree species are grown and managed in the
farmland along with agricultural crops. The
aim is to increase overall yield of the land.
Based on the nature of the components this
system can be grouped into various forms.
(i) Improved fallow species in shifting
cultivation: Fallows are crop lands left
without crops for a period ranging from one
season to several years. The objective of
improved fallow species in shifting
cultivation is to recover depleted soil
nutrients. In shifting cultivation, people
cleared a forest, burnt the slash, raised a crop
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ASCAD training on “Advances in animal nutrition and management practices to
maximize production”during 12-17 October, 2015
for few years and then shifted to clear
another forest. As civilization progressed,
people took to settle cultivation but many
tribal communities still practice shifting
cultivation. The practice is largely confined
to the North-Eastern hill state and Orissa. It
is called ‘Jhum’ in the North-Eastern hill
region and ‘Podu’ in Andhra Pradesh and
Orissa. The task force on shifting cultivation
(1983) estimated the forest area affected by
shifting cultivation to be 4.35 Mha. The
main function of the fallow is to maintain or
restore soil fertility and reduce erosion.
Some plants can be introduced primarily for
their economic value.
(ii) The Taungya system: The Taungya
(Taung = hill, Ya = cultivation) is a business
word coined in Myanmar in 1850. The
Taungya is one of the earliest form of land
use in which trees are regularly arranged and
agricultural crops are harvested on a
temporarily basis. In Taungya cultivation,
the major objective is harvest of the tree.
Annual crops are interplanted for 1-3 years,
mainly to meet the household requirements.
It has helped to settle shifting cultivators and
the landless by providing employment and
income in ‘forest villages’. However, the
system has important shortcomings such as
insecure land tenure for the farmers.
Taungya systems are of three types:
departmental, leased and village Taungya.
(iii) Multi-species tree garden: In this
system of agroforestry, various kinds of tree
species are grown mixed. The major
function of this system is production of food,
fodder and wood products for home
consumption and sale for cash.
(iv) Alley cropping: Alley cropping also
known as hedgerow intercropping, in which
food crops are grown in alleys formed by
hedgerows of trees. The woody plants are
cut regularly and leaves or twigs are used as
fodder or mulch on the cropped alleys in
order to reduce evaporation from the soil
surface, suppress weeds and all nutrients and
organic matter to the top soil. Trees or
shrubs must be amenable to lopping
management besides being multipurpose
(including nitrogen fixing) and fast growing
(i) Leucaena leucocephala, (ii) Sesbania
sesban, (iii) Cassia samiea, (iv) Gliricidia
maculate and (v) Calliandra spp.
(v) Multipurpose trees and shrubs on
farm lands: In this system various
multipurpose tree species are scattered
haphazardly or according to some systematic
pattern on bunds, terraces or plot/field
boundaries. The major components of this
system are multipurpose trees and common
agricultural crops. The primary role of this
system is production of various tree products
and the protective function is fencing, social
values and plot demarcation, examples of
multipurpose tees employed in agroforestry
are: Leucaena leucocephala, Acacia albida,
Cassia siamea, Casuarina equisetifolia,
Azadirachta indica, Acacia senegal, Cocos
nucifera etc.
(vi) Crop combination with plantation
crops: Perennial trees and shrubs such as
coffee, tea, coconut and coco are combined
into intercropping system in numerous ways
including (a) multi-storeyed agroforestry
system- this system is managed by the
combination between cultural practices and
respects the natural processes of vegetation
production and reproduction. It represents a
profitable production system and constitutes
an efficient buffer between villages and
forests. This is common in coastal parts of
Southern India, where coconut is grown with
black pepper and tapioca, (b) mixture of
plantation crops in alternate or other regular
arrangement, (c) shade tree for plantation
crops, and (d) intercropping with agricultural
crops.
(vii) Agroforestry for fuelwood
production: In this system various
multipurpose fuelwood/firewood species are
intercropped on or around agriculture lands.
The primary objective is to produce
firewood. Tree species commonly used as
fuelwood are: Acacia nilotica, Albizia
lebbeck, Cassia siamea, Casuarina
equisetifolia, Dalbergia sissoo, Prosopis
juliflora etc.
(viii) Shelter belts: In general shelter belt
is a wide belt of trees, shrubs and grasses,
planted in rows at right angle to the direction
of wind velocity and planted for wind
protection. A shielding or screen structure
especially against weather is called shelter
and belt is a zone or band or broad strip of
anything. Therefore, a shelter belt is a term
which is broader than windbreak. A shelter
belt is a broad strip of trees, shrubs etc. to
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ASCAD training on “Advances in animal nutrition and management practices to
maximize production”during 12-17 October, 2015
provide a screening structure for the
protection of crops against any type of
weather. Properly oriented and perforated
shelterbelts are effective in giving protection
against wind damage through reducing
mechanical damage, reducing moisture
stress, reducing soil erosion and altering
temperature conditions.
(ix) Windbreaks: Any barrier erected to
break or slow down the effect of wind is
known as windbreak. In North India, strong
winds cause uprooting and lodging of crops.
Windbreaks have been effective in
increasing crop production in semi-arid
region. Maximum protection is obtained
when windbreaks are planted in right angle
to the direction of wind. In areas with 5%
slope, windbreaks should be planted along
the contours.
(x) Soil conservation hedges: Trees can be
planted on soil conservation works (grass
strips, bunds, risers and terraces), wherein
they play two roles: to stabilise the structure
and to make productive use of the land they
occupy. In some of steep slopping landscape
of the country, the risers or terraces are
densely planted with trees. In this system the
major groups of components are:
multipurpose and/or fruit trees and common
agricultural species. The tree species used
for soil conservation are Grevillea robusta,
Acacia catechu, Pinus roxburghii, Acacia
modesta, Prosopis juliflora, Leucaena
leucocephala etc.
(b) Silvi-pastoral system: In the silvi-
pastoral system, improved pasture species
are introduced with tree species. In this
system, grass or grass-legume mixture is
grown along with the woody perennials
simultaneously on the same unit of land.
This system provides fodder, fuelwood and
small timber under arid conditions. Sesbania
sesban increases forage production of
Cenchrus ciliaris, Setaria anceps,
Desmanthus, Chrysopogon fulvus gives
higher yield when grown with Eucalyptus
hybrid. This system is again classified into
three categories:
(i) Protein bank: In this silvi-pastoral
system of agroforestry, various multipurpose
trees (protein rich trees) are planted on
wasteland and rangelands for cut and carry
fodder production to meet the feed
requirements of livestock during the fodder
deficit period in winter. About 25% of the
total annual diet of livestock is composed of
trees and shrubs. Tree species for dry areas
are: Acacia modesta, Acacia nilotica,
Alianthus excelsa, Albizia lebbeck, Leucaena
leucocephala, Ziziphus mauritiana,
Tecomella grandis etc. Acacia nilotica seeds
contain crude protein (18.6%), whereas,
Leucaena leucocephala seeds are highest in
protein (about 30%).
(ii) Living fence of fodder trees and
hedges: Fodder trees and hedges are planted
along the border as live fences. Trees like
Sesbania grandiflora, Gliricidia sepium,
Erythrina byssica, Euphorbia spp., Acacia
spp., Katkaranj etc. can be used.
(iii) Trees and shrubs on pasture: In this
system various trees and shrubs are scattered
irregularly or arranged according to some
systematic pattern, especially to supplement
forage production. The trees and shrub
species used for humid and sub humid
region are: Derris indica, Emblica
officinalis, Psidium guajava, Tamarindus
indica and for dry region: Acacia spp.,
Prosopis spp. and Tamarindus indica.
(c) Agri-silvi-pastoral system: This system
is the result of the union between silvi-
pastoral and agri-silvicultural systems.
Under this system, the same unit of land is
managed to get agricultural and forest crops
where farmers can also rear animals. This
system holds promise especially in highland
humid tropics. It may be tree, livestock-crop
mix around homestead, wood hedgerow for
browsing, green manure, soil conservation or
for an integrated production of pasture,
crops, animals and wood.
Homestead agroforestry: Farmers generally
plant trees in and around their habitations,
courtyard, threshing floor and in the field.
These house gardens are aimed to satisfy the
family needs of fruit, fuel, fodder and small
timbers. The system of home garden is more
prevalent in high rainfall areas of Kerala and
Tamil Nadu. In India every homestead has
around 0.2-0.5 ha land for personal
production, on which trees are grown for
timber, fruit, vegetable, small plots of
sugarcane in more open patches and a
surrounding productive live fence of
bamboo. Home gardens epitomise the
qualities of agroforestry systems. They are
highly productive, extremely sustainable and
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ASCAD training on “Advances in animal nutrition and management practices to
maximize production”during 12-17 October, 2015
very practicable. Food production is the
primary function of most home gardens.
(d)Multipurpose forestry production
system: Forest is managed to yield multiple
product in addition to wood. They are grown
to yield fruits, flower, leaves, honey, gum,
lac and medicine. This system is best suited
for hill tribal.
2.Based on the Dominance of Components
(i) Silvi-agriculture: The trees are the major
component of land use and agriculture crops
are integrated with them e.g. shifting
cultivation, Taungya cultivation.
(ii) Agri-silviculture: Agricultural
component is the major one and trees are
secondary e.g. hedge cropping, alley
cropping.
(iii) Silvi-pastoral system: Trees are the
major component and pasture is secondary
to allow the animals for grazing.
(iv) Pastoral-silviculture: Pasture is the
major component and trees are secondary,
sometimes allowing overgrazing of forest
beyond its carrying capacity.
(v) Agro-silvi-pastoral system:
Combination of crops, trees and pasture e.g.
home garden, wherein trees, herbs, shrubs,
climbers and grasses are grown on the same
land.
(vi) Silvi-agri-pastoral: Silviculture is the
dominant component, agriculture and
pasture are secondary.
3. Based on Arrangement of Components
The arrangement of component gives
first priority to the plants. Such plant
arrangement in multispecies combinations
involve the dimension of space and time.
(i) Spatial arrangement: Spatial
arrangements of plants in an agroforestry
system mixture may result in dense mixed
stands (as in home gardens) or in sparse
mixed stands (as in most systems of trees in
pasture). The species or species mixture may
be laid out in zones or strips of varying
width. There may be several forms of such
zones, varying from micro zonal
arrangements (such as alternate rows) to
macro zonal ones. A common example of
the zonal pattern is hedge row intercropping
(alley cropping). An extreme form of
planting is the boundary planting of trees.
(ii) Temporal arrangement: Temporal
arrangement of plants in agroforestry system
may also take various forms.
(a) Coincident: Different crops occupy the
land together e.g. coffee under shade trees,
pasture under trees.
(b) Concomitant: The components stay
together, for some part of life e.g.
agricultural crops grown for only a few
years.
(c) Intermittent: Scope is dominated, the
annual crops grown with perennial crops.
(d) Interpolated: Space and time are
dominated different components occupy the
space during different times in home garden.
4. Based on Allied Components
(i) Agroforestry-cum-sericulture: This is a
very complex system of agroforestry. In this
system, crops/vegetables are grown along
with tree species (silk host plants). The
larval excreta are good manure for the
crops/vegetables.
(ii) Agroforestry-cum-apiculture: The
land is managed for concurrent production
of flowers, crops and honey. Flowering
plants often favour increase of parasites and
predators of crop pests and thus an anti-
regulatory biocontrol system. The main
purpose of this system is the production of
honey.
(iii) Agroforestry-cum-pisciculture: It is a
system under which silviculture of
mangroves and fish is done simultaneously.
In paddy field, fish can easily be reared by
planting trees on field bunds or boundary.
This system can be followed in high rainfall
areas.
(iv) Agroforestry-cum-lac culture: In this
system crops are grown along with lac host
plants. It is very common in Chotta Nagpur
plateau of Bihar.
(v) Multipurpose wood lots: In this
system special location specific MPTs are
grown mixed or separately planted for
various purposes such as wood, fodder, soil
protection, soil reclamation etc.
5. Functional Classification of
Agroforestry System: Agroforestry system
have two functions i.e. production and
protection.
(a) Productive function (producing one or
more products): The various productive
functions of agroforestry system are:
(i) Food(ii) Fodder(iii) Fuelwood
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ASCAD training on “Advances in animal nutrition and management practices to
maximize production”during 12-17 October, 2015
(iv) Other wood (v) Other product
(b) Protective function (protecting and
maintaining production systems): the
protective functions of agroforestry are:
(i) Windbreak (ii) Shelterbelt (iii) Moisture
conservation (iv) Soil
conservation (v) Soil
improvement (vi) Shade
(for crop/animal/man6.
Socioeconomic Classification
Based on major socioeconomic criteria,
agroforestry systems have been grouped into
three categories:
(a) Commercial: e.g. commercial production
of agricultural plantation crop such as
rubber, oil palm etc.
(b) Intermediate: between commercial and
subsistence scale of production.
(c) Subsistence: satisfying basic needs and
managed by owner and his family.
7. Ecological Grouping of Agroforestry
Systems
Based on major agro-ecological
zone, agroforestry systems are grouped into
the following categories:
(i) Humid/sub humid lowlands
(ii) Semiarid/arid lands
(iii) Highlands
Thus, it can be seen that there may
be many approaches to agroforestry
classification. However, a system based on
the nature of the components and their major
functional characteristics for specific
purpose appears more logical, simple and
pragmatic purpose oriented approach. Again
the choice of system may depend on many
factors like social, ecological and
economical. However, selection of right
agroforestry system for right situation is
necessary.
Fodder Trees
Fodder trees are playing an
important role in reducing the fodder
shortage problem in India. In most parts of
our country after the end of rainy season,
animals suffer badly due to lack of protein
rich diet since availability of fodder become
scarce. The situation becomes serious during
the dry season under rainfed conditions,
when generally no crop can be grown and
natural pasture, grasses, and weeds become
unproductive. Farmers either feed their
animals with the low-quality hay of the
stored crop residues or they travel long
distances to gather green grasses or fodders.
In such circumstance, shrubs and fodder
trees are able to withstand the drought, stay
green, and provide a nutritious fodder for
livestock (Dhyani, 2003). Alarming
shortages of forage in our country can be
solved partially by planting fodder trees
capable of sustained production of palatable
forage high in protein and Total Digestible
Nutrients (TDN). Through the plantation of
these species on degraded lands under silvi-
pastoral systems and in farmer’s fields under
various agroforestry systems, fodder
availability can be enhanced. Oaks, Grewia
optiva, Celtis austrails in Western Himalaya,
and Ficus spp., Alnus nepalensis and
Bauhinia spp., in Eastern Himalayas have
been used as important fodder trees. Lopping
of Prosopis cineraria (Khejri) in western
Rajasthan, Albizia lebbeck, Albizia procera,
Azadirachta indica in northern and central
India for leaf fodder, use of pods of Acacia
nilotica and Prosopis juliflora for fodder are
common practices since old days. Most of
these species are important source of fodder
during lean period as well. Advantages of
tree fodder are that trees can be grown on
steep, rocky mountain slopes, in arid, saline,
or water-logged soils, and in areas with
severe climatic conditions. Also, trees do not
need heavy inputs of fertilizer, irrigation,
labour, pesticides, etc., as are generally
needed to grow conventional fodder crops.
Trees use and recycle nutrients that are
beyond the reach of grasses and other
herbaceous plants. Trees that accumulate
nitrogen enhance forage quality. Their
relative deep root system can exploit deep
moisture resources and, using this and other
strategies, trees are more tolerant to dry
periods than pastures.
Cultivation of Important Fodder Crops
Package of practices of some
important fodder crops suitable in different
agroforestry systems are briefly discussed
hereunder.
1. Jowar (Sorghum), Sorghum bicolor (L.)
Varieties:
Single cut: Pusa Chari-1, Haryana Chari
(J5-73/53), SL-44, MP Chari, Pusa
Chari-6, HC-136
Double Cut: CO-27, Gujarat Forage
Sorghum (AS-16), GFSH-1.
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ASCAD training on “Advances in animal nutrition and management practices to
maximize production”during 12-17 October, 2015
Multi Cut: SSG-59-3 (Meethi Sudan),
Maldandi, Jawahar Chari-69, Proagro
Chari (SSG-988), PCH-106 (Hybrid),
Punjab Sudex Chari-1,
Cultivation Practices:
Sowing time: Kharif: June-July,
Summer: February-March.
Spacing: 25-30 cm row spacing.
Seed rate: 30 kg/ha for improved
varieties and 20 kg/ha for hybrids.
Manure: 6-8 t FYM/ha at the time of
land preparation.
Fertilizers: Improved varieties: 20 kg
N/ha at sowing and 20 kg N/ha at 30-35
DAS. Hybrids: 40-40 kg N-P2O5/ha at
sowing and 40 kg N/ha at 30-40 DAS.
Multicut: 25-40 kg N-P2O5/ha at sowing,
25 kg N/ha at 30 DAS and 25 kg N/ha
after first cut. Zn deficient soil (<0.5
ppm): Zinc sulphate 25 kg/ha.
Weed management: Interculturing and
hand weeding at 30-35 DAS. Atrazine or
propazine @ 0.25-0.50 kg/ha as PE. 2,4-
D (EE) @ 0.75 kg/ha as PoE at 25-30
DAS, it also control striga. If
intercropped with pulses, alachlor 1
kg/ha as PE.
Irrigation: In summer, 4-5 irrigations and
for multicut, 7-8 irrigations at 10-15
days interval.
Harvesting: Single cut: 60-65 DAS (50%
flowering). Multicut: First cut at 40-45
DAS and subsequent at 30 days interval.
Since HCN is present in sorghum
especially in early stages, water stressed
and ratoon crop, proper care has to be
exercised during harvesting for avoiding
HCN poisoning.
The mixed/inter cropping is also
practiced with fodder legumes, viz.,
pigeonpea, cowpea and clusterbean, in
2:1 ratio to improve fodder yield and
quality.
Yield: Single cut: 350-400 q/ha, Double
cut: 450-650 q/ha, Multicut: 650-1050
q/ha green fodder.
2. Bajra (Pearlmillet), Pennisetum
glaucum L., Poaceae
Varieties: Rajka Bajri, Giant Bajra, Raj
Bajra Chari-2, CO-8, TNSC-1, APFB-2,
Proagro No. 1 (FMH-3), GFB-1, PCB-164,
FBC-16, Avika Bajra Chari (AVKB-19),
Narendra Chara .
Cultivation Practices:
Sowing time: Kharif: June-July,
Summer: February-March.
Spacing: 30-45 cm row spacing.
Seed rate: 8-10 kg/ha.
Manure: 8-10 t FYM/ha at the time of
land preparation.
Fertilizers: 50-25 kg N-P2O5/ha at
sowing and 50 kg N/ha at each cut. Soil
application of 20 kg ZnSO4/ha or foliar
spray @ 0.5% Zn at tillering and pre-
flowering stage also increases grain and
fodder yield.
Weed management: 1-2 interculturing
and hand weeding. Atrazine @ 0.50
kg/ha as PE. 2,4-D (EE) @ 0.75 kg/ha as
PoE at 25-30 DAS. If intercropped with
pulses, alachlor 0.75 kg/ha as PE.
Irrigation: In summer, 4-5 irrigations at
10-15 days interval.
Harvesting: First cut at 60-70 DAS (50%
flowering) and subsequent at 40-45 days.
Yield: Single cut: 300-350 q/ha, Double
cut: 600 q/ha green fodder.
3. Napier × Bajra Hybrid (NB hybrid),
Pennisetum purpureum × P. glaucum,
Poaceae
Varieties: CO-1, Hybrid Napier-3
(Swetika), CO-2, CO-3, Dharwad-2, PBN-
83, PBN-87, Yashwant (RBN-9), IGFRI-5,
NB-5, Supriya, Sampoorna (DHN-6),
IGFRI-10.
Cultivation Practices:
Sowing time: June-July and February-
March.
Spacing and seed rate: For 60 x 60, 90 x
90, 100 x 100 cm spacing, root slips or
stem cuttings required are 27778, 12346
and 10000/ha.
Manure: 10-15 t FYM/ha at the time of
land preparation.
Fertilizers: 30-40-30 kg N-P2O5-K2O/ha
at sowing and 30 kg N/ha after each cut,
and 30-40 kg N-P2O5/ha every year.
Weed management: Interculturing and
hand weeding as per requirement.
Irrigation: Irrigation at an interval of 15-
20 days in rabi and 10-15 days in
summer.
Harvesting: First cut at 60 DAS 45 cm
above ground level and subsequent cut at
40-50 days interval.
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ASCAD training on “Advances in animal nutrition and management practices to
maximize production”during 12-17 October, 2015
Yield: 1000-1500 q/ha/year green
fodder.
Intercropping: Cowpea in kharif and
lucerne in rabi can be intercropped with
hybrid napier, for that napier should be
planted at 150 x 25 cm.
4. Berseem (Egyptian clover), Trifolium
alexandrinum L., Fabaceae
Varieties: Pusa Giant, Mescavi, Berseem
Ludhiana-1 (BL-1), Jawahar Berseem-1 (JB-
1), JB-2, JB-3, Wardan, BL-10, BL-22, BL-
2, UPB-10, UPB-103, BL-180, IGFRI-99-1,
IGFRI-54
Cultivation Practices:
Sowing time: June-July
Seed treatment: Dipping seeds in 10%
NaCl solution for 10-15 minutes to
separate chicory seeds. Seeds should be
treated with H2SO4 for loosening hard
seed coat. Rhizobium culture can be
treated.
Spacing and seed rate: Broadcasting: 20-
30 kg/ha, 25-30 cm row spacing: 10-15
kg/ha.
Manure: 10-15 t FYM/ha at the time of
land preparation.
Fertilizers: 15-80-30 kg N-P2O5-K2O/ha
at sowing and 15 kg N/ha at 30 DAS.
Soil application or foliar spray of
micronutrients as per soil test.
Weed management: Interculturing and
hand weeding as per need.
Pendimethalin @ 0.75 kg/ha as PE.
Irrigation: Irrigation at an interval of 10-
12 days in rabi and 8-10 days in
summer.
Harvesting: First cut at 55-60 DAS (50%
flowering) and subsequent cut at 25-30
days interval. Mescavi varieties give 5-6
cuts.
Yield: 350-550 q/ha/year green fodder.
Intercropping: Berseem can be
intercropped with hybrid napier.
5. Lucerne (Alfalfa), Medicago sativa L.,
Fabaceae
Varieties: Chetak (S-244),GAUL-1 (Anand-
2), GAUL-2 (SS-627), LL Composite 5, LL
Composite 3, Lucerne No. 9-L, NDRI
Selection No.1, Anand-3, RL-88, Anand
Lucerne-3 (AL-3), IGFRI-S-54.
Cultivation Practices
Sowing time: October-November
Seed treatment: Dipping seeds in 10%
NaCl solution for 10-15 minutes to
separate chicory seeds. Seed treatment
with thirum or captan @ 3 g/kg seeds.
Rhizobium culture can be treated.
Spacing and seed rate: Broadcasting or
25 cm row spacing: 10-15 kg/ha.
Fenugreek 5 kg seeds/ha should be
mixed with lucerne to increase
digestibility of first cut fodder.
Manure: 10-15 t FYM/ha at the time of
land preparation.
Fertilizers: 20-50-50 kg N-P2O5-K2O/ha
at sowing. In subsequent years, annual
supplementation of 50-50 kg P2O5-
K2O/ha should be done. Application of
molybdenum and boron may be done
based on soil test.
Weed management: Interculturing and
hand weeding as per requirement.
Pendimethalin @ 0.5 kg/ha as PE.
Imazethapyr @ 70 g/ha as PoE at 10-12
DAS. For control of dodder, 0.1% spray
of paraquat.
Irrigation: Irrigation at an interval of 10-
12 days in rabi and 8-10 days in
summer.
Harvesting: First cut at 60-75 DAS (50%
flowering) and subsequent cut at 30
days.
Yield: Annual: 700-950 q/ha, Perennial:
1000-1100 q/ha green fodder. In general,
annual lucerne gives 4-5 cuts while in
the perennial crop, 7-8 cuts can be taken.
Intercropping: Lucerne can be
intercropped with hybrid napier.
Milk flavour problems and ways to troubleshoot it
Sagar Chand, S.S Patil and H.H Savsani
Department of Livestock Products and technology, College of Veterinary Science & A. H.
Junagadh Agricultural University, Junagadh - 362 001
ASCAD training on “Advances in animal nutrition and management practices to
maximize production”during 12-17 October, 2015
Flavour in one of the most
important qualities that determine the
acceptability of milk. Even though milk is
highly nutritious, people will not drink it if
they do not like it. Hence, milk should be
produced under conditions that give good
flavor initially, and also be handled to
protect its flavor at every step from the
cow to the consumer. With urbanization
milk is usually transported longer
distances to supply the urban population.
Transporting milk over longer distances
usually increases the time between
production and processing, which provides
a greater opportunity for development of
off-flavors. To maintain bacteriological
quality during this extended storage
period, greater emphasis is placed on
improved sanitary practices and effective
refrigeration. Defects of bacterial origin
are generally kept under control, but the
changes may result in an increased
incidence of other defects. For example, as
dairying became more intensive, bulk
collection systems were introduced. They
provided for cooling milk to lower storage
temperatures, and when couple with longer
storage times, oxidized and rancid flavors
could develop.
When the average number of cows
in herds increases, farmers have to provide
a larger proportion of the cow's feed in dry
form as hay and concentrate, instead of as
pasture and silage. In general, dry feeds
yield milk with greater susceptibility to
oxidized and rancid flavors than do
succulent feeds. Feeding high levels of
concentrate, as practiced in intensive dairy
areas, increases the concentration of
unsaturated fatty acids in milk lipids, with
an accompanying increase in liability of
the fat to oxidation.
How we perceive the flavor
Before we proceed to know about
various flavor defects in milk, it is
important to know that how we perceive
the flavor. With our sense of taste, we are
able to perceive the five basic tastes. They
are: salty, sour, bitter, sweet and umami.
We all know salty (for example, salt), sour
(for example, lemons), bitter (for example,
coffee), and sweet (for example, cherries);
umami is less known. Umami, which is a
Japanese word and means “pleasant savory
taste” it indeed describes a savory taste as
we find it in meat, tomatoes, mushrooms,
cheese etc.
However, these five basic tastes are
not enough to perceive the flavor of food.
Rather, we perceive the flavor of food via
the sense of smell. From the oral cavity,
the odor molecules travel backwards, until
they reach the throat; the throat is
connected to the nasal cavity (the inside of
the nose) in the top, to the oral cavity (the
mouth in the middle), and in the bottom
part it is connected to the larynx and
eventually to the trachea and the lungs as
well as to the esophagus. Odor molecules
can easily travel from the mouth to the
nose via this connection in the throat. So,
they can reach the olfactory receptors, and
they can evoke a smell perception. The
interesting thing is that we do not realize
that this happens in the nose, we have the
impression that our perception stems from
the mouth. We call this perception of
flavors retro-nasal olfaction. Therefore all
type flavors we perceive is a result of
sensory stimuli to both tongue and nose
receptors.
Normal milk flavor
Milk of good quality is a very
bland food with a slightly sweet taste, very
little odor, and a smooth, rich feel in the
mouth. Because of its bland flavor, the
presence of minute quantities of abnormal
constituents frequently results in off-
flavors. Most people associate the
palatability of milk with its 'richness'. It is
generally assumed that milk fat is one of
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ASCAD training on “Advances in animal nutrition and management practices to
maximize production”during 12-17 October, 2015
the most important constituents in
contributing to the desirable flavor of milk.
Although the importance of SNF to milk
flavor cannot be denied and there are many
studies suggesting its importance. Cows'
milk is a palatable beverage, but nature did
not develop it to appeal to man's taste. We
should not limit ourselves to using milk as
nature produces it for the calf. To increase
milk sales, we should take advantage of
modern technology to modify milk to
man's taste and nutritional requirements.
Various defects in milk flavor
Sometimes certain nutrition
programs or management practices on the
farm can cause off-flavor problems in
milk. This can have long-term implications
with consumers because of a poor tasting
product. This can undermine consumer
confidence in dairy products. Therefore, it
is in everyone’s interest to prevent these
occurrences from happening regardless of
the source.
Classification of Off-flavors
Off-flavors commonly found in
milk can be classified in three basic
categories – the ABC’s of off-flavor
development.
Absorbed milk flavor defects
Absorbed flavor defects can
develop before, during and after milking. It
can occur when milk is left uncovered in
the consumer’s refrigerator or kept in cold
rooms and dairy cases with other odor-
producing foods.
Feedy and weedy flavor
In many countries the most
common flavor defect of milk is feed
flavor. The incidence in different countries
is hard to assess because evaluations are
based only on subjective judgments, and
opinions regarding the intensity of the off-
flavor that constitutes a defect are very
variable. Likewise, levels that are
objectionable to consumers are equally
variable. The presence of feed or weed
flavors in a high proportion of milk
samples in a number of surveys indicates
that the off-flavors may be detected by,
and are presumably objectionable to, many
consumers.
Understanding the mode of
transmission of flavor substances in the
cow's body assists practical control of feed
flavors. All feed flavors are absorbed
through the cows system rather directly
into the milk. Cows impart an odor and
taste within 30 minutes of eating or
breathing silage. It is strongest after about
one hour. The two methods which odor
can be transferred to milk is:
Nose or mouth → lungs → blood
→ milk
Mouth → digestive tract → blood
→ milk
For some feeds, both the
respiratory and digestive tracts are
involved in the transmission of flavor to
milk. Some feeds, such as garlic and
onion, release volatile flavors after partial
digestion in the rumen. Odors belched
from the rumen are inhaled into the lungs
and transferred to the blood. This pathway
provides a more rapid transfer of feed
flavors from ingested feed than direct
absorption from the digestive tract.
Fortunately, blood provides a two-way
street for transportation of feed flavors.
When the concentration of the flavor
substances is higher in the milk in the
udder than in the blood, the substances
transfer from the milk to the blood. If
sufficient time is allowed after the feed is
consumed, the flavor substances are
eliminated from the blood, partly by
transfer of volatile substances to the air in
the lung, and partly by metabolism of the
substances. In either case, they are
eliminated from the cow's body. The time
interval between eating and milking is an
important factor influencing the intensity
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ASCAD training on “Advances in animal nutrition and management practices to
maximize production”during 12-17 October, 2015
of feed flavors. Whether the off-flavor
resulted from only breathing the odor of
silage, or from eating the silage, the feed
flavor was most pronounced from 2 to 3
hr. later, but had been eliminated from the
milk 5 hr. later. Not all feeds respond to
flavor control. Some flavor substances
accumulate in cow body tissues,
particularly in the fat. They then transfer to
the blood, and hence to the milk, over long
periods of time. Flavors from some weeds
persist for longer than 12 hr. after they are
eaten, and therefore such weeds must be
kept out of a cow's ration. In selecting
feeds for a dairy ration, one criterion must
be that either the feed does not impart an
undesirable flavor to milk, or the flavor
can be controlled by withholding the feed
for a reasonable time before milking.
Barny, cowy and unclean flavor
These terms describe flavors that
are attributable to unsatisfactory
production conditions, but there are several
possible causes. One of the most common
is inhalation by the cows of foul air in
poorly-ventilated barns or corrals in which
wet manure has accumulated. The barny,
unclean odors are transferred to the milk
through the cow's respiratory system in the
same manner as for feed flavors. Although
direct absorption of the odors by milk
during and after milking is frequently
mentioned as a possible cause. Mastitis
reduces the flavor quality of milk, but the
effects are variable. Mild cases may result
in a flat flavor, probably due to a lower
concentration of the normal milk
constituents. In more severe cases of
mastitis, the milk is usually criticized for
cowy, unclean, and salty flavors. In some
cases cowy, barny and unclean flavors
may be attributable to the cow's feed.
Some weeds cause the appearance in milk
of indole and skatole compounds that give
the characteristic odor to faces.
Musty flavor
This flavor is suggestive of musty
or moldy hay. It may be absorbed directly
by the milk but is more likely to come
from feed or stagnant water consumed by
the cow.
Bacterial milk flavor defects
Bacterial degradation results from
bacteria that get into the milk upon contact
with improperly washed or sanitized
equipment, from external contamination,
and is made worse by improper cooling.
Infection of cows should not be considered
as a source of high bacteria counts until all
other causes have been eliminated. Off-
flavors caused by the growth of bacteria in
milk are not detectable until large numbers
of bacteria are present, usually millions per
milliliter. Hence, the milk would not meet
legal standards for bacterial quality.
However, defects caused by bacteria are
encountered from time to time, and it is
important to know their characteristics and
conditions under which they develop.
Milk is such a good food for
bacteria, as it is for man, that it is very
subject to spoilage. It must be rigorously
protected from bacterial contamination,
and kept cold to minimize growth of
bacteria that are present. If flavors of
bacterial origin develop in raw milk, this
indicates that sanitary practices have been
inadequate, or that the milk has been held
at too high a temperature, or too long.
Acid flavor
Milk that has developed some
acidity as a result of bacterial growth
(generally Streptococcus lactis) will have a
detectable acid flavor long before it may
be classified as sour. Milk may have an
acid flavor when only a small part of high
acid milk is mixed with milk of lower
acidity; yet the total acidity on the entire
lot may be within normal range. Spoilage
is due to bacterial action on lactose (milk
sugar).
Malty flavor
This is not a common flavor but
may be encountered in milk not properly
cooled. Certain bacteria from improperly
cleaned equipment, especially milking
machines, may contaminate the milk and
cause the objectionable malty flavor. The
cause is Streptococcus lactis in poorly
cooled milk. Malty flavor is generally a
forerunner of a high acid flavor. It rarely
develops in pasteurized milk. However,
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ASCAD training on “Advances in animal nutrition and management practices to
maximize production”during 12-17 October, 2015
the characteristic flavor will remain after
processing, although the flavor developed
in raw milk. If not stopped by
pasteurization, a malty flavor will later
become high acid.
Fruity flavor
Fruity off-flavor results from
lipolysis of short-chain fatty acids by
Pseudomonas fragi followed by
esterification with alcohols. At lower
temperatures, the flavors that develop are
usually caused by psychrophilic bacteria
and are described as fruity.
Putrid flavor
Psychrotrophs cause flavors that
are often described as stale, bitter,
fermented or putrid. Frequently the
titratable acidity may be near normal.
Putrid flavors are the result of bacterial
contamination, storage temperature above
40°F, and age. Spoilage of the milk is by
bacterial action on the protein rather than
on the lactose. Putrid milk will curdle,
separate, and may smell rotten if left for a
few days.
Chemical milk flavor defects Chemical defects can occur both before
and after milking. The cowy or ketone
flavor is the result of the animal suffering
from ketosis. A foreign flavor can be
caused by medications, a reaction to
pesticides, disinfectants, or any number of
contaminants. Rancidity and oxidation
result from the degradation of milkfat.
Cowy (ketosis) flavor
Metabolic disturbances of the cow
may also result in cowy and other unclean
flavors. Ketosis is frequently accompanied
by cowy flavor. Cows with the disease
have a high concentration of acetone
bodies in their blood. These compounds
appear in the milk and are at least partly
responsible for the cowy flavor. Other
conditions that upset the cow's d digestive
processes have also been associated with
cowy and other undesirable flavors.
Rancid flavor
The term 'rancid', when applied to
milk and other dairy foods, refers to a
flavor defect caused by hydrolysis of fat,
rather than by oxidation of fat. Milk
always contains an enzyme (or a group of
enzymes) known as lipase, which is able
under certain conditions to hydrolyze fat,
splitting off fatty acids that are responsible
for the rancid flavor. Freshly drawn milk
from healthy cows is never rancid.
Depending on conditions, rancidity may
develop on aging of raw milk.
Pasteurization destroys lipase, so properly
pasteurized milk will not go rancid. In
most milks, the so-called 'membrane'
around the fat globules appears to protect
the fat from attack by lipase. Certain
treatments, known as activating treatments,
change the fat globule surface sufficiently
to permit the lipase to act on the milk
lipids and produce rancid flavor. Three
activating treatments that may be
encountered in milk production and
processing are (1) agitation of warm milk,
particularly under conditions that produce
foam; (2) homogenization of raw milk (or
mixing raw and homogenized milk); and
(3) temperature fluctuations such as
cooling milk, warming it to about 86°F
and then cooling it again.
As the number of cows per herd
had increased, farmers could no longer
supply enough pasture or silage for the
cows. Hay and grain concentrate mixtures
provided increasing proportions of the
nutrients for milk production, and these
dry feeds yielded milk with greater
susceptibility to rancidity. As noted above,
pasteurization, by inactivating the lipase,
provides the processor with a very
effective method of controlling rancidity.
High susceptibility of milk to rancidity
may limit flexibility of operations in a
processing plant by necessitating prompt
pasteurization to prevent development of
rancidity. In properly pasteurized milk,
rancid flavor should not be a problem.
Oxidized flavor
Oxidized flavor is a troublesome
defect of non-homogenized milk, skim
milk, cream, and certain other dairy
products. The flavor is described by terms
so various as metallic, papery, cardboardy,
oily, and tallowy, indicating the great
variability of the predominant flavor
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ASCAD training on “Advances in animal nutrition and management practices to
maximize production”during 12-17 October, 2015
characteristic. The defect is caused by the
oxidation of fatty constituents in the
product. The compounds responsible for
the flavor are produced by oxidation of
unsaturated fatty acids in the
phospholipids in the membrane
surrounding the fat globules. One of the
most important factors influencing the
oxidative stability of milk is the cows'
feed. Pasture and other succulent feeds
generally yield milk that is very resistant
to oxidized flavor. The defect is
encountered most frequently with dry
feeds. Changes in some feeding practices
in order to increase production per cow
appear to be increasing the susceptibility
of milk to oxidized flavor.
Another serious cause of oxidized
flavor is exposure of milk to light,
particularly during distribution in clear
glass bottles. This may induce either
oxidized flavor, or a light-activated flavor,
or both. The two defects differ chemically,
but in many respects the effects are
similar. Pasteurization slightly increases
the susceptibility of milk to oxidized
flavor. Milk pasteurized at temperature-
time combinations that do not seriously
impair creaming properties usually
develops oxidized flavor more rapidly than
non-pasteurized milk. Many anti-oxidants
effectively prevent oxidized flavor when
added to milk, but in most countries their
use is not permitted.
Sunlight induced flavor
Light-activated flavor results from
chemical changes in protein when milk is
exposed to light. Other names by which
the defect has been identified include
sunshine, sunlight, and solar activated.
Terms used to describe the flavor are
cabbage, burnt, burnt feather, burnt
protein, and mushroom. Homogenized
milk is susceptible to light-activated
flavor, but resistant to oxidized flavor.
Light-activated flavor increases with
intensity and duration of exposure, and the
predominant flavor characteristic changes
during exposure and subsequent storage.
The cows' feed influences light activated
flavor as it does oxidized flavor. Green
feeds appear to yield milks with greatest
resistance to the defect. Hence, as for
oxidized flavor, the susceptibility of milk
to light activated flavor varies seasonally
and is greatest during the winter.
Medicinal flavor It is caused by the exposer of cows
to the medication, disinfectants and
sanitizers, fly sprays or any other
compounds used in the farm and dairy
processing plant. The materials can enter
into the milk either directly as from
medication or through or improperly
rinsed sanitizing utensils.
Salty flavor
This term is referred to the
excessive saltiness of milk and other dairy
products. In milk it is most commonly
found from the cows in late lactation and
occasionally from cows suffering from
mastitis.
Ways to troubleshoot milk flavor defects
If an off-flavor is found in a milk
sample, a systematic approach helps in
identifying the defect and its cause. An
experienced individual will identify the
most common off-flavors of milk by taste,
and will be able to proceed immediately to
determine the most probable cause. A
beginner in flavor quality control work
will be guided in his identification of off-
flavors by comparing defective samples
with samples having known off-flavors.
Changes in intensity of a defect during
storage provide helpful evidence regarding
its identity. Hence, samples should be
tasted fresh and again after storage in a
refrigerator for at least 48 hrs.
Raw Milk
To pin-point possible causes of off-
flavors in raw milk, it is helpful to collect
milk samples at different steps. Samples
might be collected from individual cows,
at the discharge from the pipeline milker,
from individual cans or the bulk tank, from
the tank after only one milking and later at
the time the milk is collected, or from
morning and evening milkings separately.
If an off-flavor is present in a fresh sample
collected from pooled raw milk, it is
usually attributable to feed. In some cases,
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ASCAD training on “Advances in animal nutrition and management practices to
maximize production”during 12-17 October, 2015
there may be a marked difference between
morning and evening milk in intensity of
the off-flavor. Examining the feeds for
known troublesome materials may
substantiate suspicions regarding possible
causes. Recommendations for corrective
measures include:
Use only feeds that cause little or
no feed flavor. Eliminate weeds
from pastures and from crops to be
used for hay or concentrates.
Arrange feeding schedule to:
Prevent the cows from eating
feeds that may cause off-flavors
during the 4-5 hr. before
milking.
Provide an environment where
the cow can breathe fresh air
free of feedy, cowy or barny
odors.
Individual cows in a herd may
produce milk with an off-flavor when it is
drawn, such as a salty taste attributable to
mastitis or advanced lactation, or a cowy
flavor caused by ketosis. It is rare that such
defects can be identified in the mixed milk
from the entire herd, but they make the
pooled supply less palatable. Therefore,
milk from such cows should be withheld
from the pooled milk.In some instances,
the cow may appear to be responsible for
off-flavors that are actually caused by
equipment, or treatment of the cow or
equipment. Examples are a medicinal
flavor from ointments used on the teats or
udder, or chlorophenol flavor from plastic
or rubber parts of the milking equipment.
If an off-flavor is not present in
fresh milk, but develops during storage,
possible identities are light activated,
oxidized, rancid and microbial flavors.
Light-activated is the least likely in raw
milk, and in any case its cause and
correction would be immediately apparent.
Comparison with reference samples aids in
differentiating between oxidized and
rancid flavors. Also, pasteurization of the
fresh sample prevents development of
rancid and bacterial flavors but not
oxidized flavor. Some microbial flavors
caused by psychrophilic bacteria are
difficult to differentiate from rancid flavor
because the bacteria produce lipolytic
enzymes that release fatty acids, and also
proteolytic enzymes that yield degradation
products from protein with similar flavors.
Information from bacterial counts of the
milk, inspection of equipment, and
checking on sanitizing procedures and
cooling practices indicates whether
bacterial flavors may be involved. If the
defect appears to be rancid flavor, a
chemical test for free fatty acids could be
used for confirmation.
Rancidity that occurs in raw milk
supplies usually is induced by an
activating treatment: either excessive
agitation of warm milk or temperature
fluctuations between 50 or 86°F.
Eliminating the activating condition
usually prevents development of the
defect. Determining the susceptibility of
milk from individual cows is also helpful.
Cows that produce the most susceptible
milk are usually in advanced lactation, and
there is little loss in production resulting
from drying them off. In correcting
problems with oxidized flavor. If samples
taken from individual cows indicate that a
high proportion of the cows in the herd are
producing milk in which the defect
develops without metal contamination, the
most practical control would be through
the herd ration.
Pasteurized Milk
In 'trouble-shooting' causes of
defects in processed milk, samples should
be collected from the raw milk storage
tanks and at every step in processing
where feasible. A good practice is to
compare 'first-off' samples with samples
collected near the end of a processing run.
If product from one processing line feeds
several fillers, samples should be taken
from each filler. As for raw milk, the
samples should be tasted fresh and after
storage.Limited shelf-life resulting from
bacterial growth is usually caused by post-
pasteurization contamination. Phosphatase
tests may be run on freshly pasteurized
products to check on adequacy of
pasteurization. The unclean, fruity, bitter
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ASCAD training on “Advances in animal nutrition and management practices to
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and putrid flavors that develop in
pasteurized milk are usually attributable to
growth of psychrophilic bacteria that do
not survive pasteurization. Hence, critical
evaluation of cleaning and sanitizing
procedures is necessary in order to detect
sources of post-pasteurization
contamination. Checks on temperature and
time of storage, and rotation of stock
should also be included.
Rancid flavor should not develop
in a properly pasteurized product, but
activating treatments at some stage of
processing may induce its development
before pasteurization. Possible causes
include mixing pasteurized homogenized
products with raw milk, warming cooled
milk to about 85°F and re-cooling, and
excessive agitation and foaming of raw
milk. If the intensity of the flavor increases
during storage, the possibility that the milk
was improperly pasteurized or was
contaminated by raw milk should be
checked by use of the phosphatase test.
Problems with oxidized flavor may be
caused primarily by low oxidative stability
of the milk as produced, but are aggravated
by abuse at any stage of processing and
distribution. Use of higher pasteurizing
temperatures may be helpful if the more
severe heat treatment does not produce
objectionable heated flavors. Milk that is
susceptible to oxidized flavor may be
directed into homogenized products, as
homogenization inhibits oxidized flavor.
Conclusion
Flavor of milk and milk products is
the most important factor in determining
the acceptability of dairy products by
consumers. The presence of off flavors in
milk reduces the confidence of consumers.
If proper attention is practiced in feeding
and management of milch animals, it can
improve the flavor of raw milk
significantly. Moreover, if raw milk is
collected and stored under good hygienic
conditions, it could prevent absorption and
development of off flavors in milk. Such
good flavored milk is when pasteurized
and converted into various milk products
the palatability of milk products could be
improved considerably.
Conjugated linoleic acids (CLA): its implications for animal production
and human health
S.S. Patil, D.D. Garg, and H.H. Savsani
Department of Animal Nutrition, College of Veterinary Science & A. H.
Junagadh Agricultural University, Junagadh - 362 001
ASCAD training on “Advances in animal nutrition and management practices to
maximize production”during 12-17 October, 2015
Introduction
As people’s awareness over
nutrition and health has been on ever
increasing trend leads to research and
development of concepts like “functional
foods” along with conventional research
work in nutrition. Conjugated linoleic acid
(CLA) falls in such category with positive
effects on human health and disease
prevention along with its conventional
nutritive value. Conjugated linoleic acid
(CLA) is a mixture of positional and
geometrical isomers of linoleic acid
(C18:2, cis-9, cis-12), an essential fatty
acid for human and animals, and involves
a double bond at positions 8 and 10, 9 and
11, and 10 and 12 or 11 and 13 (Eulitz et
al., 1999).They are present in dairy
products and other foods derived from
ruminant animals have anticarcinogenic
effect. In addition to anticarcinogenic
effects, CLA was also reported to inhibit
atherosclerotic lesions, to increase immune
function, to decrease body fat, and to
increase lean body mass in several animal
models.
Dietary Sources
Of all foods, kangaroo meat may
have the highest concentration of CLA,
with kangaroos from areas that had fresh
pasture showing higher concentration of it.
Food products (e.g. mutton and beef) from
grass-fed ruminants are good sources of
CLA, and contain much more of it than
those from grain-fed animals. Eggs are
also rich in CLA, and it has been shown
that CLA in eggs survives the temperatures
encountered during frying.
CLA concentration in meat and milk
Food Total CLA
(mg/g)
Homogenized milk 5.50
Butter 4.70
Ice cream 3.60
Fresh beef 4.30
Veal 2.70
Lamb 5.60
Pork 0.90
Chin et al., (1992)
Biosynthesis of Conjugated Linoleic
Acid
The major contributors to the
formation of CLA in the foods are due to
microbial enzymatic reactions involving
long chain fatty acids (mainly linoleic or
linolenic acids) in the rumen. Some reports
suggest that heat treatment of animal
product like beef also increase its CLA
content.In the rumen, sequential reduction
steps convert linoleic acid (C18:2 c-9, c-
12) to the c-9, t-11 CLA, then to vaccenic
acid (C18:1, t-11) and eventually to stearic
acid. CLA in the milk or meat from
ruminant animals is derived from either
CLA escaping from complete rumen
biohydrogenation or from absorbed C18:1,
t-11, which is acted on by stearoyl-CoA
reductase and converted to the c-9, t-11
CLA .
Applications of CLA on health
Antitumour effect
CLA has been found to be showing
anticancer activity in a variety of cancer in
different animal models like leukemia,
malignant melanoma, lung carcinoma,
prostate cancer, ovarian and liver cancer.
CLA may modulate carcinogenesis by
mechanisms affecting the separate stages
of cancer development known as initiation,
through antioxidant mechanisms or act by
inhibiting nucleotide synthesis or
inhibiting both DNA-adduct formation and
carcinogen activation. Some researchers
proposed that the mechanism of tumor
inhibition by dietary CLA might be related
to its ability to regulate lipoxygenase and
cyclooxygenase lipid mediators.
Antiatherogenic Effect
Different studies showed that
dietary CLA resulted in a marked decline
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ASCAD training on “Advances in animal nutrition and management practices to
maximize production”during 12-17 October, 2015
in the levels of total plasma cholesterol,
triacylglycerol, and the ratio of LDL to
HDL cholesterol. In addition, less
atherosclerosis was detected in the aortas
of the rabbits fed CLA relative to the
control. Similar results on cholesterol
metabolism were reported in hamsters fed
CLA. The hamsters fed CLA had lower
levels of total plasma cholesterol, non-
HDL cholesterol (very low and LDL
included), and triacylglycerol compared to
control-fed hamsters (Lee, 1994).
Role of CLA in Immune Function
Growth suppression occurs as a
result of induction of immunity has been
reduced by CLA. Ordinarily Stimulation
of the immune system produces cytokines
which can cause breakdown of muscle
cells. CLA can modulate (decrease) the
production of cytokines and thus prevent
muscle degradation. Experiments in
chicks, rats, and mice show that CLA
increases feed efficiency and counteracts
immune-induced cachexia or malnutrition.
Reduction of fat metabolism
Generally, fatty acids containing
trans double bonds have a negative impact
on lipid metabolism and depress the
amount of milk fat (Wonsil et al.,
1994).CLA appears to be its influence on
body fat levels and the proportion of lean
to fat, especially in young growing
animals. CLA induces a relative decrease
in body fat levels and an increase in lean
muscle. This observation has been noted in
several studies with mice, rats, chicks and
pigs.
Factors Affecting CLA content in milk
Feeding of Oil and oil seeds
One of the basic and proven way to
increasing milk CLA is to increase the
dietary intake of 18- carbon PUFAs, as a
substrate for rumen biohydrogenation. The
number of plant oils have been
investigated and shown to be effective in
increasing the level of CLA in milk fat.
Oils or the seeds of soybean, sunflower,
safflower, solin, and cottonseed would
increase the CLA content of cows’ milk fat
when fed in Total Mixed Rations. When
the effect of different oil treatments
(peanut oil, sunflower oil, and linseed oil,
seeds/oil which are high in oleic acid, LA,
and LNA, respectively) on CLA, were
compared, the greatest response was to
sunflower oil (Chilliard et al., 2003) .
Physical and chemical treatment of feeds
These treatments increase the
accessibility of rumen microbes to their
substrate resulting in more production of
CLA. Chouinard et al. (1997) fed cows
with soybeans processed by grinding,
micronizing or roasting. It was found that
milk fat TVA was highest for the cows fed
extruded soybeans and lowest for ground
soybeans. Extruding, micronizing, or
roasting of soybeans resulted in two or
three fold increases in milk CLA contents
compared with a control diet containing
ground soybeans
Salt derivatives of plant oil
The use of calcium salts of fatty
acids derived from plant oils has also been
investigated because of the partial
protection that the calcium-fatty acid
complex offers from rumen
biohydrogenation .Feeding of calcium salts
of fatty acids derived from rape, soybean
and linseed oils; all three increased the
CLA content of milk fat, with the largest
increases occurring in soybean and linseed
oils Chouinard et al. (2001)
Fish oil
The mechanism by which fish oil
supplementation increases concentration of
milk fat CLA and TVA is not clear. It has
been proposed that the longer chain poly-
unsaturated FA from fish oil inhibit the
complete biohydrogenation of LA in the
rumen by inhibiting the growth of bacteria
responsible for hydrogenating TVA
through the inhibition of their
hydrogenases (Griinari -Bauman, 1999)
leading to an increased escape of TVA
from the rumen. Even if the hypothesis is
still uncertain, it is possible that an
uncompleted hydrogenation of these two
acids may occur within the rumen,
preferably of EPA, so losing a great part of
them. Fish oil has been found equally or
even more effective than plant oils or oil
seeds in increasing milk fat CLA content
from cows fed conventional TMR diets
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ASCAD training on “Advances in animal nutrition and management practices to
maximize production”during 12-17 October, 2015
(Whitlock et al., 2002). The highest
concentration of milk fat CLA (2.2 to
2.5% of the milk fat) with fish oil
supplementation been achieved when it
was included at 2% of the diet DM with no
further increase when included at 3% of
the diet DM .
Ruminal pH
Rumen pH has an important role in
maintaining a viable rumen environment
suitable for B. fibrisolvens involved in the
biohydrogenation of Linoleic and
Linileneic acid. It has been shown that
ruminal pH at 6.0 or above has a positive
effect on TVA and CLA contents in rumen
cultures (Troegeler and Meynadir et al.,
2003). It is of higher importance in high
yielding dairy and beef animal diets where
large amounts of grain are included in the
diet and thus decrease the rumen pH below
6.0.
Pasture
The most effective dietary
treatments for increasing the CLA content
of milk fat are those that both increase the
supply of 18-carbon PUFAs and modify
the rumen environment. The most widely
studied of these is the use of fresh pasture,
with numerous studies indicating that fresh
pasture results in a 2-fold to 3-fold
increase in the CLA content of milk fat
(Dhiman et al., 1999).The green forages of
temperate regions contain about 1-3% fatty
acids, maximally in Spring and Autumn.
More than a half of such acids are
represented by γ LA. In the tropical
forages the percentage of LNA represents
15-40% of total FA (Chilliard et al., 2001).
Processing of milk and milk products
Vatious processing methods like
curd preparation ,cheddar production from
milk shows variation in cla concentration
but all depends on original amount of CLA
in milk. Startercultures used for making
other dairy products from milk would
contain enzymes that can isomerize LA
into CLA, and thereby increase their CLA
content. Several species of bacteria such as
Lactobacillus acidophilus, L. Casei, L.
delbruckii, and Propionibacterium
frudenbruckii that are routinely used for
making cheese, yogurt, or other fermented
milk products have been shown to convert
free LA into CLA. Lin (2000) studied
three cultures of Lactobaciallus sp., two of
Lactococcus sp. and one of Streptococcus
sp. for the effects of sucrose, fructose,
lactose, and NaCl added to skim milk and
found that L. acidophilus produced the
highest CLA content.
Animal related factors
Of all the animal related factors,
CLA concentration of milk also depends
on whether animal is ruminant or
monogastric as ruminant stomach is nature
made anaerobic chamber needed for
biohydrogenation for CLA. It also depends
on presence of desaturase enzyme activity
in mammary gland, adipose tissues, and
intestinal epithelium of different group of
animals (Bauman et al., 2003). Breed
difference also exist shown by experiment
in which given the same diet Holsteins
produce higher CLA in milk fat than do
Jerseys or Normandes (White et al., 2001).
Conclusion:
Conjugated Linoleic acid (CLA)
has many potent health promoting effects.
Many researchers has proven that we can
alter the CLA concentration in milk and
milk products through manipulation of the
dairy ration demonstrates the feasibility of
producing CLA enriched dairy products.
As people’s awareness over nutrition and
health has been on ever increasing, milk
designed to have enhanced levels of CLA
may provide new health opportunities for
them and marketing opportunities for
livestock owners for milk and milk
products rich in CLA.
Therapeutic nutritional strategies for feeding dairy cattle
A.R. Bhadaniya, H.H. Savsani, M.R. Chavda, S.S. Patil and D.D. Garg
Department of Veterinary Pathology, College of Veterinary science & A. H.
Junagadh Agricultural University, Junagadh - 362 001
ASCAD training on “Advances in animal nutrition and management practices to
maximize production”during 12-17 October, 2015
Disease is not always caused by
bacteria, viruses or parasites. Disease can
also result from nutritional deficiency. A
lack of the necessary minerals, vitamins
and other nutrients may also inhibit the
body's immune response - increasing
chances of infection and decreasing the
body's ability to combat infection. The
high yielding animals need special care in
feeding and management. Certain diseases
occur due to faulty feeding management
practices. Sudden portioning of nutrients
in excess than supply also causes certain
metabolic disorders. The direct effects of
animal diseases on livestock productivity
are significant and include reduced feed
intake, changes in digestion and
metabolism, increased morbidity and
mortality and decreased rates of
reproduction, weight gain and milk
production.
The metabolic disorders often
encountered are related to production
especially in high yielding animals and
thus are also called production diseases.
The nutritional and metabolic disorders in
cattle and buffaloes include Indigestion,
Acidosis, Tympany, Milk fever, Ketosis,
Hypomagnesaemic tetany, Pica,
Haemoglobinurea, etc.
The interactions between disease,
nutrition and genetic selection emphasize
the need to control the effects of both
epidemic and endemic diseases before
programs introducing enhanced livestock
nutrition and improved breeds can make an
impact. However, productivity and
economic gains will not necessarily be
achieved by disease control alone and an
integrated approach is required.
On the other hand it is now widely
understood that improved feeding and
nutrition with careful attention to the
animals' seasonal requirements - has an
important role to play in the control of
diseases. Simply put, an animal with an
adequate diet is more likely to be healthy
than one with a poor diet.
It is important to recognize that
better feeding of livestock covers:
· Quality or types of foods supplied, or
given access to,
· Quantity of food,
· as well as adjusting for seasonal
requirements
Some diseases that an animal can
develop are entirely due to poor diet (rather
than infection by bacteria or viruses). This
may be because the feed contains a toxin
that harms the animal directly, or it may be
because the diet is deficient in a particular
nutrient (energy, vitamin or mineral) and
the animal then develops a "deficiency
disease".
The development of infectious
diseases can also be affected by the animal's
diet, as the proper functioning of the
animal's immune system (the system that
fights off infectious disease) needs an
adequate supply of protein, vitamins and
minerals. Nutrition therefore also plays a
key role in the balance of health and
disease, which will decide whether an
animal (when exposed to a disease-causing
bacterium or virus) stays healthy or
succumbs to disease.
There are several indicators that a
possible nutritional problem exits.
Consider the following when evaluating a
herd.
1. Abnormally high incidence of
metabolic disorders. Usually an
incidence greater than 10 to 15% in a
herd is considered a problem.
2. Increased incidence of infectious
disease and poor response of animals to
vaccinations.
3. Higher than normal occurrence of weak
or silent heats and low conception rate.
4. Milk fat content that deviates more or
less than 0.3% from breed average for
the season of year.
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ASCAD training on “Advances in animal nutrition and management practices to
maximize production”during 12-17 October, 2015
5. Milk protein content that deviates more
or less than 0.2% from breed average
for the season of year.
6. High incidence of off-flavors in milk,
especially rancidity, oxidized or
cardboardy milk, and malty or unclean
tastes.
7. Excessive decline in milk production,
failure to achieve high milk yields
during peak lactation, and generally
lower production than what nutrition or
genetics would warrant.
8. Greater than 10% of the herd is
classified in the extreme categories of
body condition. This would be based
on the five point scale of 1=very thin
and 5=obese.
9. Depressed dry matter intakes for the
whole herd or within certain milking
groups.
Off-Feed Problems
Supportive clinical tests
1. Ketone levels can be checked on
individual animals. It is recommended
to check milk ketone levels rather than
urine ketone levels. The urine test is
somewhat overly sensitive for
diagnosis. The milk test is more
conservative but more accurate in
indicating when there may be a
problem.
2. All ensiled feed and water should be
tested for pH. Water should also be
tested for total bacteria and total
coliform counts.
3. Mycotoxin screens should be conducted
on individual feeds or on the total
mixed ration, especially when cows are
experiencing hemmorragic diarrheas,
irregular estrus cycles, and low
conception rates.
4. Carefully examine animals that are off-
feed for signs of bovine respiratory
disease. In adult dairy cows, signs may
be limited to moderate increases in
temperature and respiratory rate.
Consider serology for IBR, BVD,
BRSV, PI3 and/or a tracheal washing
for bacterial culture.
5. If it is a herd problem, a metabolic
profile may be warranted. A
representative group of early and close-
up dry cows and cows fresh greater than
three weeks is suggested. Tests to include
would be a differential white blood cell
count, blood urea nitrogen, serum
minerals, fibrinogen, and in chronic
cases, arginase (possible indication of
liver damage). High white blood cell
counts are often associated with chronic
infections or leukosis. Abnormally low
white blood cell counts are sometimes
found in animals with an acute infection
and viral diseases. Fibrinogen generally
is elevated in animals with an
inflammation from abscesses, neoplasia,
peritonitis, salmonellosis, or fractures.
Supportive treatment
1. There are several feed additives that can
be administered. They include B-
complex boluses, or two to four ounces
daily of dried brewer’s yeast, or four
ounces of live cell yeast for 5 to 10 days,
or three to six grams daily of aspergillus
oryzae for 5 to 10 days, or feeding
sodium bicarbonate.
2. Encourage intake by feeding unusual
feedstuffs to those animals that are
severely off-feed for several days. Items
could include different forages like grass
hay or straw, calf starter, or cereal grains.
If at all possible, encourage forage intake
over concentrates.
3. Try sources of rumen bypassable or
protected amino acids.
4. Look for complicating infections or
inflammations.
5. Consider additional supportive
treatments for ketosis (see next section).
Prevention
1. Balance rations with an emphasis on
crude protein, soluble intake protein,
undegradable intake protein, forage and
total neutral detergent fiber, calcium,
magnesium, sodium, and chloride intakes
for both dry and lactating cows. Maintain
the proper mineral balance during the dry
period.
2. Avoid overfeeding concentrates to dry
cows and recently fresh cows. Close-up
dry cows should not receive over 30% of
the total dry matter intake as concentrate.
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ASCAD training on “Advances in animal nutrition and management practices to
maximize production”during 12-17 October, 2015
In conventionally fed herds, gradually
increase grain from 1.0% of body weight
after calving. In herds feeding a total
mixed ration, recently fresh cows should
not receive greater than 50 to 55%
concentrate dry matter.
3. Keep sodium bicarbonate in the
lactating cow ration, especially for just
recently fresh animals.
4. Full feed good quality forage for the
first one to two weeks after calving.
Avoid or feed reduced amounts of
abnormally fermented feeds for two
weeks prior to and six to eight weeks
after freshening. Upgrade forage quality
two to four weeks prior to calving if a
low digestible forage(s) is being fed
during the early dry period. Check and
monitor forage intake and particle size of
the diet.
5. Administer high-calcium boluses (75g
calcium carbonate total) as soon as
possible after freshening and within eight
hours of parturition.
6. Sample and analyze total mixed rations
for the dry cows and post fresh groups
and compare to the programmed
specifications. Check feeding rates on a
routine basis.
7. Test drinking water for heavy bacterial
contamination, pH, and nitrates.
8. Check that cows do not have access to
excessive amounts of acorns, apples,
green-chopped corn silage, toxic weeds,
and heating forages.
Ketosis
Supportive clinical tests
Supportive clinical tests would be the
same as those listed under the section on
off-feed problems. Herds with a high
incidence of ketosis may also be
complicated by infectious involvement.
There is also evidence of either too low or
high protein intakes with these particular
herd problems.
Supportive treatment
Supportive treatment would be very
similar to those listed under the section on
off-feed conditions. There are some
additional treatments that can be
administered. These include:
1. Provide 8 to 12 ounces of
propylene glycol orally per day for several
days.
2. Administer orally 12 grams of
niacin daily for one to two weeks.
3. Administer parentally one to six
milligrams of vitamin B12.
Milk Fever
Supportive clinical tests
1. It is recommended to sample blood
from four to seven dry cows and any
clinical cases prior to treatment. Important
parameters to include in the profile are
serum minerals, packed cell volume, white
blood cell count (plus differential) and
blood urea nitrogen. In a herd wide
problem, consider selenium and vitamin E.
It is important to determine if milk fever is
being complicated by a low magnesium
status. In typical milk fevers, magnesium
is elevated.
2. If a cow does not respond to milk
fever therapy culture milk samples from all
four quarters.
3. If a downer cow is necropsied, look
for white muscle disease and cardiac
calcification, multiple leg fractures in bred
heifers, and spinal cord compression or
injury.
Supportive treatment (use one of the
following)
1. Use plain calcium borogluconate
for the first treatment to minimize
incidence of refractory cases.
2. Administer high calcium boluses
(about 75 grams of calcium carbonate) as
soon as possible after calving and within
eight hours of freshening; or administer
calcium paste paying close attention to the
manufacturers recommendations and
directions.
3. For downer cows not responding to
treatment, give a drench of two pounds of
Epsom salts in one gallon of water. This
will sometimes remove toxins in the lower
gastrointestinal tract and enable cows to
stand within two to four hours.
4. Inject intramuscularly 10 million units
of vitamin D3 in a water-soluble, highly
crystalline form within 24 to 48 hours of
expected freshening. Do not repeat dose
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ASCAD training on “Advances in animal nutrition and management practices to
maximize production”during 12-17 October, 2015
for at least 10 days if cow doesn’t
freshen. Use three million units in a
repeat dose.
Grass Tetany
Supportive clinical tests
1. A blood profile should include serum
minerals. If sudden deaths occur,
selenium and vitamin E should be added.
2. Check for white muscle disease and
multiple leg fractures in downer young
stock if an animal is necropsied.
Supportive treatment
1. Two ounces of magnesium oxide can be
given orally per cow daily.
2. Epsom salts can be given orally at two
pounds per gallon of water.
Mastitis
Supportive clinical tests
1. Culture all quarters of cows with
clinical cases or somatic cell counts over
500,000 when pathogens in a herd are not
known. For meaningful test results, all
milk samples should be taken in a way
that avoids environmental contamination.
The teat ends should be washed, dried,
and wiped with an alcohol swab prior to
sampling.
2. A sensitivity test can be performed to
determine which antibiotics is likely
effective against the bacteria.
3. Measuring leukocytes is one way to
evaluate an individual animal’s or herd’s
mastitis status. There are several methods
that can be used. They include the
following: Direct Microscopic Somatic
Cell Count; Somatic Cell Count;
California Mastitis Test.
4. A metabolic profile on dry and
fresh cows should include white blood
cell count with differential, selenium,
zinc, copper, blood urea nitrogen,
vitamins A and E, and beta-carotene.
5. Screen any suspicious forages or
grains for mycotoxins.
6. Test water used for both sanitation and
drinking, for coliform and pseudomonas
if these organisms are involved in the
mastitis problem.
Supportive treatment
1. Treatment protocols should be
developed with the assistance of the herd
veterinarian.
2. Administering a dry-cow treatment
when cows are dried off will help reduce
new infections. Approximately 40% of
new udder infections occur during the
dry period and within a few days after
calving.
3. Treatment regimens depend on the type
of bacteria found. Some bacteria,
depending on whether they are
contagious or environmental, respond to
antibiotic therapy better than others do.
All treatments should be done under the
close supervision of a veterinarian.
Role and importance of green fodder in the diet of dairy animals and drawing
strategies for round the year supply of green fodder
P.S.Dalal, M. D. Odedra, A.R. Ahlawat, D.D. Garg and S.Marandi
Department of Livestock Production and management, College of Veterinary Science & A. H.
Junagadh Agricultural University, Junagadh - 362 001
ASCAD training on “Advances in animal nutrition and management practices to
maximize production”during 12-17 October, 2015
Nothing can compete nutrients
supply to the dairy animals except green
fodder. The green fodder is the only the
key to furnish fresh nutrients Green fodder
is the second largest feed resource for the
country. It is the first choice for economic
milk production. The profitability of
livestock rearing is dependent on the
sources of feed and fodder, as 65-70% of
the total cost is attributed to feed. Any
saving in feeding cost would directly
contribute to increase in profitability.
Green fodder is the essential component of
feeding high-yielding milch animals to
improve the milk production.
Role and importance of green fodder:
The benefits of balanced feeding of
milch animals can be appreciated within a
short span of time, in the form of improved
milk production. By using good-quality
forage, particularly leguminous fodder,
feeding of concentrate can be reduced
significantly. The salient features of green
fodder ( Legume and cereal crops ) to
expedite the improvement of milk
production and various body functions in
the dairy animals are ;
1. Green fodder is the only source of
Vitamin A for lactation and reproduction
2. Vit. A is necessary for the function of
gastrointestinal tract, shedding of
placenta and laxative in action.
3. It is also source of carbohydrates,
proteins, water, minerals and base for
synthesis of several water soluble and fat
soluble vitamins.
4. It also provides essential amino acids
and essential fatty acids in the fresh
forms which enhance milk production
significantly.
5. Green fodder also boosts up the immunity
system through several enzymatic
actions.
6. Green fodder helps the animas in
thermoregulatory system particularly in
summer. So during summer at least 60%
succulent cereal fodder must be supplied.
Classification of green fodder
1. Legume crops
2. Non legume crops
Legume crops: belong to family
leguminasae. These crops fix the
atmospheric nitrogen and make
available it to other plants, and animals.
So they become major source of fresh
proteins. Some important species are:
A. True clovers Trifolium species.
Berseem_-trifolium alexandrinum
Shaftal -T.resupinatum
White clovers- T. repenns
Red clovers- T.pratense
B. Medics ;
Lucerne -Medicago sativa
Black Medic- M. lupiina
Bur clovers- M. hispida
C. Crotolaria species :
Sunhemp - Crotolaria junica.
Cow-pea- Vignna sinensis
Kudju-vine- Pueraris thunbergiana.
D. Others : Soya beans- Glycene soya
Non-legumes: They have lower level of
proteins, therefore somev protein eous
matter must be added to make the ration as
a balanced ration. They belong to grass
family (cereal crops) e. g. perennial
grasses, indigenous grasses, and
introduced grasses. Some important
cultivated members are: Maize_ Zea-
mays'Sorghum_ Sorghum vulgare,Bajra_
Pennisetum typhoides' Oats_ _ Avina
sativa and Teosinte _ Euchlaena maxicana
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ASCAD training on “Advances in animal nutrition and management practices to
maximize production”during 12-17 October, 2015
Cultivated fodder grasses are :
Para grass__ Brachiana mutica
Guinea grass _ Penicum maximum
Napier grass purpureum
Hybrid napier : _ Napier X Bajra
Rhodes grass _Chloris gayana
Blue panic grass _ Pennicum antidactale
Sudan grass _ ssg -59 (sweet Sudan grass
) var. Sudanese
Indigenous grasses _
Anjana grass _ Kolukattain grass
Dhub grass – Cynnadon dactylon
Giant star grass __ Cynodon
plectistachyus
Marvel grass : _ Dicanthium annulatum
Sewan grass _ Elyonurus hirsatus
Intruced grasses:
Deena bandhu grass _ Pennisetum
pedicellatum
Orchard grass _ dactylus glomerata
Signal grass – Brachiana brizantha
Meadow fescue
These grasses are introduced from
Australia, South Africa, UK and USA.
Round the year green fodder production
and its conservation for intensive dairy
production
The area for fodder crops is declining in
various states adding to the problem of
being deficit green fodder availabity in the
country as shown in table below. Table 1. Area under fodder crops ('000
hectares)
State 2001 2011 AP 104 85 Gujarat 1103 821 Karnataka 46 35 Punjab 715 540
All India 8702 7769
Source: Ministry of Agriculture, Govt. of
India
There is an urgent need to improve
the productivity of existing acreage under
fodder crops by improving cropping
intensity. For ensuring uninterrupted
supply of green fodder throughout the
year, it is essential to have proper
cropping plan with different fodder crops
in an overlapping system to obtain
economically viable maximum forage
yield. Selection of high-yielding perennial
grass like hybrid napier or guinea grass as
the main component of the system is ideal
to ensure continuous supply of green
fodder. Providing irrigation at regular
intervals after the cessation of rains will
ensure better biomass yields. A high
forage yielding legume like Berseem suits
well for states like Punjab, Haryana, U.P,
etc. for cultivation during rabi season. All
India coordinated research project on
forage crops conducted experiments on
different fodder cropping systems in
various parts of the country and suggested
suitable rotations. Some of the
recommended cropping systems for
various regions are given in Table 2.
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ASCAD training on “Advances in animal nutrition and management practices to
maximize production”during 12-17 October, 2015
Table 2. Year round fodder production
systems
Region/Centre Suitable Crop rotations
I. Northern region Pantnagar (U.P) - (Tarai region, red and yellow 1. Dinanath grass - Berseem - Maize + cowpea soils) 2. Napier bajra hybrid + Subabool Hissar ( Haryana) -(semi-arid, sandy soils) 1. Napier bajra hybrid + Berseem
2. Napier bajra hybrid + Lucerne
II. Central and Western regions
Jhansi (U.P) - (Semi-arid, red soils) 1. Napier bajra hybrid + Cowpea - Cowpea -Berseem.
2. Cowpea - sorghum + cowpea - Berseem.
1. Napier bajra hybrid + cowpea - Cowpea -Berseem.
Jabalpur (M.P) - (Sub-humid, black soils) 2. Sorghum + cowpea- Berseem + sarson -Jowar +
cowpea.
III. Eastern region
Kanke (Bihar) (sub-humid, red acid soils) 1. Bajra +cowpea - Maize + cowpea - Oats.
2. Maize + cowpea - Jowar + cowpea -
Berseem +
sarson. Kalyani (West Bengal) (Sub-humid, alluvial
soils) 1.Maize + cowpea - Deenanath grass oats.
2. Maize + rice bean - Berseem - Sarson.
IV. Southern region
Coimbatore (Tamil Nadu) (Semi arid, black
soil) 1. Napier bajra hybrid + hedge lucerne.
2. Sorghum + cowpea- Maize +cowpea- Maize
+
Vellayani (Kerala) ( humid, red soils) cowpea.
1.Guinea grass 2.Congosignal grass in Coconut gardens
In Southern states, if land is limited and irrigation facilities are minimal; a small
farmer can opt for inter-cropping of cowpea both in kharif and rabi seasons (one or two rows)
in hybrid napier, bajra, spaced at 100 × 50 cm. In dry land areas, relying on crop production
alone is risky due to the vagaries of monsoon. A tree-cum-crop farming system is appropriate
for such situations. Alley cropping, a version of agro-forestry system, can meet the multiple
requirements like food, fodder and fertilizer. Alley cropping is a system in which food crops
are grown in alleys formed by hedge rows of trees/shrubs. The hedge rows are cut back at
planting and kept pruned during cropping to prevent shading and to competition with food
crops. Subabul or Gliricidia are ideal as the hedge rows. Drought-tolerant grain crops like
Sorghum or Bajra can be selected for cultivation in the alleys during the monsoon season. A
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ASCAD training on “Advances in animal nutrition and management practices to
maximize production”during 12-17 October, 2015
few important details like suitable soil, seed rate, green fodder yield, etc., for major fodder
crops are given in Table 3.
Table 3. Details of major fodder crops
Crop and important varieties
Suitable soils Seed rate
Harvesting time Green fodder
(kg/ha) and (days after yield (q/ha) spacing sowing)
Jowar - Sandy loam to 40 80-90 (late
300-400 (single
Pusa chari, MP chari, clay 30 × 15 cm maturing cut) Ksheerasagar, PC-6,9 and 23, varieties) 500-750 (multi HC-171 and 260, Co-27 and 65-75 (early cut)
CoFS -29 varieties)
Maize - Loam to silty 40 75-90 (late) 350-550
African tall, APFM-8, clay loam 30 × 15 cm 60-75 (early)
J-1006 and VL-54 Composites like Vijay, Moti and
Jawahar
Bajra - Sandy loam to 10 60-75 250-325
Giant bajra, Rajbajra chari-2, loamy sand 25 × 10 cm
BAIF Bajra-1, AVKB-19,
Deenabandhu & Co-8
Cowpea -
Sandy loam
to 25 60-80 150-200
BL-2, UPC-4200,5286
and loamy sand 30 x 15 cm
5287,IGFRI-450, Shweta,
Co-5
and CoFC-8
Lucerne - Loamy soils 15
First cut 75 to
90 700-750
Anand-2 and 3, Type-9,
RL-88 with good 25 cm-solid days after
and Co-1 drainage sowing sowing.
Subsequent cuts
at about 30
days
interval.
Napier-bajra hybrid -
Sandy loam
to 40,000 root
First cut at 65
to 1600-2000
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ASCAD training on “Advances in animal nutrition and management practices to
maximize production”during 12-17 October, 2015
Sampoorna, IGFRI- 3 and 6, clay loam
slips or stem 75 days.
RBN-1, PBN-83, Co-1,3
and 4, cuttings
Subsequent
cuts
BH-18 & PNB-233 50 x 50 cm
at about 40
days
interval.
Guinea grass - Loam to Seeds @ 2.5
First cut 75
days. 1100-1500
Riversdale, Macuenni,
Hamil, sandy loam kg/ha
Subsequent
cuts (Shade tolerant
PGG-19 and 101, Co-1
and 2, BG- or
at about 45
days and hence,
1 and 2 60,000 root interval. suitable for slips orchards and
agro-forestry
systems)
Para grass Loam to 40,000 root First cut after 80 700-900
sandy loam slips
days and
further (Performs well
50 x 50 cm cuts at 45 days even under
interval. waterlogged conditions)
Conservation of green fodder
Conserving the excess fodder produced during plush season is essential to
tide over the limited availability of green fodder during the lean periods.
Silage
It is a preservation of green fodder in its original form through anaerobic
fermentation. Fodders which have thick stem, and more sugar content like maize and
sorghum are well suited for silage making. The fresh fodder harvested during grain filling
stage with desired moisture content of 65-70% is best for ensiling. Adequate trampling is
required to remove oxygen for ensuring anaerobic fermentation. The upper portion should be
covered with about four inches thick straw layer followed by two inches thick soil and a
polythene sheet. Care must be taken to prevent the entry of water and air. The silage will be
ready in about five week's time. Good silage will have greenish-yellow colour with a vinegar
odour and a pH of 4.2 or less. Pit silos are suitable for the farmers having resources and
higher number of milch animals. The technique of silage making in poly bags and plastic bins
was tested under participatory technology development in the adopted villages under the
NAIP livelihood project in Chitradurga district. The small holders were receptive to this low-
cost technology and readily adopted this method as their need for silage was in limited
quantities to tide over the green fodder deficit during the lean months.