The Rastafari Movement: History, Culture, and Systems of Belief

Amanda Fonorow UNC-Greensboro

2

Table of Contents

TABLE  OF  CONTENTS   2  

TABLE  OF  FIGURES   3  

SCOPE   4  

THE  HISTORY  OF  THE  RASTAFARI  MOVEMENT   4  JAMAICAN  HISTORY   4  ETHIOPIANISM   6  MARCUS  GARVEY  &  THE  UNIA   7  BEDWARDISM   7  AFRO-­‐ATHICAN  CONSTRUCTIVE  GATHLYI   7  FITZ  BALINTINE  PETTERSBURGH   8  THE  BIRTH  OF  RASTA   8  1934:  AN  IMPORTANT  YEAR  IN  RASTA  HISTORY   8  HINDU  INFLUENCES   9  PINNACLE   10  RASTA  BECOMES  URBAN   12  RASTA  MUSIC   13  THE  HENRY  AFFAIR   14  THE  UNIVERSITY  REPORT   15  CORAL  GARDENS  MASSACRE   15  HAILE  SELASSIE  I  VISIT  TO  JAMAICA   16  REGGAE   17  

MANSIONS  OF  RASTAFARI   17  NYA-­BINGHI   17  BOBO  SHANTI   18  TWELVE  TRIBES  OF  ISRAEL   18  

BELIEFS   19  LIVITY   19  HAILE  SELASSIE  IS  THE  LIVING  GOD   19  ZION  AND  BABYLON   19  AFTER  DEATH   19  

RITUALS  &  CUSTOMS   20  ITAL  DIET   20  HOLIDAYS   20  GANJA   20  DREADLOCKS  &  BEARDS   20  DREAD  TALK/IYARIC   21  SYMBOLS   21  

SUBJECT  HEADINGS   21  

3

CLASSIFICATION   22  DEWEY   22  LIBRARY  OF  CONGRESS   22  

ANNOTATED  BIBLIOGRAPHY   22  TEXTS   22  RASTAFARI  HISTORY,  ETHNOGRAPHY,  AND  THEOLOGY   22  CONTEXTUAL  HISTORIES   27  PRIMARY  TEXTS   30  FILM   31  DIGITAL  RESOURCES   32  

Table of Figures Figure 1 - Jamaican Banana Plantation Workers........................................ 5 Figure 2 - United Fruit Cargo Ships carried many Jamaican workers to the

United States ..................................................................................... 5 Figure 3 - Caribbean Laborers at Work on the Panama Canal .................... 6 Figure 4 - Marcus Garvey, father of the pan-African movement, is often

regarded one of the most influential people in the Rastafari movement7 Figure 5 - What is left of Pinnacle today .................................................. 12 Figure 6 - Count Ossie and his band, The Mystic Revelation of Rastafari .. 14 Figure 7 - Rastafarites were victimized by the police throughout the 1960's

........................................................................................................ 16 Figure 8 - Frequency with which subject headings appear among works

listed in this bibliography is indicated by font size ............................ 21  

4

Scope This work examines the Rastafari movement of Jamaica, hereafter referred to as “Rasta,” or “Rastafari.” This syncretic spiritual movement has ignited interest in all corners of the globe due to the popularity of reggae music, particularly the music of Bob Marley, a noted Rastafarite. In reviewing sociological, historical, and anthropological resources, as well as primary texts, I hope to aid readers in understanding Rastafarites and their culture, history, and systems of belief. The introduction to this topic is divided into four main sections. The first and lengthiest of these is a history of Rastafari. This history is by no means exhaustive, but proceeds chronologically, highlighting the crucial moments in the formation of the Rasta movement. Following this is a brief introduction to the three “mansions” (sects) of Rastafari, a list and short explanation of some of the main beliefs of Rastafarites, and finally, a list of rituals, customs, and holidays. It should be noted that Rastafarites value self-determination above all other personal qualities. This, combined with the decentralized nature of modern Rastafari, results in an amorphous, ever-shifting set of beliefs, rituals, and customs. While my research has indicated that the beliefs, rituals, and customs I list here are fairly well accepted among most Rastafarites, the nature of the faith is such that readers should be warned about using this work to make sweeping generalizations about Rastafari and Rastafarites. As with all things, keep in mind that these value systems may not apply to all self-identified Rastafarites.

The History of the Rastafari Movement

Jamaican History Seized by the British from Spain in 1665, Jamaica was promptly put to work as enormous sugar plantations spread across the land. African slaves populated the island, and though the British government imposed a mandate that 10% of the population be white, that quota was never met. Oral history on the island relates that Jamaica’s slaves were those slaves who were too recalcitrant or rebellious to complete the middle passage to America. Captains of ships left them on the island, selling them at a discount to sugar planters who were desperate for labor. This is said to account for

5

Jamaica’s highly flamboyant island culture and for the surfeit of cultural exports, particularly musical acts and genres.

Figure 1 - Jamaican Banana Plantation Workers

The banana industry began late in the 19th century, controlled by European and American landowners. Though working conditions did not much improve, the cargo ships used for transporting bananas to the United States provided an opportunity for Jamaicans to travel to America. In 1904, America took over the construction of the Panama Canal and a wave of Caribbean migrant workers arrived. Those who survived their labors were able to travel home with some measure of economic independence or travel to New York with the seeds of radical ideas. The consciousness of the African diaspora was blooming among canal workers and these revolutionary ideas spread from Panama to the United States as some laborers traveled on to New York to participate in the Harlem renaissance.

Figure 2 - United Fruit Cargo Ships carried many Jamaican workers to the United States

6

Figure 3 - Caribbean Laborers at Work on the Panama Canal

Among the revolutionary Jamaicans in Panama were those who would lay the foundation for Rastafari: Athlyi Rogers, Grace Jenkins, Balintine Pettersburgh, and perhaps most notably, Marcus Garvey. In Panama and on the ships, ideas were brewing. Visionaries were prophesying a return to Africa, expounding on the blackness of God (and thus, the inherent dignity and sanctity of black people), while others spoke of Marxist ideals and the need for black people to overthrow the current system in order to gain economic independence and power. Leonard Howell was also among these revolutionaries; after leaving New York and returning to Jamaica in 1932, Howell began circulating copies of a portrait of a Emperor of Ethiopia, Haile Selassie I.

Ethiopianism Leonard Howell’s fascination with Ethiopia was the result of a long history of Ethiopianism in Jamaica. Ethiopianism has been an important tenet of black Baptist churches since at least the late 18th century. In the Bible, Ethiopia refers to all of Africa, and the earthly kingdom of Ethiopia (as we now know it) is called Abyssinia. In 1784, the Ethiopian Baptist Church was founded in Jamaica by George Liele, and was the first popular denomination for blacks. Ethiopian Baptist faith was steeped in Jamaican identity, and paved the way for Afro-Jamaican religious identity. The early 20th century saw many iterations of Ethiopianism, which all contributed to the modern Rasta worldview. Each of these movements brought with it a new text, which would become indispensible in the Rasta canon.

7

Marcus Garvey & The UNIA

Figure 4 - Marcus Garvey, father of the pan-African movement, is often regarded one of the most influential people in the Rastafari movement

Marcus Garvey, a revolutionary young Jamaican, returned to his homeland after visiting Central America and the United States, to establish the Universal Negro Improvement Association (UNIA) in Jamaica in 1914. Many Afro-Jamaican people gained strength and confidence in his words; this was one of the first glimmers of hope for Afro-Jamaican equality and Garvey’s speeches about repatriation inspired many to seek their redemption in Ethiopianism. However, Garvey failed to fully address the role of religion in his pan-African vision. He endorsed the African Orthodox Church, but this theology left followers uninspired, founded as it was upon European religious texts (i.e. the Bible).

Bedwardism Bedwardism sprung up at the end of the 19th century. H.E.S. Woods, known as “Shakespeare” was a roaming prophet in Jamaica. When Shakespeare died, he was replaced by a man known only as Bedward, who became the leader of what would become the Jamaica Native Baptist Free Church. Bedward was institutionalized in 1920 and died in 1930.

Afro-Athican Constructive Gathlyi Athlyi Rogers & Grace Jenkins Garrison founded the Gaathlyi religion (also called Afro-Athlican Constructive Gathlyi) and in 1924 published the Holy Piby, a small tract promoting black supremacy. In Gaathlyi, Athlyi Rogers and Marcus Garvey are two angels, and adherents prayed to the God of Ethiopia. Gaathlyi is the strongest, clearest link between Garveyism and Rastafari, which would come later. In shaping his vision, Rogers borrowed from millenarist

8

(Zionist) and Ethiopian worldviews, seeking both to inhabit a heaven on earth (Ethiopia) and reclaim and redeem a black self-image.

Fitz Balintine Pettersburgh In 1926, Fitz Balintine Pettersburgh published The Royal Parchment of Black Supremacy, a nearly incomprehensible text. The Parchment railed against the oppressive, white establishment; its lack of clarity may have been designed to avoid examination by white eyes. Balintine ran a balm yard, an establishment meant for healing and baptizing followers. He introduced the concept of a Living God who would redeem the black race.

The Birth of Rasta In 1933, Howell began sermonizing in the St. Thomas Parish, a remote agricultural parish that retained a deeply colonial mentality. His central message: a new black king, crowned in Ethiopia, is the second coming of Christ and is the Living God of black people. This king, once known as Ras (chief) Tafari, has been crowned Emperor Haile Selassie I. Howell’s theories of black supremacy and redemption resonated with the impoverished and abandoned masses that gathered in crowds of hundreds for Ras Tafari meetings. Howell spoke in Kingston as well, preaching against the church, the clergy, and the police. Some crowds were more enthusiastic than others, and Howell was soon arrested for his seditious speech. His first trial for sedition was in 1934; he was sentenced to two years in prison.

In prison, Howell found fertile ground for gaining new followers. The inmates referred to him as “Gong” (“tough guy” in street parlance). He adopted this nickname and expanded it, publishing The Promised Key under the name Ganganguru (or G.G.) Maragh in 1935. As he was still in captivity at this time, it is unknown whether he published the text from jail, whether his followers published it under his name, or whether he published it upon his release in 1936 and backdated it.

1934: An Important year in Rasta History In 1934, the government adopted as its stance on Rastafari, “Kill it before it grows.” Officials vowed to provoke, harass, and arrest the generally peaceful Rasta population. They hoped to stamp out seditious ideas of anti-colonialism and empowerment for the impoverished in this way. At the UNIA convention on August 14, 1934, many Rastas hoped Marcus Garvey would speak out in support of Rastafari, as he had been a close friend of Leonard Howell. To their dismay, Garvey failed to endorse the new spiritual

9

movement empowering many of his Jamaican followers, likely due to his political ambitions on the island and abroad.

In December of 1934, Mussolini invaded Ethiopia and Selassie pleaded with the League of Nations to help him defend his country. The League of Nations’ inaction verified the oppression of Babylon to many Rastafarites and galvanized their sense of self-determination. One of the main tenets of Rastafari is the concept that one cannot look to oppressive systems for change. Rasta are generally suspicious of the generosity of “Babylon” (the oppressive, imperialist world of white people) and seek to change systems in their own way. This worldview contributed to the creation of Dread speak, or Iyaric, in the 1950’s and 60’s.

1934 saw the first Rastafari schism as well. This new group, referring to themselves as the Nya-Binghi after a violent African cult, latched onto the negative images of racial conflict and black supremacy. The Nya-Binghi of 1934 were primarily concerned with anti-white propaganda and the promotion of anti-white criminal acts. Howell distanced himself from this group; he was aware that becoming mired in racial conflict would fail to elevate his people to the spiritual status to which they deserved -- his people were the sons of the Living God, Haile Selassie I.

Hindu Influences Though the majority of the Jamaican population was of African descent, a small but culturally powerful contingent of Indian immigrants influenced the Rastafari movement. Indian immigrants first arrived in Jamaica in 1845 as indentured servants. These “coolies” were friendly with the native Afro-Jamaicans and race relations remained positive throughout history. Their teachings of peace in the face of oppression resonated with Jamaicans and their rituals entranced locals. Eventually, much of the Hindu ritual was routinized in Jamaican culture. Rastafarites borrowed many of their rituals from Hindu culture: the smoking of ganja as a spiritual practice, meditation, vegetarianism (which would eventually become known as Ital), and the concepts of god-kings and transformation. Rastas became the first Afro-Jamaican group to peacefully rebel against European concepts of Christianity. Prior to this time, slave societies depended upon the often violent methods of obeah, or witchcraft, to show resistance to their white masters. The new attitude of peaceful rebellion is directly drawn from Gandhi’s efforts towards equality.

10

Howell was released from jail in 1936. Unemployment and strikes on the plantations created a general feeling of discontent among the Afro-Jamaicans and Rasta teachings flourished. Howell’s reputation as a healer grew. He held a Love Feast on January 10, 1937 which was infiltrated by an angry anti-Rasta mob aided by police. Howell’s home was looted and destroyed. He was arrested shortly after this incident and sent to a psychiatric hospital. During this new incarceration, Jamaica grew ever more discontented and in 1938, on the heels of the Serge Island Strike, major civil unrest provided prime conditions for new political parties to spring up. Alexander Bustamante, a man with big political ambitions, founded the Bustamante Industrial Trade Union, which would launch his political career. These budding political movements set the stage for the modern political parties of Jamaica.

Pinnacle In 1939, upon his release from the psychiatric hospital, Leonard Howell formed an alliance with Chinese grocery store owner Albert Chang who agreed to purchase a large parcel of land and sell it at a profit to Howell. On January 7, 1940, he announced to a crowd of 500 followers that he would soon be acquiring an estate, where they could build an agricultural community that would provide them with freedom from colonial systems of wage slavery and oppression. Soon after, Rastas began populating the estate in the hills above St. Catherine known as Pinnacle.

In its first year, Pinnacle flourished, but by the following year, water supplies dried up and living conditions deteriorated quickly. About 5,000 people were living at Pinnacle, and illness spread quickly. Neighbors claimed that the area stank due to shallow graves and an inordinate number of deaths. On Sunday, July 13, 1941, Howell informed his followers that he had a dream of “visitors” the next day. He encouraged them to cooperate with these visitors. Policemen raided the camp in the early morning hours of Monday, July 14 and were met with cooperative, unsurprised Pinnacle residents. Seventy-two followers were arrested, but Howell evaded police. He finally turned himself over to the police in August 1941. On August 20, 1941, Howell was sentenced to another two years in prison. His followers remained at Pinnacle and patiently awaited Howell’s return.

In 1943, Howell returned to Pinnacle and was met by his distraught wife. Tyneth Bent, a white woman who turned down a rich, Cuban plantation owner to marry Leonard Howell, had been tortured by the

11

rumors of her husband’s thirteen wives -- a legend that had even been printed in the local newspaper. Howell’s affairs were no secret at Pinnacle. Some claimed he lay with as many as forty women in one night, and he is said to have enjoyed five women at once. Another of Howell’s nicknames was “Honeyman” and he had a bank account in this name. Tyneth confronted Howell and, frantic, held a knife to her own throat. Howell fell to his knees, declaring his love for her and begging her not to kill herself. She dropped the knife, but later that night disappeared into the wilderness surrounding Pinnacle. She was later found dead, her body mangled by vultures. When Howell went to Spanish Town to report her death, he was arrested again, this time on suspicion of murder. In April 1944, after the testimony of many witnesses corroborated his story of her suicide, Howell was released.

In 1944, a major shift took place in Jamaican politics and the modern Jamaican political structure was put into place. The PNP and JLP parties were established. Howell initially supported the PNP candidate in the 1944 elections, though his reasons for this political alliance are unclear. In 1944, Pinnacle also began large-scale cultivation of ganja, both for local use and for its cash value on the island. Ganja cultivation made Pinnacle prosperous and by 1950, the lives of all 4,500 Pinnacle residents were comfortable. They were now able to pay townspeople to carry water from the stream and the Rastas gained respectability in the eyes of St. Catherine and Spanish Town residents, as their economic independence manifested at the marketplaces. The whole valley surrounding the Rasta encampment depended on them.

This peace and prosperity continued until 1954. Alexander Bustamante was then in power and on May 22, 1954, he led the second raid on Pinnacle. The raid took place at the height of ganja season and over one million plants were destroyed on the day of the raid and in the weeks that followed. 138 Rastas were arrested and 110 were sent to prison. Pinnacle’s economic independence had been cut off at the knees. It appears Howell may have been fueling Jamaica’s increasingly corrupt political system with huge international drug sales. At some point, he may have made a political misstep, which sent his entire ganja empire crashing to the ground. Bustamante was clearly no friend to the Rastas; the next ten years would be difficult for Rastafari at Pinnacle and across the island.

12

Following the raid, Pinnacle had no protection and experienced regular shakedowns from corrupt policemen and gangs. Some Rastas moved into the slums of West Kingston, where a new, more urban Rasta culture bloomed. Back O’Wall, a slum in West Kingston, became a Rasta stronghold and the Pinnacle ethos of peace, love, dignity, and community ruled. After experiencing the corruption and inefficacy of politics, most Rastas gave up voting in 1954.

Still, many Rastas remained at Pinnacle and struggled to maintain their community there. In 1958, the final blow was issued to the once idyllic Rastafarian commune on the hill. It came to light that Leonard Howell had never officially purchased Pinnacle from Albert Chang, despite having paid for it. The deed remained in Chang’s name and, upon his death, was willed to a Lebanese business associate. This business associate, E.R. Hanna, sold Pinnacle to Joseph Linton Watt on July 17, 1957. Watt’s oldest son, Ken, led the 1958 raid. His gang looted Pinnacle’s homes and mess hall, including the “big house” where Howell lived. As Howell’s followers scattered down the hillsides, they watched their homes burn and the lives they had built at Pinnacle go up in smoke. Some Howellites were allowed to remain, but they were servants of Watts and worked his nearby quarries and farms. In November 1958, Leonard Howell moved to Kingston, where he would sink into obscurity.

Figure 5 - What is left of Pinnacle today

Rasta Becomes Urban In March of the same year, Prince Edwards Emmanuel organized a convention of some 3,000 Rastas. Howell did not attend. This new, urban contingent of Rastas seemed to have created a culture that isolated the rural, agrarian founders of the movement. Rastafarites in West Kingston began wearing their hair in dreadlocks - mirroring the Sadhu Indians who contributed so much to their culture, as well

13

as seeking to inspire a primal dread in those who opposed their movement. Rastas east of Kingston continued their practice of wearing beards, but did not adopt the dreads of their western brothers. The culture also began incorporating verbal cadences and rhythms of speech, now called Dread Talk, Dread Speech, or Iyaric. Language was scrutinized and changed. The Rastas, who felt that every element of their daily lives had been prescribed by the oppressive European systems they hoped to overthrow, changed the word “understand” to “overstand” - they did not want to associate intellectual comprehension with being “under” anything. They changed “dedication” (which sounds like “dead-ication”) to “livication” and “create” (which sounds like “cre-hate”) to “crelove”. Incorporating more positive visions of themselves and their race into their speech was important and they felt a strong need to rename the world around them in order to change it.

Rasta Music Rastas also began to write their own songs. Originally, Rasta hymns were adapted from the Christian Sankey Hymnal or UNIA anthems by Arnold Ford. The new music incorporated true Rasta concepts and rhythms. Kumina drumming had been popular at Pinnacle, although Leonard Howell did not initially accept it. In fact, it became popular on the commune during his imprisonment. Kumina was carried down from Pinnacle and into Kingston. East of Kingston, however, Count Ossie’s Burru style of drumming was growing popular. Both Burru and Kumina are African styles of drumming, but Burru represents a tradition of political commentary in music that appealed to this new, urban contingent of Rastas. Today, Burru rhythms are identifiable as “Rasta Riddim” or “Nya Binghi” music.

Count Ossie is credited with blending pop music with Afro-Caribbean rhythms to create ska music. Count Ossie also noticed more intense “reasonings” - ritual Rasta gatherings, involving ganja smoking and philosophical conversations - after drumming. His rhythms were usually around 60 beats per minute - the same as a human heartbeat - and some listeners reported healing of headaches, colds, and fevers. He began to place more emphasis on drumming at Rasta gatherings and incorporated a major element of Rasta ritual into the movement.

Ska became Jamaica’s first major Afro-Caribbean musical export in the early 1960’s and it gained major international attention when dancer Marguerite Mahfood insisted on performing with a black ska

14

backing band. In 1961, Count Ossie had his first hit record, “O Carolina.”

Figure 6 - Count Ossie and his band, The Mystic Revelation of Rastafari

Meanwhile, the years between 1958 and 1962 saw the consolidation of modern Jamaican politics. In 1962, Jamaica gained full independence from Britain and music appeared to be the medium of articulation for a new national identity.

The Henry Affair Rasta clashes with police began with a single incident between a police officer and a Rasta man in 1959 and culminated in the now infamous Henry Affair. Claudius Henry, a self-declared “Repairer of the Breach” who would bring Africans back to their homeland, predicted African repatriation on October 5, 1959. He sold hundreds (some claim thousands) of postcards, which he claimed were passports to Africa. On the morning of October 5, 1959, the faithful streamed into Kingston after having sold their homes and their belongings, prepared to make their new homes in Ethiopia. When the repatriation scam was revealed, Henry lost most of his followers. A few months later, the government intercepted a letter from Henry written to Fidel Castro, unequivocally predicting a violent repatriation: “If we cannot go in peace, we must go in war.” The local branch of the Ethiopian World Federation was searched and homemade weapons, including bombs, were seized. Henry was sentenced to ten years hard labor for treason. Following this, his son in New York recruited several youths, whom he called the First Africa Corps, to violently liberate Jamaica. They traveled to Jamaica and set up camp in the Red Hills above Kingston. Word of their plan leaked to officials and a firefight ensued. Henry’s son escaped but

15

was found later hiding in the hills. These highly publicized acts of brutal violence inspired fear of Rastas across the island.

The University Report In 1960, another prominent Rasta, Mortimer Planno, invited three university researchers to spend two weeks interviewing Rastas in Trench Town. The result of these interviews, “Report on The Rastafari Movement in Kingston, Jamaica”, was influential in reforming the public image of Rastafarites and rehabilitating their relationship with the Jamaican government. The Report legitimized Rastafari to some extent and made ten suggestions to the Jamaican government regarding ways to aid the Rastafarites and maintain goodwill with them. The first of the suggestions was that the Jamaican government should organize a mission to Africa for some of the Rasta leaders. Jamaica complied, and in 1961, the mission to Africa included a visit to Shashamani, land that Selassie had set aside for New World blacks who wished to resettle in Ethiopia. When the Rasta leaders travelled back to Jamaica, news of Shashamani shook the community. The report and this encouraging news lent legitimacy to Rastafari and new followers joined the movement.

Coral Gardens Massacre However, the excellent relationship between the government and Rastafarites would be short lived. In 1963, a gas station owner doused a Rastafarite named Rudolf Franklyn in gasoline and threatened to light a match after he asked for a glass of water. Franklyn began shouting, and the attendant called the police. When officers arrived, they shot Franklyn several times. After surgery at Montego Bay Hospital, Franklyn was left with a prosthetic stomach, but still alive. He was imprisoned for resisting arrest and after six months in prison, he returned to the gas station with five friends to seek vengeance. The angry Rastas used machetes to kill a white driver who stopped at the gas station, and then they set the station on fire. They moved to a nearby motel and murdered a guest, then murdered a nearby goat farmer. By this time, three police cars had been dispatched to find them, and two cars of armed civilian vigilantes joined the chase. Two of the Rastas were killed by gunfire, but the Rastas managed to kill two police officers and one civilian vigilante. This incident would come to be known as the Coral Gardens Massacre. In the aftermath of the massacre, the Jamaican government swore to imprison or kill all Rastafarites. The violent incident gave Bustamante a much hoped-for opportunity to vilify Rastas and rekindle the fear and hatred that the Henry Affair had brought about.

16

In the wake of these events, many Rastas cut their locks and shaved their beards or else hid out in the hills in order to avoid the arrests and violence that were promised them.

Figure 7 - Rastafarites were victimized by the police throughout the 1960's

Despite the hatred exhibited to Rastas for their appearance, the country appeared to be proud of the music they were making. In 1963, The Skatellites formed and spread ska worldwide. In 1964, the Jamaican government planned to send two singers, Minnie Small and Jimmy Cliff, along with The Skatelites as the backing band, to the New York World’s Fair to represent Jamaica. At the last minute, the JLP minister of development sent a hotel calypso band instead. The Rastas were outraged and embittered. It seemed they had been right all along -- they could not depend of organizations of oppression to lift them up. They would have to create their own destinies, in spite of official activity designed to keep them in poverty.

Haile Selassie I Visit to Jamaica In 1966, the Jamaican government finally extended an invitation to Haile Selassie I. Officials hoped that he would deny his deification and squelch the Rastas once and for all. Selassie’s visit generated a great deal of excitement among Jamaican people. On April 6, 1966, Selassie’s plane landed in Kingston and was met by thousands of faithful Rastafarites. In the following days, he met with thirty-one Rastafari elders and to each one he dutifully denied his divinity. The Rastafarites were unmoved from their faith in him; after all, what greater sign of godliness than humility? Selassie’s visit and acknowledgement of the Rastas once again gave the movement much-needed legitimacy.

17

Reggae In the following years, ska beats were slowed down and made to reflect the ganja-heavy culture of the Rastas. This came to be known as reggae, and Jimmy Cliff was the first to rise to stardom. He starred in the first movie about Jamaican culture to be released to audiences worldwide, The Harder They Come. The release of the film, however, was delayed, and by the time it had been released, Cliff had left the Rasta scene. In his absence, Bob Marley grew to international stardom. Marley’s narrow features and light skin made him an unconventional choice for a representative of the religious movement founded on back-to-Africa black pride. For international audiences, however, he was an instant success. The 1970’s saw increased interest in Jamaican culture and Rastafari spread to all corners of the globe. This was an ideal time for reggae, Rastafari, and all of Jamaica.

By 1980, crack cocaine arrived in the streets of Kingston and a new reggae sound evolved. The sped-up sound and barely coherent lyrics of dancehall reggae reflected a new culture of Jamaicans, who were interested only in sloughing off the “consciousness” of their forebears. Roots reggae, as the original sound was now called, never fully left the scene, but it was clear: the golden age of Rastafari was over. Many Rastas were disillusioned and embittered by what they perceived as a betrayal by a new generation and they were tired of fighting the same wars with their own government. While Jamaica profited from international interest in Rastafari, they have, as of the date of this writing, still not recognized Rasta as an official religious movement, despite the Rastas appealing to Parliament twice for incorporation. It should be noted that they have incorporated the Seventh Day Adventist church - a church that, until very recently, did not believe that black and white followers could share a heaven. Rastas continue to seek religious equality and freedom in Jamaica, and, controversially, to petition the government for the legalization of ganja.

Mansions of Rastafari Sects of Rastafari are referred to as “mansions,” from the Biblical verse, "In my Father's house are many mansions." (John 14:2)

Nya-Binghi The Nya-Binghi (Nyabinghi or Nyahbinghi) is the oldest sect of Rastafari. They are the most Afro-centric of the Rasta Mansions and many deny all Hindu influences. They celebrate the Ethiopian Sabbath, Tuesday, and eat purely Ital, with an emphasis on organic

18

produce and particular avoidance of salt. While the sect initially founded its beliefs mainly on negative racial conflict and black supremacy, they have removed the focus of their religion from strict racial divides. The name of the movement, originally reported to mean “Death to all Whites” is now said to mean “Death to all Oppressors.”

Bobo Shanti After Prince Emmanuel Edwards’ camp was raided in a 1959 Back O’Wall raid, he wandered the countryside for many years before settling in Bull Bay with his followers. There they lived according to the strict rules of their community, which they called the Bobo Shanti Order, including thrice-daily prayers, twenty-one day separation between the men and women, strict rules of dress for male and female adherents and other such mandates. The Bobo Shanti live outside of Jamaican society, and until Prince Emmanuel Edwards’ death in 1994, did not allow visitors into their community. At that time, they experienced a brief moment of cultural relevance in Jamaica, when youths sported traditional Bobo turbans and adopted their racist, sexist, homophobic interpretation of the Bible. It was short-lived, as the group broke into factions and rival camps, and now the Bobo Shanti remain in several enclaves, separated from Jamaican society by Prince Edwards’ mandate and separated from each other by infighting.

Twelve Tribes of Israel Founded in 1968 in Jamaica by Dr. Vernon Carrington. Twelve Tribes Rastas believe in a sort of horoscope prophecy. Follower’s birth month corresponds to a specific tribe of Israel. This system is said to allow for the idea that adherents have different roles in the world. It allows for greater exploration of self and, unlike the Bobo Shanti, encourages the fulfillment of one’s own individual potential. Bob Marley was an adherent of the Twelve Tribes sect.

It should be noted that not all Rastafari subscribe to a particular sect and Rastafari experience varying degrees of strict adherence. For example, Rastas disagree on the meaning of Ital; though most Rasta agree that alcohol should be avoided, many indulge; though Rasta texts dictate monogamy, many Rasta practice polygamy (most notably: Leonard Howell and Bob Marley). Each Rasta determines his or her own path. The greatest judgment within Rasta is said to be the accusation that “Him have dreads on him head but not in him heart.” Following the Rasta philosophy of peace & love and acknowledging Haile Selassie I as the Living God are the two inflexible tenets of Rastafari.

19

Beliefs

Livity Livity refers to righteous, “ever-living” living and abiding by the tenets of love & peace. The term derives from the Iyaric livication (dedication) and refers to the devotion, faithfulness, and righteous life that Rastas should aspire to.

Black Supremacy/Afro centrism

Rastafarites regard Marcus Garvey as a prophet and look to Africa as Zion. To this end, many rituals and customs derive from what they perceive as African “naturalism”, including the use of ganja, the avoidance of man-made chemicals in food and personal care, etc.

Haile Selassie is the Living God Haile Selassie I’s divinity is the central belief of Rastafari, and it is from this belief that all other beliefs and rituals are formed. Haile Selassie is regarded as a Living God and the redeemer of black people worldwide. He is thought to be the second coming of Jesus Christ. As Jesus died for the sins of all mankind, Selassie is immortal and cannot die. Reports of his death are wholly rejected by Rastafarites.

Selassie is thought to be planning the repatriation of Afro-Jamaicans and all new world blacks. Not all Rastas feel a personal relationship with Selassie; some worship him as an impersonal God, others feel that Selassie is “their” God, meant only for black people, and is therefore more personal than the Biblical God.

Zion and Babylon Rastafarites reject Christian concepts of an otherworldly heaven. They believe heaven exists here on earth, and that heaven is in Ethiopia. This belief is broadly known as millenarism or Zionism and is common to many faiths, most notably Judaism. Ethiopia is known as Zion and the world outside of Ethiopia, particularly white-dominated areas of the world and colonial regions, are known as Babylon. Babylon is a place filled with confusion, oppression, and false comforts; Zion is the only true heaven.

After Death Rastafarites believe that after the death of the body, their energy is absorbed into the earth and will be reincarnated into another living thing. Some Rastas believe that if one maintains livity throughout one’s life and achieves a high enough spirituality and communes with

20

Jah, he or she will become “everliving” or immortal in their earthly bodies. Hindu influences are obvious in the Rasta view of death.

Rituals & Customs

Ital Diet The interpretation of Ital varies amongst Rastas. Some feel that avoidance of pork, shellfish and certain food combinations (similar to a Kosher Jewish diet) is called for, others eat a completely vegan diet free of all animal byproducts and avoid salt. The word “Ital” derives from “vital” and an ital diet is thought to preserve health and promote livity. Additionally, alcohol is avoided as it is thought to deteriorate health and make users slow and cooperative with oppressors.

Holidays Rastafari Holidays include:

Grounation Day, the celebration of Haile Selassie’s visit to Jamaica

Coronation of Ras Tafari (Haile Selassie) Birthdays: Marcus Garvey, Haile Selassie Ethiopian Holidays (i.e. New Year, Independence Day)

Services

Rasta services are not required, but many Rastas enjoy gathering with their brethren for drumming, prayers, and sharing the chalice (a pipe for smoking ganja). These activities are highly ritualized and vary between communities and sects. Generally, Rastas dress in all-white garb to attend these services, and services can last from one hour to one day.

Ganja Ganja is an important element of Rastafari, and smoking ganja has become closely identified with Rastafarites the world over. Rasta culture has been assimilated into marijuana subculture in the United States and worldwide. In Rastafari, however, smoking ganja is a sacrament and in some sects, is only to be done in private. Most Rastas indulge in ganja both publicly and privately but always view the act as a spiritual practice. Rastas feel that ganja allows for greater reasoning and communion with Jah.

Dreadlocks & Beards Many myths persist regarding the Rasta dreadlocks. Some claim that Rastas wear dreads because they believe that Jah will lift them to heaven by their hair. As Rastas do not believe in an otherworldly

21

heaven in the sky, this theory can be attributed to urban myth. In fact, not all Rastafarites wear dreadlocks. Dreadlocks are the Rastafari interpretation of the law in Leviticus 19:27 that prescribes Jewish peyos (curls at the temples). This law is interpreted by other Rastas to mean that they should wear beards, rather than dreadlocks. This interpretation also varies by community and sect.

Dread Talk/Iyaric The Rasta reinterpretation of language manifests in the variation of many words, including livity/livication, crelove, overstand, and others. Additionally, Rastas utilize the word “I” and variants on this word to replace other pronouns. They feel that the words “me” and “you” objectify people and referring to both “me” and “you” as “I” and referring to “us” or “we” as “I and I” denotes the equality that all people have in the heart of Jah.

Symbols The Ethiopian flag from Haile Selassie’s reign, showing green, gold, and red bars with a Lion of Judah insignia in the middle, is a prominent symbol in Rastafari culture. The colors and the Lion of Judah symbol are often used alone or together, and have become associated with Rasta culture worldwide.

Subject Headings

Figure 8 - Frequency with which subject headings appear among works listed in this bibliography

is indicated by font size

22

As illustrated by the word cloud above, the bulk of library holdings on Rastafari will be found under the subject heading “Rastafari Movement.” Additional works may be found under “Jamaica--Religion.” Researchers will find that related topics will fall under some variation of “Jamaica,” i.e. “Jamaica--History,” “Jamaica--Ethnic Relations,” etc. More specialized topics, such as Jamaican laborers on the Panama Canal, will have appropriate subject heading, e.g. “Panama” or “Foreign workers, West Indian--Panama--History.”

Classification

Dewey Nearly all of the works listed in this bibliography are classified under Dewey 299, “Other Religions.” Works specifically dealing with Rastafari and political resistance, oppression, and liberation are classified under Dewey 322, “Relation of state to organized groups.” Related topics are likely to fall under various areas of the 900’s, history.

Library of Congress Works specifically dealing with Rastafari will be found under BL (Religions, Mythology, Rationalism) 2532 (American). Contextual research materials will likely be found in F (History of the Americas).

Annotated Bibliography Works are divided by format and subdivided by content.

Texts

Rastafari History, Ethnography, and Theology Barrett, Leonard. The Rastafarians: Sounds of Cultural Dissonance. Boston:

Beacon Press, 1988.

Barrett is often referred to as an “expert” on Rastafari. Based on this, his most well known work, it seems likely that at the time of publication, this was the best research in the field. From a contemporary researcher’s standpoint, Barrett appear culturally insensitive. For example, he refers to “Rastafarianism” while Rastas roundly despise any “-ism.” This is worth overlooking, as his comprehensive volume is considered one of the most essential works in understanding Rastafari. He does an excellent job organizing

23

Rastafari beliefs into a manageable system, but does not emphasize the flexibility and self-determination of the Rasta. All in all, this book is flawed but cited often enough to warrant a closer look.

Campbell, Horace. Rasta and Resistance: From Marcus Garvey to Walter

Rodney. Trenton, NJ: Africa World Press, Inc, 1987.

Rasta and Resistance offers little unique information about the Rastafari movement and its views on social struggle and liberation, with the exception of its inclusion of a section on Rasta women. This section is insightful and provides critical commentary of the negative aspects of Rastafari. This sets Campbell apart from many researchers of the movement. Many researchers inadvertently romanticize the movement, perhaps because of their own biases in favor of the Rasta way of life. By elaborating on the sexism and homophobia inherent in many Rasta texts and apparent in Rasta culture, Campbell distinguishes his work among the many books about Rastafari political resistance and social justice.

Clarke, Peter. Black Paradise: The Rastafarin Movement. San Bernadino, CA:

The Borgo Press, 1994.

Clarke’s work was a bit perplexing. Most Rastafari texts examined listed fairly uniform beliefs. In Black Paradise (p. 11), Clarke identifies a belief that could not be located in any other text and was unattributed in this one. “For Rastafarians the present order will be razed to the ground in apocalyptic fashion around the year 2000…” There may be valuable material in this work, but researchers should cast a critical eye upon any information that appears unfounded. This work does include a bibliography, but it is not annotated and out-of-date for the most part.

Edmonds, Ennis. Rastafari: From Outcasts to Culture Bearers. New York:

Oxford University Press, 2003.

Similar to Campbell’s Rasta and Resistance, this monograph exhibits more scholarly sophistication in exploring the historical factors that allowed Rastas, an oppressed group, to express their worldview on a national and international stage. Edmonds’ work thoroughly explores the interaction between Rastafari and pop culture. He also lays out the anomalies of Rastafari that puzzle outsiders and the establishment and explains how these have come to inform Jamaican national identity and inspire people worldwide. Whereas Barrett understood that some parts of Rastafari culture, particularly as it has

24

become a global movement, were contradictory but ascribed this contradiction to a “you can’t argue with religion” mentality, Edmonds seeks to understand these contradictions and anomalies more fully. For example, Edmonds presents us with the tenet of faith in black supremacy that is central to Rasta and the fact that Rastafari appeals to many white people. This perplexing anomaly is explained by the overriding message of “peace and love” that permeates exported Rastafarian cultural artifacts. Additionally, a message of racial inferiority has not discouraged black people from traditional European Christian doctrine, why should the reverse discourage white people from Rastafari?

Erskine, Noel. From Garvey to Marley: Rastafari Theology. Gainesville, FL:

University Press of Florida, 2005.

Erskine expands his the theses about Rastafari he set forth in his first publication, Decolonizing Theology: A Caribbean Perspective. He elaborates on the theological context for Rastafari struggle and liberation. Incorporating scholarly research, ethnographic studies and personal experience, he attempts to describe the politics and theology of Rastafari in a systematic way. While this is not wholly successful (such a decentralized movement cannot be summed up systematically in a way that applies to the majority of its adherents), he does have a great deal of insight to offer with regards to the Rasta worldview.

Lee, Helene. The First Rasta: Leonard Howell and the Rise of Rastafarianism.

Translated by Lily Davis. Chicago: Lawrence Hill Books, 2003.

Lee provides an insightful and thorough biography of Leonard Howell, the founder of the Rastafarian movement. She has spent a great deal of time among Rastafarites in Jamaica and interviewed Howell’s followers extensively. Howell is often overlooked in Rasta history, as he faded into obscurity following the 1958 collapse of Pinnacle. Pinnacle, and Howell, are usually resigned to a footnote in the Rasta history when in fact, these first Rasta followers set the stage for all that was to come. Understanding the early days of Rastafari and the first Rasta agrarian commune is key in understanding the modern interpretations of Rasta texts and teachings. This book is an important work about a man whose name should be known by every scholar and believer in the Rastafari movement.

25

That said, Lee does editorialize and provide some unnecessary personal narrative. She is clearly passionate about her topic and has dedicated her life to researching the roots of reggae and Rastafari after interviewing Bob Marley for Rolling Stone magazine in the 1970’s. Her asides, while unnecessary, do not detract from the focus of the book. Researchers may find the book difficult to navigate, as it is inadequately indexed and follows a non-chronological, nonlinear narrative structure. This book may be more useful for readers who are interested in learning more about Rastafari, rather than researchers seeking specific information.

Lewis, William. Soul Rebels: The Rastafari. Prospect Heights, IL: Waveland

Press, 1993.

This short piece is an ethnographic analysis of Rasta which emphasizes understanding the movement in context. This work adds to the Rasta conversation in a meaningful way, and exhibits Rastafarites in rural, suburban, and urban regions of Jamaica. The author is a white Roman Catholic priest; from an ethnographic perspective, it is likely that his experience with the Rastas was skewed. Nonetheless there is no doubt some valuable information here.

Mulvaney, Rebekah. Rastafari and Reggae: A Dictionary and Sourcebook.

Westport, CT: Greenwood Press, 1990.

Mulvaney provides an exhaustive dictionary of Rastafari- and reggae-related words and phrases along with an annotated sourcebook of musical recordings, video recordings, and texts. The annotations for video and music recordings are much longer and more detailed than the text annotations, which can feel tacked-on, and are more useful from a collections development than research point of view. Nonetheless, the work as a whole is an excellent addition to a researcher’s arsenal and will surely prove to be a useful companion piece, particularly when deciphering thick patois and Iyaric.

Murrell, Nathaniel, William Spencer, and Adrian McFarlane, eds. Chanting

Down Babylon: The Rastafari Reader. Philadelphia: Temple University Press, 1998.

Chanting Down Babylon is a thorough and extensive collection of essays exploring all aspects of Rastafari. This work is highly scholarly - even dense at times - but provides the fullest picture of Rasta ethos available in a single volume. This work is indispensable

26

for researchers hoping to understand Rastafari from every possible angle.

Price, Charles. Becoming Rasta: Origins of Rastafari Identity in Jamaica. New

York: New York University Press, 2009.

Price explores the formation of Rastafari as an identity and the social/racial identity inherent in this. This identity formation is discussed in both historical (1931-1971) and contemporary contexts. The author is also interested in collective identity versus individual identity. He seeks to create a coherent identity narrative from the highly decentralized mansions of Rastafari. He answers the question, “What does it mean to be a Rastafarite?” with cultural sensitivity and an extensive knowledge of sociology, anthropology, and psychology.

Smith, M.G., Roy Augier, and Rex Nettleford. Report on the Ras Tafari

Movement in Kingston, Jamaica. Kingston, Jamaica: University College of the West Indies/Institute of Social and Economic Research, 1960.

Commonly referred to as “The University Report,” this landmark report legitimized and popularized the Rastafari movement. University of the West Indies researchers and students were invited by Mortimer Planno to observe and interview Kingston Rastas over a period of three weeks, during which time they concluded that the Rastafarites are essentially a peaceful people. The report lists ten suggestions to the Jamaican government for appeasing the Rastas and showing support to this emergent spiritual group. The first of these suggestions, “The government of Jamaica should send a mission to African countries to arrange for immigration of Jamaicans. Representatives of Ras Tafari brethren should be included in the mission,” was the only one to which the government acquiesced. One year after this report was issued, a group of Rastafari elders was sent on the mission to Africa and visited several countries, including Ethiopia.

The report also detailed the history and doctrine of Rastafari for the first time. While this information may not provide the most accurate view of modern Rastafari, as doctrines and the Rasta vision have been changed as a result of schisms in the movement, it should nonetheless be considered a primary resource for any researcher interested in Rastafari.

27

Zips, Werner, ed. Rastafari: A Universal Philosophy in the Third Millennium. Kingston: Ian Randle Publishers, 2006.

Zips has compiled a collection of essays, including one from Mutabaraka, a prominent modern Rasta leader. This seems to be his answer to Chanting Down Babylon. The history section is very short but the two essays contained therein are substantive. The focus of this work is mainly on the modern Rasta experience and the globalization of the movement. This sets Rastafari: A Universal Philosophy in the Third Millennium apart from most works on Rastafari, which seek an anthropological or historical perspective on the movement. This work gives the reader a grasp of what it means to be a Rastafarite in modern times. Barry Chevannes’ piece, “Rastafari and the Critical Tradition,” is excellent and Zips’ two color plates within the piece provide useful visual information, depicting the colorful and flamboyant culture maintained by modern Rastafarites.

Contextual Histories

Frederick, Rhonda. "Colon Man a Come": Mythographies of Panama Canal Migration. Lanham, MD: Lexington Books, 2005.

Taking its title from a Jamaican folk song about the economic independence and pretensions to fashion and culture that returning Panama Canal workers exhibited, “Colon Man a Come” provides readers with a rich cultural history, combining folk knowledge, history, and literature to create a full picture of the impact of the Panama Canal migrations on Caribbean culture. Frederick’s treatment of literature as a valuable historical research source is novel; readers should be cautioned against interpreting this work as a conventional historical treatise. That said, Caribbean culture lends itself to imaginative interpretations of history and Frederick does a first-rate job of challenging the binary (i.e. black/white; oppressor/oppressed; colonizer/colonized) view of Caribbean history and traditions. The Panama Canal allowed non-land-owning Caribbean peoples an opportunity to gain some measure of economic independence; in this way, it was a harbinger of the pop culture elements that allowed Rastafari to spread worldwide. Until this point in history, the elite dictated culture. At this crucial moment in Caribbean history, impoverished native peoples experienced migration and return. This cycle was not unheard of at this point in time, as the United Fruit Company had already paved

28

the way for Caribbean exodus by allowing natives passage on their cargo ships; however, it became highly organized and much more widespread. Though working conditions in Panama were hazardous and many workers perished on the isthmus, this opportunity allowed workers to bring individual economic independence back to the island and shaped the Rastafari doctrine of self-sufficiency. Moreover, radical political ideas were bandied about on the passage to and from Panama and on the isthmus itself. Frederick does not delve as deeply into the radical political notions as one might hope, but she does mention Garvey and other radicals whose time in Panama shaped and spread their messages. Unsurprisingly, economic empowerment occurred concurrently with intellectual empowerment. Frederick’s work is exhaustively researched and her list of sources, though not annotated, is certainly worth a look for greater exploration of Caribbean migrations.

Mansingh, Laxmi, and Ajai Mansingh. Home Away from Home: 150 Years of

Indian Presence in Jamaica, 1845-1995. Kingston, Jamaica: Ian Randle Publishers, 1999.

Home Away from Home provides the history of Indian immigrants to Jamaica. Of particular interest are sections about Sadhus, Hindu mystics whose ceremonies and rituals were later assimilated into Jamaican culture. The positive relations between Afro-Jamaicans and Indian immigrants led to many cultural exchanges that contributed to the uniqueness of Jamaican culture, and eventually affected the rituals and rites of Rastafari peoples. This book is difficult to obtain, however, as it is out of print and inaccessible even from the publisher’s website. The restricted digital copy of this item is incomplete, so searching within the item will prove futile.

Sherlock, Philip, and Hazel Bennett. The Story of the Jamaican People.

Kingston, Jamaica: Ian Randle Publishers Limited, 1998.

One in a sea of Jamaican histories, The Story of the Jamaican People was chosen by this researcher for its scope and areas of focus. The book mentions Jamaica’s early inhabitants, which include Jewish, East Indian, Syrian, and Lebanese settlers between the sixteenth and twentieth centuries and notes the contributions those immigrants made to the larger Jamaican culture, but its main focus is on the majority of Jamaica’s inhabitants, who are of African descent. While each of the above-mentioned ethnicities has contributed crucial elements to Jamaican history and culture, African immigrants

29

certainly had the largest and most lasting impact. From Ethiopianism to Garveyism, one can observe the strong connections to Africa in all of the spiritual movements leading to Rastafari. An understanding of Jamaica’s history from an Afro centric standpoint is key in understanding Jamaica’s people, theology, worldview, and philosophies. This is not to say that the book is too narrowly focused on Afro-Jamaican histories. An entire chapter is dedicated to discussing immigrants from India, China, and the Middle East. However, if researchers are looking for a more inclusive, expansive view of Jamaican history, many multi-volume works exist. For the historical context necessary for understanding Rasta, this general, if somewhat Afro centric, work is recommended.

Watkins-Owens, Irma. Blood Relations: Caribbean Immigrants and the Harlem

Community, 1900-1930. Bloomington, IN: Indiana University Press, 1996.

Watkins-Owens explores the identity, culture, and politics of the some 40,000 Afro-Caribbean immigrants to Harlem between 1900 and 1930. Rather than providing a history of Harlem during this time, she explores the heterogeneous black culture that emerged during this era. Blood Relations discusses the many kinds of Caribbean immigrants flooding into Harlem in the first part of the twentieth century: direct immigrants traveling from their Caribbean home to Harlem; secondary immigrants traveling to Harlem from Panama or other parts of Central America; and the “Talented Tenth”, a visible group of educated and elite Caribbean immigrants. Afro-Caribbean movements within Harlem are traced as well: as white property owners consent to house negroes, black residency moves uptown, through the 80’s and into the 130’s, and the demographics of those moves and settlements are listed in the appendices. Migrant families are of particular interest, as families shift from predominantly two-parent to one-parent homes. This is a firmly scholarly work, and Watkins-Owens provides readers with a dense narrative as well as an extensive index of demographics and notes. While it is likely that there are more entertaining histories of Harlem, none focuses so closely on the Afro-Caribbean migrants to New York at this time. Researchers are strongly encouraged to read the chapters on Marcus Garvey and “Politics and the Struggle for Autonomy” for insight into the political movements taking place in New York that directly affected the formation of Jamaican identity and the way Jamaicans understood the pan-African movement.

30

Primary Texts

Maragh, G.G. The Promised Key. Jamaica: unknown, 1935. http://www.sacred-texts.com/afr/tpk/index.htm (accessed November 15, 2011).

The Promised Key appears to directly plagiarize the Holy Piby and the Royal Parchment Scroll; nonetheless, it is considered one of the primary Rastafari theological texts. Published under the name G.G., or Ganganguru, Maragh under mysterious circumstances in 1935, this work is attributed to Leonard Howell. As Howell was imprisoned at this time of publication, scholars have speculated that his followers may have published the work under his name or that he published it after his release from prison and backdated it. The work specifically bans certain African cultural relics, like the “balm yard”, dictates certain Rastafari rites such as fasting, and rails against white oppressors of all kinds, including the American Ku Klux Klan, whom he refers to as “The Rapers.” He, like Athlyi Rogers, writes angrily about vindicating the crimes of the white man. This tract is a primary source of Rastafari, but it should be noted that this level of vitriol in black supremacy is not, and does not ever appear to have been, a widespread trait in Rastafari, nor a tenet of their faith.

Pettersburgh, Fitz Balintine. The Royal Parchment Scroll of Black Supremacy.

[Jamaica]: publisher unknown, 1926. http://www.sacred-texts.com/afr/rps/index.htm (accessed November 15, 2011).

This incomprehensible stream-of-consciousness text provided a basis for much of The Promised Key and is, itself, considered a primary Rastafari text. Like other primary texts, this Ethiopianist document rails against the white imperialist power structure. The Royal Parchment Scroll on Black Supremacy is boilerplate for much of the Afro centric and black supremacist writings of the twentieth century.

Rogers, Robert Athlyi. The Holy Piby. [Jamaica]: publisher unknown, n.d.

http://www.sacred-texts.com/afr/piby/index.htm (accessed November 15, 2011).

Written for Rogers’ followers in the Afro-Athlican Constructive Gaathlyi, the Holy Piby is made up of four books. Notably, Rogers introduces the idea of a living god, which would provide the basis for Rastafari. Many believe that his text was prophetic of Haile Selassie’s rise to emperor, and Rastas consider this to be a primary

31

text, though acknowledge that it provided the basis for their religious movement but is not itself a Rastafarian treatise.

Kebra Negast

An anthology of African Biblical folklore, this text is primary to all Afro-centric and Ethiopianist religions, including Rastafari. It explains in greater detail than the Bible the relationship between King Solomon and The Queen of Sheba. It is sometimes referred to as “The Rasta Bible” although this is inaccurate, as Rastafarites utilize both the Kebra Negast and the Holy Bible as primary texts.

Holy Bible

Rastafarites are highly selective in their Biblical references, and most often refer to Revelations. As they believe that Emperor Haile Selassie I was the return of Jesus, or an incarnation of God, Rastafarites feel that some of the predictions in Revelations have already come to pass. The word “Jah” is though to derive from Psalms, 68:4, “Sing unto God, sing praises to his name: extol him that rideth upon the heavens by his name JAH, and rejoice before him.”

FILM

The Harder They Come. Directed by Perry Henzell. 1972; Jamaica: New

World Pictures, 1973.

Jimmy Cliff stars as Ivanhoe, a newly homeless youth from the Jamaican hills who is denied the opportunity to seek success as a musician by the only music promoter in town, a white man. It is only by circumventing the law and local power structure that Ivan is able to get the chance he so deserves. This film was key in developing Jamaica’s pop culture identity. It also illustrates the Rasta tenet of self-determination and affirms the unwillingness of Babylon to aid black people in achieving success. The soundtrack to this film is one of the most important collections of reggae in its early years, and it was hoped that the film and soundtrack would launch Jimmy Cliff to superstardom. Unfortunately, the release of the film was delayed for several years, and by the time it became popular to American audiences, Jimmy Cliff had renounced Rastafari and converted to Nation of Islam. Bob Marley took Cliff’s place as the first reggae

32

superstar, and benefitted greatly from the success of The Harder They Come, despite not being directly associated with its production.

Countryman. Directed by Dickie Jobson. 1982; Jamaica: Island, 1982.

From a film criticism perspective, this film fails on many fronts (i.e. plot development and technical considerations). However, it tells the true story of one of Jamaica’s most infamous incidents of political corruption and drug trafficking, and stars one of Rasta’s most legendary figures. Any researcher interested in a visual representation of Rastafari is advised to watch Countryman. Notably, in one scene, a “fashion dread” is confronted by a dreadlocked Rasta, personifying the Babylon/Zion dichotomy in Rasta culture as represented by dreadlocks. This is the only film that features Rastafari in a prominent way, without sensationalizing or capitalizing on the culture.

The First Rasta. Directed by Christophe Farnarier and Helene Lee. 2010;

Jamaica: Centre National de la Cinématographie (CNC), 2011.

A companion piece to Helene Lee’s book by the same name, this documentary provides viewers with interviews with prominent Rasta leaders and Rastas who once lived at Pinnacle and knew Leonard Howell. Some interviews are difficult to decipher due to the thick patois and this researcher’s unfamiliarity with spoken Iyaric, and no subtitles are provided. However, the information contained in the documentary is worth the time it may take to decipher the interviewees’ speech. Notably, the documentary features many interviews with Mortimer Planno, Bob Marley’s Rasta teacher and the organizer of the seminal University Report on Rastafari.

Digital Resources Schomburg Center for Research in Black Culture. “In Motion: The African-

American Migration Experience” New York Public Library. www.inmotionaame.org (accessed November 29, 2011).

Schomburg Center’s digital library documenting African American migrations includes a fantastic section on Caribbean migration via “The Central American Route,” which pairs photographs from the Panama Canal and United Fruit Company ships with introductory text. The digital library is very user-friendly and is a good starting place for researchers and those with casual interest in the subject. Rastafari is not addressed directly, but a great deal of contextual

33

information is provided. The library also recommends sources for further reading, and provides a search function for more precise browsing.