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presented in: Linotype Centennial™ 76 Bold Italic MY ACCOUNT / LOGIN MY SHOPPING CART MY FAVORITES HOME FONT FINDER FONT PRODUCTS FONT SERVICES FONT LOUNGE NEWS SUPPORT COMPANY Search FONT OF THE WEEK FONT DESIGNERS TYPE GALLERY FONTS IN USE FONT FEATURES LEARN ABOUT TYPE MOVIE FONTS BOOKSHOP FONT LINKS SUBMIT FONTS FONT LOUNGE > FONT FEATURES > HISTORY OF SANS SERIF TYPEFACES Find further Font Features in our Font Feature Archive. Adrian Frutiger The History of Linear, Sans Serif Types By Adrian Frutiger Much has been written about the evolution of type: how the forms of our letters took shape, from the roman capitals to the Carolingian minuscules, and how the Latin alphabet was then, essentially, finalized for eternity by the first printing presses of the Renaissance Age. Looking back from where we stand now, we could say that the original forms of our uppercase letters are around 2,000 years old, while those of our lowercase letters would be over 1,000 years old. And in the last 500 years, neither case has changed in its basic forms. But what has constantly changed are the outlines of the letters, influenced by new inventions in reproduction but also by the unique spirit of each epoch. Since the invention of sans serif typefaces over a century ago, many new stylistic forms have already emerged. In the following pages, we will attempt to explain the formal transformations which took place and provide a framework for understanding the development of this new form of type. more... For further information do not hesitate to contact us via: eMail [email protected] Phone +49 (0) 6172 484 418 Fax +49 (0) 6172 484-429 We reserve the right of errors and changes. © 2005, Linotype Library GmbH, All rights reserved. Go to Font Features Introduction The loss of the serifs Part 1 The loss of the serifs Part 2 Fashion and typeface The sans serif wave Part 1 The sans serif wave Part 2 The sans serif wave Part 3 Outsiders Further development is possible Cars and typefaces: a comparison A wide selection An overview About legibility CONTACT SITEMAP TERMS OF BUSINESS LICENSE AGREEMENT SECURITY IMPRINT/IMPRESSUM

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Page 1: FONT LOUNGE > FONT FEATURES > HISTORY OF SANS SERIF ...image.linotype.com/files/pdf/fontfeatures/the_history_fontfeature.pdf · FONTS IN USE FONT FEATURES LEARN ABOUT TYPE MOVIE FONTS

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Adrian Frutiger

The History of Linear, SansSerif Types

By Adrian Frutiger

Much has been written aboutthe evolution of type: how theforms of our letters tookshape, from the romancapitals to the Carolingianminuscules, and how the Latinalphabet was then, essentially,finalized for eternity by thefirst printing presses of theRenaissance Age.

Looking back from where westand now, we could say thatthe original forms of ouruppercase letters are around2,000 years old, while those ofour lowercase letters would beover 1,000 years old. And inthe last 500 years, neithercase has changed in its basicforms. But what has constantlychanged are the outlines ofthe letters, influenced by newinventions in reproduction butalso by the unique spirit ofeach epoch.

Since the invention of sansserif typefaces over a centuryago, many new stylistic formshave already emerged. In thefollowing pages, we willattempt to explain the formaltransformations which tookplace and provide a frameworkfor understanding thedevelopment of this new formof type.

more...

For further information do not hesitate to contact us via:

eMail [email protected]

Phone +49 (0) 6172 484 418

Fax +49 (0) 6172 484-429

We reserve the right of errors and changes.

© 2005, Linotype Library GmbH, All rights reserved.

Go to Font Features

Introduction

The loss of the serifs Part 1

The loss of the serifs Part 2

Fashion and typeface

The sans serif wave Part 1

The sans serif wave Part 2

The sans serif wave Part 3

Outsiders

Further development is possible

Cars and typefaces: a comparison

A wide selection

An overview

About legibility

CONTACT

SITEMAP

TERMS OF BUSINESS

LICENSE AGREEMENT

SECURITY

IMPRINT/IMPRESSUM

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Fig. 1a

Fig. 1b

Fig. 1c

Fig. 2

The History of Linear,Sans Serif Types

The loss of the serifsPart 1

With the invention of theprinting press, a longingfor formal refinementbegan to awaken. Firstleaning on the bold anddistinct typography ofincunabula, styles graduallyprogressed to culminate inthe decorative classicalfonts of the 17th and 18thcenturies. This growingpreoccupation with evergreater refinement wasalso reflected in thearchitecture of the times,as well as in objects ofdaily use, especiallyfurniture. But also thefashionable attire worn bythe upper classes of eachepoch paid tribute to thisdevelopment accordingly.

The mutationAt the dawn of the 19thcentury, the newlyestablished Republic ofFrance was still groping tocome to terms with itsnew identity – and aswidespread industrializationset in, an intrinsicmutation began to takeplace in all externalappearances. The searchfor a new look became atime-consuming questeventually dragging into adecade-long struggle. Thiscan be observed in thearchitecture of the early19th century: on the onehand, there was a mixtureof styles borrowing fromnumerous past eras, onthe other hand, there wasa clear will to find a newform of expression,inspired by the inventionsof the time, like therailway and, later, the useof concrete as a buildingmaterial (see Fig. 1a andb). This confusion was alsoreflected in typography,which commonly appliedan incongruous melange ofall previous typeface styles(see Fig. 1c).

The end of the lineIn order to betterunderstand the transitionfrom typefaces with serifsto those without, it isnecessary to consider thedeeper impression left

Go to Font Features

Introduction

The loss of the serifs Part 1

The loss of the serifs Part 2

Fashion and typeface

The sans serif wave Part 1

The sans serif wave Part 2

The sans serif wave Part 3

Outsiders

Further development is possible

Cars and typefaces: a comparison

A wide selection

An overview

About legibility

CONTACT

SITEMAP

TERMS OF BUSINESS

LICENSE AGREEMENT

SECURITY

IMPRINT/IMPRESSUM

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Fig. 3

Fig. 4

Fig. 5

Fig. 6

behind by the appearanceof a line. Every line whichdoes not close in on itselfhas a beginning and anend. If such a line doesnot have fortified endings,the observer is left withthe uneasy feeling thatsomething is incomplete,the line could flow onforever.Just as an example, let’shave a look at a cross –as not to be influenced bythe accustomedappearance of a letter. Across without line endingsis primarily perceived asan abstract symbol withtwo converging lines in themiddle. The length of thelines is undefined, the linesappear to be able tocontinue on forever.However, as soon as thelines are given graphicboundaries, the symbol issuddenly perceived ascomplete entity (see Fig.2).Such fortification of lineendings has given rise toever changing styles ofdecoration for ages,attributing to the cross aunique symbolism eachtime (see Fig. 3).Looking at the evolution ofthe Latin alphabet, thefirst stroke endings can befound in the chiseling ofRoman capitals. Incalligraphy, the emphasison the stroke beginningand ending is whatcharacterized the stylisticappearance of the text(see Fig. 4).Perhaps these strokeendings also hadsomething to do with anunconscious searching forstability, as the lowerserifs of incised fontsactually seem to be"standing" on an invisibleline.With respect toarchitectural developments,characters marked withserifs at their endingscould easily be comparedwith the columns of almostany stylistic period. Informer times, a columnwas always decorated witha base at the bottom anda capital at the top (seeFig. 6 top). It was notuntil the birth ofmodernism that architectsventured to introduce anaked column, made ofconcrete. The fear that aline without boundariesmight flow on forever gaveway to a worldviewdefined by rationality –heralding the beginning ofwidespread use of sansserif typefaces (see Fig. 6bottom).

more...

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© 2005, Linotype Library GmbH, All rights reserved.

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Fig. 7

Fig. 8

The History of Linear,Sans Serif Types

The loss of the serifsPart 2

The first sans serif fontappeared in 1816 in atype sample book byWilliam Caslon (see Fig.7). This new typefacecaught on quickly andbegan to appear all overEurope and the U.S. underthe names "Grotesque"and "Sans Serif". Soon,bold and slender weightsof this type could be foundeverywhere in newspaperheadlines, on posters andbrochures. The "Grotesque"became the instrument ofa new found factuality insearch of a more poignantform of expression. Intheir basic forms, the sansserif lowercase lettersremained quite similar tothose in roman type, thevertical strokes retaining agreater thickness comparedto the oblique transitionsand joins. The capitalletters, on the other hand,were significantly altered:now all letters from A to Zhad a similar width –previously narrowcharacters such as B, E, Pand S were widened whileletters like T, M and Wwere kept narrower (seeFig. 8).

The use of these newtypefaces was limitedalmost exclusively totypesetting for titles andheadlines. The body textremained intact, true tothe classic form of romantype. This situation wouldendure for over 100 years.It wasn’t until after WorldWar II that sans seriffonts were to experience atrue renaissance andrevolutionize the world oftext publishing.

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Go to Font Features

Introduction

The loss of the serifs Part 1

The loss of the serifs Part 2

Fashion and typeface

The sans serif wave Part 1

The sans serif wave Part 2

The sans serif wave Part 3

Outsiders

Further development is possible

Cars and typefaces: a comparison

A wide selection

An overview

About legibility

CONTACT

SITEMAP

TERMS OF BUSINESS

LICENSE AGREEMENT

SECURITY

IMPRINT/IMPRESSUM

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© 2005, Linotype Library GmbH, All rights reserved.

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Fig. 9a

Fig. 9b

Fig. 9c

The History of Linear, Sans Serif Types

Fashion and typeface: a comparison

A consistent line of development can be identifiedin the over 150-year history of sans serif fonts.Just as classic roman typefaces went throughnumerous changes in appearance, sans seriftypes experienced many mutations as well.Instead of the perhaps more typical comparisonof architecture and typography, what follows is anillustrative comparison between the forms ofletters and men’s fashion, covering a span of 250years.

1750As a reference point, we’ll begin with the overtlyelegant style of the 18th century. Extravagantrefinement was evident in both the type and theclothes, clearly indicative of the end of an age(see Fig. 9a).

1825Before the development of the sans serif types,as a reaction to the exaggerated elegance of theDidot serifs, the powerful slab serifs of theEgyptian style predominated. Men’s fashion at thetime also reflected this distinct change (see Fig.9b).

1890The emergence of the sans serif types tookrelatively little time. At the end of the 19thcentury, type foundries all over the world alreadyhad the means to produce sans serif types eitherwith their own matrices or ones which they hadacquired. Similar to the typefaces, men’s clothinghad also evolved in favor of austere, tight-fittinglines (see Fig. 9c).

1900The turn of the century brought along artnouveau and with it a romantic influence whichcan hardly be ignored in either the typefaces orthe fashions of the day (see Fig. 9d).

1925The 1920s saw the rise of direct expression – andan objectivity influenced by science andtechnology. The first attempts were made tocreate typefaces with purely geometrical forms.Men’s clothing lost every trace of adornment,beards disappeared completely and hairstyleswere reduced to a minimum of simplicity (seeFig. 9e).

1955As mentioned earlier, the years after World WarII saw the rebirth of the grotesque types of the19th century. They served as models for newalphabets with forms far removed from purelyconstructionist principles. The use of these moremodular type forms seemed easier and betteradapted to the spirit of modernity. At the sametime as when the Beatles began to triumphantlytake the world by storm, the fashion world alsoexperienced a revolution. The "tight jacket" of thetraditional suit was discarded for clothes made ofburlap and leather. Then blue jeans came fromAmerica – a look which spread around the globe,breaking down barriers across every class ofsociety, a fashion equally accessible to womenand men (see Fig. 9f).

Go to Font Features

Introduction

The loss of the serifs Part 1

The loss of the serifs Part 2

Fashion and typeface

The sans serif wave Part 1

The sans serif wave Part 2

The sans serif wave Part 3

Outsiders

Further development is possible

Cars and typefaces: a comparison

A wide selection

An overview

About legibility

CONTACT

SITEMAP

TERMS OF BUSINESS

LICENSE AGREEMENT

SECURITY

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Fig. 9d

Fig. 9e

Fig. 9f

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Fig. 10

Fig. 11

Fig. 12

Fig. 13

The History of Linear,Sans Serif Types

The sans serif wave Part1

To better understand thetransformation of typefaceforms, let’s cast a lookback at the 1920s. PaulRenner was making hisfirst attempts to create analphabet exclusively withcircles and lines. But hisexperiments failed due tothe unusual characterswhich his rigid concept ofform produced (see Fig.10). Later, when hedeveloped Futura (1927),the stroke thickness wasno longer consistent but aslight expansion andnarrowing was allowedwhich helped thecharacters appear lesspeculiar. Only the lettersa, g and t marked a cleardeparture from the classicforms. With regards tocapital letters, the old styleof applying differentwidths was reintroduced. Itshould be noted that thesans serif type designedby J. Erbar in 1922already implemented alowercase style (only innormal weights) fromwhich Futura clearly drewinspiration. At about thesame time as Futura,Rudolf Koch introducedKabel (1927) which in itsmode of expression fornormal text passages couldbe considered theprototype of all sans seriftypes. The strokes areuncompromising in theirconsistent thickness andthe curves are almostentirely purely circular inform. The stroke endingsare strangely cropped,sometimes perpendicularlysometimes diagonally; acertain woodcutting stylecan be observed herewhich was quite typical ofKoch.

The gray lineBefore considering thefurther development ofsans serif types, it isimportant to rememberthat with the outbreak ofWorld War II all stylisticprogression in this fieldwas essentially brought toa halt in Germany. InSwitzerland, however,

Go to Font Features

Introduction

The loss of the serifs Part 1

The loss of the serifs Part 2

Fashion and typeface

The sans serif wave Part 1

The sans serif wave Part 2

The sans serif wave Part 3

Outsiders

Further development is possible

Cars and typefaces: a comparison

A wide selection

An overview

About legibility

CONTACT

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Fig. 14

Fig. 15

which was spared many ofthe horrors of the war, acreative fire continued toglimmer. During thisperiod, there was agradual departure fromconstructed typefaces likeFutura and Erbar and arediscovery of the old sansserif types from the endof the 19th century.Among other typefaces,typesetters dug upStandard Grotesk (1898)and gave it a thoroughfacelift. And in 1943, theHaas foundry took theModerne Grotesk, originallydesigned by LudwigWagner in 1912,reintroducing the type asNormal Grotesk. These oldfonts were then subject toan innovative phase ofexperimentation at thedesign schools in Basel andZurich, marked by a cleartendency towardsasymmetry. Lines of typewere treated like buildingelements which were usedto harmoniously structurea page, thereby alsodefining the surroundingblank spaces (see Fig. 11).The letters of a typeface,when placed in a row,were supposed to be ableform a harmonious grayline which could be usedas a typographical buildingelement – something whichwas not possible with theirregularities of moreconstructed fonts.At the beginning of the1950s, when typefoundries began to operateagain, the actual work ofcreating new fonts in thisstyle began. Folio wasdesigned by K. F. Bauerand W. Baum. They coulddraw on the experience ofalmost 100 years ofdevelopments. One of theirmodels, Breite Grotesk,was from the year 1867,while for the model of hisHelvetica type family, MaxMiedinger used the so-called Schelter Groteskfrom the year 1880,whose matrices were soldat this time by Schelter &Giesecke to manyfoundries. Univers, byAdrian Frutiger, with itsstrongly emphasized thick-thin contrasts andsomewhat angular ovals,had no typical models. Thefirst designs of this kind ofsans serif font family werecreated in 1950 at theZurich School of AppliedArts (see Fig. 13).What certainly helpedthese 3 fonts become theinternational successeswhich they are today, isthe fact that they were allmade available to thethree most importantleadsetting systems of thetime and were therefore all

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widely used in the massproduction of texts.

The gridThe discovery of the gridhad a considerable impacton the development of thisnew form of typography –not only in the breakdownof the page into graphicunits but also in theanalysis of the individualcharacters of the alphabet.Such a system had alreadybeen used for centuries inJapanese architecture,where the unit of planningis the size of the tatami, astraw mat, which is usedto map out the proportionsof each room in a unifiedway. An illustration byWalter Käch shows theconception of a grid for asans serif font (see Fig.14), on which mostlowercase letters can bedesigned.The difference to the wayin which characters werepreviously drawn can beseen in the directcomparison of aconstructed and a modulartypeface (see Fig. 15). Inour example, the upperline (Futura) has fill areasfeaturing eyes andintermediate spaces whichfluctuate greatly in sizeand form; on the lowerline (Univers), the fillareas are more similar.The curves are ovals whichhave been slightlystretched to one cornerand there is a distinctthinning in the obliquetransitions and joins, ascan be seen in b and n,for instance. The interiorand exterior whitetriangles at the obliqueangles are also moresimilar to each other.

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Fig. 15

Fig. 16

Fig. 17

Fig. 18

The History of Linear,Sans Serif Types

The sans serif wave Part 2

The definition of"medium"The thickness of a stroke isone of the most decisivefactors in determining thebasic structure of atypeface, especially withregards to what isconsidered "normal". Astroke thickness norm hadalready been established inthe Carolingian minusculesand especially in the firsthumanistic roman types. Itis the exact relationshipbetween the black and whitevalues which is responsiblefor lending the x-height stripof a text line a certaingrayness. This grayness iswhat the reader perceives asnormal. And theseproportions are perceived byreaders with astonishingsensitivity. All too often atype foundry came out witha font which later only hadto be complemented with a"Book", a "Medium" or a"Heavy" in order to beaccepted as legible or"normal". However, it is noteasy to exactly define thesenorm values. The blackvalues are influenced by thethickness of the obliquetransitions (and the serifs inroman type). An averagevalue could be defined aswhen the x-height isapproximately 5 1/2 timesthe width of the stroke (seeFig. 16). The normal widthof a sans serif typeface canbe defined by the eye’swidth which should beapproximately 3 times thewidth of the stroke and witha bearing value of onestroke thickness on eachside. And if, in compensationfor the oblique black value,1/2 stroke thickness issubtracted from the x-height, a theoretical x-stripis created whose height is 5times the thickness of thestroke. The gray value iscomposed of 2/7 blacksurface and 5/7 white space,i.e. a density of about 30%.

Optical correctionsOptical effects also have tobe taken into consideration.The thickness of a strokeperceived by the eye isrelative. From roman type,readers are accustomed to

Go to Font Features

Introduction

The loss of the serifs Part 1

The loss of the serifs Part 2

Fashion and typeface

The sans serif wave Part 1

The sans serif wave Part 2

The sans serif wave Part 3

Outsiders

Further development is possible

Cars and typefaces: a comparison

A wide selection

An overview

About legibility

CONTACT

SITEMAP

TERMS OF BUSINESS

LICENSE AGREEMENT

SECURITY

IMPRINT/IMPRESSUM

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Fig. 19

Fig. 20

thin upstrokes and thickdownstrokes, which is takeninto account in thedevelopment of newtypefaces (see Fig. 15). Thisexample also demonstrateshow the stroke thicknessbecomes more wedge-shaped as it approachesanother stroke in order toavoid a conical effecttowards the outside. Smalleyes are widened from theinside through a thinning ofthe strokes (see Fig. 17).

The variantsA carefully plannedproportional change of thebasic grid is needed to beable to design harmoniousvariants such as narrow,wide, light and bold, withoutaltering the overallimpression of the style.Unlike the diagonal endingsof old sans serif types, theconsistent horizontal endingsof the curves (see Fig. 18)improves the acceptance ofsuch variants. The diversityoffered by a font family hadto be extended beyond theclassic triptych of light, boldand italic to include a fullystructured font set withmany weights. For the firsttime, the typeface alsotakes on the character ofthe text itself (see Fig. 19).

Sans serif italicsThe italic weights were alsoformally structured on a gridof their own. It was not aquestion of creatingindependent typefaces, aswith roman type, but simplyslanting the strokes into amore diagonal position andmaintaining the same grayvalues. The precise angleapplied is decisive for theexpressiveness of an italicweight. Univers, which wasdesigned right from the startfor photosetting, was givena steep diagonal slant of16°; the barriers betweenthe letters imposed byleadsetting were no longer aconsideration. To this day,this steep angle hascontinued to inspiretypographers seeking to adda sense of motion to theirprint jobs (see Fig. 20).

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Fig. 8

Fig. 21a

Fig. 21b

Fig. 22

The History of Linear,Sans Serif Types

The sans serif wave Part3

Capital lettersIn comparison withlowercase letters, theuppercase wasconsiderably reduced insize, also for the sake ofthe aesthetics of the grayline. The previouslydiscussed standardizationof width which was appliedin the first sans serif fonts(see Fig. 8) was also quiteconducive to this trend.

The spacing problemThe problem of textspacing deserves someexplanation as well. Inleadsetting, the serifs inroman type made itimpossible to place letterstoo close to each other, asthe serifs acted likebuffers between traincarriages. Thearrangement of verticalbars in roman type can becompared with a classicrow of columns withunified spacing (see Fig.21a). But due to theabsence of serifs in thenew grotesque typefaces,a conscious reduction ofthe lateral bearing valueswas required to ensure thevisual unity of each word.In this way, a two-phasedrhythm was established(see Fig. 21b).The new technology ofphotosetting, as well asscratch film letters,allowed for completefreedom in determiningthe spacing betweencharacters. This trend ledto an absurd crowding ofthe letters to the pointwhere they practicallyseemed glued together(see Fig. 22).

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Go to Font Features

Introduction

The loss of the serifs Part 1

The loss of the serifs Part 2

Fashion and typeface

The sans serif wave Part 1

The sans serif wave Part 2

The sans serif wave Part 3

Outsiders

Further development is possible

Cars and typefaces: a comparison

A wide selection

An overview

About legibility

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Fig. 23

Fig. 24

The History of Linear, Sans SerifTypes

Outsiders

Several fonts should also beconsidered which, strictly speaking,do not clearly fit into theevolutionary line of sans serif type.

Gill SansOne of the most unique sans serifstyles is the font known as Gill Sans(1928). Eric Gill undoubtedly drewinspiration from the signagetypeface developed by EdwardJohnston in 1918 for the LondonUnderground. The distinctivecharacteristics of the Gill Sans fontare the classic forms of the a andg, the wide t, but also the old-fashioned roman capitals. Therounded c, e and s are the firstexamples of vertical stroke endswhich create an optical effect of thestroke thinning towards the ending,alluding to roman type. On thewhole, Gill Sans exudes a profoundmedieval spirit – which makes it allthe more surprising it is essentiallythe only sans serif typeface withouta modular use of strokes. The O isa perfect circle. Oblique and verticalstrokes as well as upstrokes anddownstrokes all have a consistentthickness. Only a, e and g haveconsiderably thinner strokes at theopenings of the small eyes. Theseaberrations from an otherwiseconsistent stroke thickness are thetrademark characteristics of the"Gill" typeface; this can be seeneven more clearly in the boldweights.

PeignotThis highly individualistic type familyPeignot was designed by A. M.Cassandre and Charles Peignot,starting in 1936. The initialmotivation was to design analphabet based on Unziale in whichupper and lowercase letters could bemerged. Capitals were later added,however, as the customer was notreceptive to the idea of a singlealphabet for both cases. A similarconcept led De Roos to createSimplex (1939).What was also innovative aboutPeignot at the time was a sans seriftypeface emphasizing bolddownstrokes and fine transitions.Since then, numerous other fontshave been developed with a similartype ductus. They do not deservemention here, however, as in mostcases they were straightforwardroman types, simply without serifs.

MicrogrammaWith the widespread distribution oftelevision, a new form began to

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Introduction

The loss of the serifs Part 1

The loss of the serifs Part 2

Fashion and typeface

The sans serif wave Part 1

The sans serif wave Part 2

The sans serif wave Part 3

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Further development is possible

Cars and typefaces: a comparison

A wide selection

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imprint itself in subconscious of themasses, namely the visible part ofthe cathode tube. This formrepresented a merging of arectangular and an oval form – atthe time, an unusual combination.Consequently, it is not surprisingthat two fonts developed at thistime by Aldo Novarese, Eurostile(1962) and Microgramma (1952),became international successes (seeFig. 23).It is interesting to note that fontswith such extraordinary basicstructures are practically never usedfor longer texts. This is becausereaders are receptive to unusualtype patterns in large print but findthem too disruptive for the readingof longer texts.

Antique OliveOne typeface which stands out fromthe direct development line of thesans serifs is Antique Olive whichwas developed by Roger Excoffon,in 1962. The hand of a painter canclearly be sensed in this font,especially in the unique formation ofthe curves and the concentration ofweight in the top of each letter.Nevertheless, this font is strictlybased on the classic skeleton ofroman type which has, in turn, ledto its increasingly successfulapplication in text passages.

DeviationsIn the 1970s new phenomenaappeared, especially large cabtypesetting, which gave typographyan unexpected new boost. Newtechnological developments mademagnetic (and later optical)recognition of coded graphicelements possible. The challenge fortechnicians was to reshape lettersso they could also integrate theirdigital codes. As a result, the OCR-technique was developed whichallowed typefaces to be recognizedboth by the human eye and opticalscanners. In the early phases, thisdevelopment led to the shockingmutilation of the letters of thealphabet in their familiar forms. Atthe same time, clocks and pocketcalculators began to appear whichutilized completely new, 7-segmentdigital characters like Quartz andLCD (see Fig. 24 top). With theemergence of these typefaces,which became known as computertypefaces, there was a drastic breakwith the century-long, steadydevelopment in the form ofeverything written. It could be saidthat these types led to a certaindesecration of what, up until then,had been the sacred right of readersto aesthetic and legible texts. Thelimits of accessibility had clearlybeen crossed. During the sameperiod of time, a new generation ofyouths emerged who continuouslystrove to challenge theestablishment, also crossing thelimits of acceptability with theirasocial behavior, aggressive clothingand eccentric make-up andhairstyles (see Fig. 24 bottom).

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The History of Linear, Sans Serif Types

Further development is possible

As previously discussed, postwar sans serif fonts like Helvetica, Univers, etc.became so enormously successful and widespread that they soon permeatedall forms of typographic use with the exception of books and newspapers.Even today, they are still among the most widespread fonts in daily use. Inthe 1970s, it seemed the development of sans serif fonts had come to aclimax. It was widely assumed that the considerable number of sans seriffonts which had been developed since the beginning of the century had led toa saturation of the style and thereby all gaps had been filled for these sorts oftypefaces. Looking back from our present vantage point, this assumption mustbe considered false.

The previous age of glossThe typical appearance of the gray line was most indicative of the periodspanning the 1950s and 1960s where there was a tendency towards glossysurfaces. Buildings were erected whose "skin" was comprised of glass andmirrors. Other typical elements of this period included highly polishedfurniture, opulent use of chrome on automobiles, the shiny gloss of plasticarticles and nylon clothing, not to mention the glossy style of art printingpaper. The sans serif types created in the course of this modernistic age werealso characterized by a similar "glossy" feel.

A more tactile structureAs environmental awareness began to grow, the desire for glossy surfaceswas gradually replaced by a longing for the more natural appearance of mattesurfaces. The preference for an artificial shine was replaced by a love ofnatural materials. The rough, original appearance of materials was leftunfinished and unpolished, giving a new expression to modern objects of dailyuse.

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Go to Font Features

Introduction

The loss of the serifs Part 1

The loss of the serifs Part 2

Fashion and typeface

The sans serif wave Part 1

The sans serif wave Part 2

The sans serif wave Part 3

Outsiders

Further development is possible

Cars and typefaces: a comparison

A wide selection

An overview

About legibility

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Fig. 18

Fig. 25a

Fig. 25b

Fig. 25c

The History of Linear,Sans Serif Types

Cars and typefaces: acomparison

In certain areas, ourperception of forms isconstantly being refined. Forinstance, the eyes of carlovers (and there are plentyof them around) havecontinuously been trained toreact to barely noticeablechanges in the shapes of carbodies. Each year, the basicsilhouette of any given caronly changes very slightly –but after three yearsalready, it is considered out-of -date. For typographyprofessionals a similarprocess takes place everyyear with typefaces. Newtrends are continuouslyemerging in which new fontsare created or old one comeback into use.Based on theseconsiderations, we have puttogether a comparisonbetween cars and typefaceswith regards to therespective developments inform.

1925We’ll begin our comparisonwith a car from the year1925. Several typical lettersfrom sans serif typefacesdeveloped at the same timecan be seen beneath it. Themixture of purely circularand absolutely straight linescan be clearly identified inboth examples – two distinctexpressions of one and thesame epoch (see Fig. 25a).

1955In the following 30 years,the silhouette of theautomobile underwent acomplete transformation.One the hand, physicalfactors like an improvedunderstanding ofaerodynamics came intoplay, on the other hand,there was a general stylisticmove towards thestreamlined form. All rightangles had disappeared,protruding elements likeheadlights and fenders wereabsorbed by the overallform. Everything functionalwas molded to conform tothe aesthetic vision. In theseyears of unsurpassedeconomic prosperity,designers in all fields were

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Introduction

The loss of the serifs Part 1

The loss of the serifs Part 2

Fashion and typeface

The sans serif wave Part 1

The sans serif wave Part 2

The sans serif wave Part 3

Outsiders

Further development is possible

Cars and typefaces: a comparison

A wide selection

An overview

About legibility

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Fig. 26

Fig. 27

Fig. 28

driven by an unquenchablethirst for modernism. Thecreation of typefaces wassubject to the exact samedrive and brought forth thetypically modulated androunded forms of the newsans serif families (see Fig.25b).Only the strict rules oflegibility kept type designersfrom streamlining the letterscompletely – so a fewimperative details were ableto be rescued. We’ll look atan example to illustrate thispoint. For the sake ofaesthetics, there has alwaysbeen a temptation to leaveout the typical projectionsfound in letters like b, d, mand n – projections whichhave their origin incalligraphy – in order toattain a "purer" outlinewhich could be appliedthroughout the entirealphabet (see Fig. 26). Suchconceptions are certainlyacceptable in headlines, forlonger text passages,however, this degree ofdeviation from the classicform would never betolerated.

1975The student revolts andgeneral public tumult of1968 managed to shakeEurope out of its ideologicaland elitist reverie.Subsequently, the economiccrisis of the 1970s broughtabout an overallrepositioning of values. Withregards to design, a newaesthetic was discovered infunctional forms. The designor everyday articles wasbased more and more onrational and ergonomicconsiderations. For improvedfunctioning and stability,cars were designed usingangular shapes again andthe use of chrome had allbut vanished (see Fig. 25c).A fascination with rawmaterials was widespread,people rediscovered thecomfort of cotton shirts andart printing paper wasalmost exclusively matte.

Vintage carsA new formal attitude wastaken towards the sans seriftypes in these years as well.It was recognized that someangular details in lettershelped improve theimmediate perception andreadability of a word. As aresult, old and often evensomewhat jagged fonts cameback into fashion, such asFranklin, News Gothic,Vectora and Venus. Inaddition, Gill Sans, whichhad never really completelybeen forgotten, wassuddenly in great demandagain. For expressly neutralmessages, the constructedfonts from 1930 were

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applied. So, just like withautomobiles, a new passionwas discovered for all thingsvintage.

Grotesque hybridsThe creation of trulyinnovative sans serif fontswas not really possibleanymore in the 1970s as,for the most part, all stylisticgaps had already been filledand the formal possibilitieshad all been explored. Forthis reason, new typefacescould only really be createdas variations of alreadyexisting typefaces or hybridswhich drew on variousstyles.

SyntaxIn 1969 Hans Eduard Meiercreated Syntax, a new fontwhich was somewhat aheadof its time – not unusual forinnovations. With slightlycondensed spacing, it couldbe considered in thetradition of the Morris FullerBenton font News Gothic(1909) which also made useof angular joins in theconception of the letters b,d, p, g, n, m and u (see Fig.27). The diagonal endings ofthe angular strokes on theA, K, M, k, v, w etc. hadalready been seen before aswell in Kabel (1928). Syntaxhad a refreshingly new andpersonal touch, primarily dueto a complete reliance onroman type as a model,especially with regards toform and stroke use.Unfortunately, such adistinct reliance on form isalmost always compromisedas soon as other weightshave to be drawn. Aconsistent design of theangular strokes was nolonger possible in bold andextra bold, for instance.Today Hans Eduard Meiercreated a revised andextended Linotype Syntaxfamily.

FrutigerAt the beginning of the1960s, the idea of a sansserif hybrid was alreadybeginning to take seed, asthe matrix factory Sofratypein Paris was looking for anew sans serif look(Concorde 1965). Based onthe same idea, in 1970 asignage typeface wasdeveloped for the Roissyairport navigation systemwhich required optimallegibility. The entirestructuring of the font andthe solution of the finaldetails could claim to havebeen 100 years in themaking, drawing on theentire rich heritage of sansserif design. For Linotype,the typeface was laterextended to a family with 11weights. Here, as well, thedegree of variation was

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limited as, for instance, inthe development of verywide or narrow styles. Theonly way to allow for infinitevariants while maintainingconsistent design was toensure oblique endings ofthe curves, as in Univers(see Fig. 18). Bell Centennial(1938) could be consideredthe godfather of the Frutigertypeface family. To allow forbest possible legibility insmall sizes the typecharacters were reduced toa minimal, undecoratedform. Details like the curveendings were kept very openand fortified with theaddition of boldness. Thefigures in Bell (see Fig. 28)are a prime example ofoptimal readability. TodayAdrian Frutiger and Linotypehave improved Frutiger as aPlatinum product which iscalled Frutiger Next.

ErasIn many respects, Eras(1976) by Albert Boton is acompletely unique font,especially due to the wide,slightly diagonal layout andthe maximal x-height.Another typical characteristicis the open loops on the a,P, R, 6 and 9 – a solutionwhich suggests calligraphicinfluences. But despite thesehighly individualcharacteristics, the fontdesign strictly adhered to aclassic model, which is mostcertainly the reason why itwas so quickly distributedaround the world.

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Fig. 29

The History of Linear, Sans SerifTypes

A wide selection

The development of photosettingand then digital reproduction causeda substantial reduction in the costsof manufacturing type, i.e. throughthe introduction of electronictypefaces. The considerably enlargedmemory capacities today mean thata wide selection of alphabets can bestored on a typesetting machine andare immediately available for use.Inspired by these factors, over thelast decade, a variety of newcreations have been introduced sotoday’s selection of fonts alsoincludes a number of new sans serifstyles.

Different strokesA few sans serif types deserve atleast brief mention here (see Fig.29). In order to lighten up thesternness of the arrow straight lines,slightly bowed downstrokes wereintroduced. Morris Fuller Benton hadalready worked on this concept inhis Clearface typeface family(1906). Recommendable modernversions include Mixage by AldoNovarese and Bluejack by Phil Martin(Optima, Pascal etc. are oftenwrongfully classified in this group asthey are clearly simply roman typeswithout serifs).Linear typefaces may also belightened up with the addition ofsmall serifs as, for instance, in Elan,Quorum, Serif Gothic and Newtext.In recent years, so-called roundedfonts have been created whichfeature characters with rounded offstroke ends, a somewhat puristapproach to the abstraction of aline.Digital displays with their typical 7-segment characters inspired the useof diagonal stroke endings as canbe seen in Quartz and RusselSquare, for instance.

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Go to Font Features

Introduction

The loss of the serifs Part 1

The loss of the serifs Part 2

Fashion and typeface

The sans serif wave Part 1

The sans serif wave Part 2

The sans serif wave Part 3

Outsiders

Further development is possible

Cars and typefaces: a comparison

A wide selection

An overview

About legibility

CONTACT

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The History of Linear, Sans Serif Types

An overview

As a summary, we provide a compilation of the most significant sans seriffonts on the market today (table 30). The alphabets are organizedchronologically according to style. The old, classic weights come first, followedby the more contemporary ones afterwards.

1. Modulated Sans Serifsa. OldBasic Commercial™ Font Family

Franklin Gothic Font Family

Venus® Font Family

b. American GothicBell Gothic™ Font Family

News Gothic™ Font Family

Trade Gothic™ Font Family

Vectora™ Font Family

b. NewFolio® Font Family

Neue Helvetica™ Font Family

Neuzeit S™ Font Family

Univers™ Font Family

c. VariantsAntique Olive® Font Family

Go to Font Features

Introduction

The loss of the serifs Part 1

The loss of the serifs Part 2

Fashion and typeface

The sans serif wave Part 1

The sans serif wave Part 2

The sans serif wave Part 3

Outsiders

Further development is possible

Cars and typefaces: a comparison

A wide selection

An overview

About legibility

CONTACT

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2. Art NouveauITC Benguiat® Gothic Font Family

Hobo Font Family

3. Constructed Sans Serifsa. OldErbar™ Font Family

Futura® Font Family

Gill Sans® Font Family

Kabel™ Font Family

Metromedium #2™ Font Family

Neuzeit S™ Font Family

Spartan™ Font Family

b. NewITC Avant Garde Gothic® Font Family

Avenir™ Font Family

DIN Neuzeit™ Grotesk Font Family

4. New Sans Serif HybridsLinotype Aroma™ Font Family

ITC Eras® Font Family

Linotype Ergo™ Font Family

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Linotype Finnegan™ Font Family

Frutiger™ Font Family

Linotype Projekt™ Font Family

5. Stroke Variantsa. StretchedClearface Gothic™ Font Family

ITC Mixage® Font Family

b. Linear with serifsITC Elan® Font Family

Friz Quadrata™ Font Family

ITC Goudy Sans® Font Family

ITC Newtext® Font Family

ITC Quorum® Font Family

ITC Serif Gothic® Font Family

ITC Symbol® Font Family

c. RoundedHelvetica™ Rounded Black

VAG Font Family

Frankfurter™ Font Family

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Elefont™ Font Family

d. Digital SegmentLCD™ Font Family

Quartz Font Family

Russell Square™ Font Family

Linotype Atomatic™ Font Family

6. Experimental Sans Serifsa. CircularITC Bauhaus® Font Family

Blippo Font Family

Cirkulus™ Font Family

Horatio Font Family

b. RectangularEurostile™ Font Family

Microgramma Font Family

Serpentine™ Font Family

c. OthersAmelia™ Font Family

ITC Machine® Font Family

Peignot™ Font Family

Revue™ Font Family

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Linotype Rezident™ Font Family

Sinaloa™ Font Family

Contacta™ Font Family

Countdown™ Font Family

7. TypewriterOCR Font Family

Orator™ Font Family

ITC American Typewriter® Font Family

Ice Age Font Family

8. Capital AlphabetsCopperplate Gothic Font Family

Neuland™ Font Family

Stop™ Font Family

Check out our Keyword search to locate Linotype´s Sans Serif fonts.

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Fig. 26

Fig. 31

Fig. 32

Fig. 34For a larger view please click on the image

The History of Linear,Sans Serif Types

About legibility

It is difficult to evaluate thenew sans serif typeswithout the advantage ofbeing able to look back onthem through time.Legibility, however, is onecriterion we can objectivelyassess today withconsiderable certainty. Analphabet which is widelyaccepted by readers, evenwhen appearing in longpassages and in a smallpoint size, is almostguaranteed to become alasting success. This is thesame factor which hasdetermined the selection ofroman typefaces which havepersisted over the centuries.And the same rules willcertainly also apply topresent-day sans seriftypes.The process of reading canbe explained as follows.Every reader has a so-called matrix of letter formsstored within theirsubconscious. Whenreading, the perceivedcharacters are comparedwith those in this matrixand are either readilyaccepted or rejected as tooforeign. As we areconfronted with differentstyles of type everyday,gradually the matrix isexpanded and thecharacters develop flexiblecontours, but only to acertain degree. Over thecenturies, the limits of thisrange of readability havebeen rather clearly definedby the similar designelements of all roman type – elements which havereappeared again and again.Consequently, any new sansserif type which strives foroptimal legibility willautomatically fall into thesame patterns (see Fig. 31).Also here, a comparisonwith clothing can be veryinsightful. The inherentstructure of a charactercould be compared with thenaked human body whichcan be clothed in differentstyles of apparel (see Fig.32).

Oversimplified basicpatternsAs already indicated inillustration 26, newtypefaces often try to pressall the symbols used in the

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Introduction

The loss of the serifs Part 1

The loss of the serifs Part 2

Fashion and typeface

The sans serif wave Part 1

The sans serif wave Part 2

The sans serif wave Part 3

Outsiders

Further development is possible

Cars and typefaces: a comparison

A wide selection

An overview

About legibility

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SECURITY

IMPRINT/IMPRESSUM

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alphabet into anoversimplified, usuallyhighly geometric mold. Twotypical experiments in thisdirection were Bauhaus andSerpentine. The first ofthese fonts attempted touse circles and circlesegments as the mainelements of characterdesign, also forcing thehighly important diagonalstrokes to adhere to thisprinciple. The latter fontapplied the rectangle as thebasic design pattern; asidefrom the diagonals, allcharacters followed thispattern and the arc wascompletely banned from theinventory of forms.

Without serifsThe absence of serifs ingeneral also has aninfluence on legibility. Oftenthe serifs are the mainelements of similaritybetween various forms oftype. Since these elementsalways appear at the samepoints on a letter, theyserve as an importantrecognition aid. Forinstance, the roman u is notsimply an upside-down n asreaders are not accustomedto seeing serifs protrudingto the upper right on alowercase letter (see Fig. 33top). Exceptions to this rulecan be found in lowercaseletters which havemaintained the forms oftheir capital counterpartseither partially (k, y) orcompletely (v, w, x).Lacking these nuances, themore rudimentary sans serifcharacters require a moredistinct and marked form.Serifs help connectindividual letters to form acomplete word; withoutthem, a far more subtleand slightly condensedlayout becomes necessary(see Fig. 33 below).

The reading testIn closing, it should oncemore be emphasized thatall observations discussedhere must be understoodwithin the context oftypeface and text. Todemonstrate the discussedprinciples, 6 blocks of textwritten in various sans seriffonts have been placed nextto each other forcomparison (34). As areader you are now invitedto form your own opinion.As you read the individualtexts take note of yourreadiness to continuereading but also anyfeelings of frustration.Human feelings are highlyunpredictable. For thisreason, longer passages oftext should not appear toopeculiar and therebyprovoke a feeling ofresistance in the reader –for the real purpose of afont is nothing more or less

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than to be a quiet conveyorof human thoughts.

Adrian Frutiger

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