Food and Feed

Ullmann’s Foodand Feed

Ullmann’s Food and Feed

Editor-in-Chief:

Dr. Barbara Elvers, Hamburg, Germany

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VVol. 1 Preface

Preface

This handbook features selected articles from the7th edition ofULLMANN’SEncyclopediaof IndustrialChemistry, including newly written articles that have not been published in a printed edition before.

True to the tradition of the ULLMANN’S Encyclopedia, food and feed are addressed from anindustrial perspective, including production figures, quality standards and patent protection issueswhere appropriate. Safety and environmental aspects which are a key concern for modern processindustries are likewise considered.

More content on related topics can be found in the complete edition of the ULLMANN’SEncyclopedia.

About ULLMANN’S

ULLMANN’S Encyclopedia is the world’s largest reference in applied chemistry, industrial chemis­try, and chemical engineering. In its current edition, the Encyclopedia contains more than 30,000pages, 15,000 tables, 25,000 figures, and innumerable literature sources and cross-references, offeringa wealth of comprehensive and well-structured information on all facets of industrial chemistry.

1,100 major articles cover the following main areas:

• Agrochemicals• Analytical Techniques• Biochemistry and Biotechnology• Chemical Reactions• Dyes and Pigments• Energy• Environmental Protection and Industrial Safety• Fat, Oil, Food and Feed, Cosmetics• Inorganic Chemicals• Materials• Metals and Alloys• Organic Chemicals• Pharmaceuticals• Polymers and Plastics• Processes and Process Engineering• Renewable Resources• Special Topics

First published in 1914 by Professor Fritz Ullmann in Berlin, the Enzyklopädie der TechnischenChemie (as the German title read) quickly became the standard reference work in industrial chemistry.Generations of chemists have since relied on ULLMANN’S as their prime reference source. Threefurther German editions followed in 1928 – 1932, 1951 – 1970, and in 1972 – 1984. From 1985 to1996, the 5th edition of ULLMANN’S Encyclopedia of Industrial Chemistry was the first edition to bepublished in English rather than German language. So far, two more complete English editions havebeen published in print; the 6th edition of 40 volumes in 2002, and the 7th edition in 2011, againcomprising 40 volumes. In addition, a number of smaller topic-oriented editions have been published.

Since 1997, ULLMANN’S Encyclopedia of Industrial Chemistry has also been available inelectronic format, first in a CD-ROM edition and, since 2000, in an enhanced online edition. Bothelectronic editions feature powerful search and navigation functions aswell as regular content updates.

Vol. 1 Contents VII

Contents

Volume 1Symbols and Units ................................... IXConversion Factors .................................. XIAbbreviations ......................................... XIIICountry Codes .................................. XVIIIPeriodic Table of Elements ................... XIXPart I: Introduction ................................... 1Foods, 1. Survey .......................................... 3Foods, 2. Food Technology ....................... 27Foods, 3. Food Additives ........................... 67Foods, 4. Food Packaging ....................... 119Feeds ........................................................ 163Part II: Beverages .................................. 189Beer ......................................................... 191Beverages, Nonalcoholic ......................... 237Coffee ...................................................... 281Coffee-Based Beverages .......................... 313Milk and Dairy Products .......................... 333Spirits ....................................................... 395Tea ........................................................... 411Wine, 1. Introduction and Classification .. 417Wine, 2. Chemical and Physical

Composition ...................................... 427Wine, 3. Grapes, Viticulture, and

Fermentation ...................................... 445

Volume 2Part III: Bulk Food Component ........... 459Bread and Other Baked Products ............. 461Cereal Products ........................................ 519Cereals ..................................................... 539Cheese, Processed Cheese, and Whey ..... 581Chocolate ................................................. 593Confectionery .......................................... 611Dairy Products, Imitation ......................... 637Fats and Fatty Oils ................................... 651Fatty Acids ............................................... 735Glucose and Glucose-Containing

Syrups ................................................ 781Ice Cream and Frozen Desserts ................ 803

Margarines ............................................... 819Meat and Meat Products .......................... 843Proteins .................................................... 861Sugar ....................................................... 915Vinegar .................................................... 989Yeasts .................................................... 1013

Volume 3Part IV: Food Additives ...................... 1027Citric Acid ............................................. 1029Cyclodextrins ......................................... 1039Flavors and Fragrances, 1. General

Aspects ............................................ 1049Flavors and Fragrances, 2. Aliphatic

Compounds ...................................... 1057Flavors and Fragrances, 3. Aromatic and

Heterocyclic Compounds ................ 1113Flavors and Fragrances, 4. Natural Raw

Materials .......................................... 1159Functional Foods ................................... 1217Gelatin ................................................... 1225Inulin ..................................................... 1247Lecithin .................................................. 1259Monosodium Glutamate ........................ 1265Seasonings ............................................. 1273Sweeteners ............................................. 1277Vitamins, 1. Introduction ....................... 1303Vitamins, 2. Vitamin A (Retinoids) ....... 1311Vitamins, 3. Vitamin D .......................... 1333Vitamins, 4. Vitamin E (Tocopherols,

Tocotrienols) .................................... 1345Vitamins, 5. Vitamin K .......................... 1359Vitamins, 6. B Vitamins ........................ 1381Vitamins, 7. Vitamin C (L-Ascorbic Acid) 1431Vitamins, 8. Pantothenic Acid ............... 1447Vitamins, 9. Biotin ................................. 1457Vitamins, 10. Folic Acid ........................ 1469

Author Index ........................................ 1479Subject Index ....................................... 1485

IXVol. 1 Symbols and Units

Symbols and Units

Symbols and units agree with SI standards (for conversion factors see page XI). The following list gives the mostimportant symbols used in the encyclopedia. Articles with many specific units and symbols have a similar listbefore the references.

Symbol Unit Physical Quantity

aB activity of substance BAr relative atomic mass (atomic weight)A m2 areacB mol/m3, mol/L (M) concentration of substance BC C/V electric capacitycp, cv J kg�1K�1 specific heat capacityd cm, m diameterd relative density (ϱ/ϱwater)D m2/s diffusion coefficientD Gy (=J/kg) absorbed dosee C elementary chargeE J energyE V/m electric field strengthE V electromotive forceEA J activation energyf activity coefficientF C/mol Faraday constantF N forceg m/s2 acceleration due to gravityG J Gibbs free energyh m heighth W�s2 Planck constantH J enthalpyI A electric currentI cd luminous intensityk (variable) rate constant of a chemical reactionk J/K Boltzmann constantK (variable) equilibrium constantl m lengthm g, kg, t massMr relative molecular mass (molecular weight)n20D refractive index (sodium D-line, 20 °C)n mol amount of substanceNA mol�1 Avogadro constant (6.023× 1023mol�1)P Pa, bar* pressureQ J quantity of heatr m radiusR JK�1mol�1 gas constantR Ω electric resistanceS J/K entropyt s, min, h, d, month, a timet °C temperatureT K absolute temperatureu m/s velocityU V electric potential

X Symbols and Units Vol. 1

Symbols and Units (Continued from p. IX)

Symbol Unit Physical Quantity

U J internal energyV m3, L, mL, μL volumew mass fractionW J workxB mole fraction of substance BZ proton number, atomic numberα cubic expansion coefficientα Wm�2K�1 heat-transfer coefficient (heat-transfer number)α degree of dissociation of electrolyte[α] 10�2deg cm2g�1 specific rotationη Pa�s dynamic viscosityθ °C temperatureϰ cp/cvλ Wm�1K�1 thermal conductivityλ nm, m wavelengthμ chemical potentialν Hz, s�1 frequencyν m2/s kinematic viscosity (η/ϱ)π Pa osmotic pressureϱ g/cm3 densityσ N/m surface tensionτ Pa (N/m2) shear stressφ volume fractionχ Pa�1 (m2/N) compressibility

*The official unit of pressure is the pascal (Pa).

XIVol. 1 Conversion Factors

Conversion Factors

SI unit Non-SI unit From SI to non-SI multiply by

Masskg pound (avoirdupois) 2.205kg ton (long) 9.842� 10�4kg ton (short) 1.102� 10�3

Volumem3 cubic inch 6.102� 104

m3 cubic foot 35.315m3 gallon (U.S., liquid) 2.642� 102

m3 gallon (Imperial) 2.200� 102

Temperature�C �F �C� l.8� 32

ForceN dyne 1.0� 105

Energy, WorkJ Btu (int.) 9.480� 10�4J cal (int.) 2.389� 10�1J eV 6.242� 1018

J erg 1.0� 107

J kW�h 2.778� 10�7J kp�m 1.020� 10�1

PressureMPa at 10.20MPa atm 9.869MPa bar 10kPa mbar 10kPa mm Hg 7.502kPa psi 0.145kPa torr 7.502

Powers of Ten

E (exa) 1018 d (deci) 10�1P (peta) 1015 c (centi) 10�2T (tera) 1012 m (milli) 10�3G (giga) 109 m (micro) 10�6M (mega) 106 n (nano) 10�9k (kilo) 103 p (pico) 10�12h (hecto) 102 f (femto) 10�15da (deca) 10 a (atto) 10�18

Vol. 1 Abbreviations XIII

Abbreviations

The following is a list of the abbreviations used in the text. Common terms, the names of publicationsand institutions, and legal agreements are included along with their full identities. Other abbreviationswill be defined wherever they first occur in an article. For further abbreviations, see page IX, Symbolsand Units; page XVII, Frequently Cited Companies (Abbreviations), and page XVIII, Country Codesin patent references. The names of periodical publications are abbreviated exactly as done byChemicalAbstracts Service.

abs. absolutea.c. alternating currentACGIH American Conference of Governmental

Industrial HygienistsACS American Chemical SocietyADI acceptable daily intakeADN accord européen relatif au transport

international des marchandises danger­euses par voie de navigation interieure(European agreement concerning theinternational transportation of dangerousgoods by inland waterways)

ADNR ADNpar le Rhin (regulation concerningthe transportation of dangerous goodson the Rhine and all national waterwaysof the countries concerned)

ADP adenosine 5´-diphosphateADR accord européen relatif au transport

international des marchandises danger­euses par route (European agreementconcerning the international transporta­tion of dangerous goods by road)

AEC Atomic Energy Commission (UnitedStates)

a.i. active ingredientAIChE American Institute of Chemical

EngineersAIME American Institute of Mining,

Metallurgical, and Petroleum EngineersANSI American National Standards InstituteAMP adenosine 5´-monophosphateAPhA American Pharmaceutical AssociationAPI American Petroleum InstituteASTM American Society for Testing and

MaterialsATP adenosine 5´-triphosphateBAM Bundesanstalt für Materialprüfung

(Federal Republic of Germany)BAT Biologischer Arbeitsstofftoleranzwert

(biological tolerance value for aworking material, established by MAKCommission, see MAK)

Beilstein Beilstein’s Handbook of OrganicChemistry, Springer, Berlin – Heidel­berg – New York

BET Brunauer – Emmett – Teller

BGA

BGB1.

BIOS

BODbpB.P.BSca.calcd.CAScat.CENcf.CFR

cfuChap.ChemG

C.I.CIOS

CLPCNSCo.CODconc.const.Corp.crit.CSA

CSR

CTFA

DAB

d.c.decomp.DFG

dil.

Bundesgesundheitsamt (FederalRepublic of Germany)Bundesgesetzblatt (Federal Republicof Germany)British IntelligenceObjectives Subcom­mittee Report (see also FIAT)biological oxygen demandboiling pointBritish PharmacopeiaBritish StandardcircacalculatedChemical Abstracts Servicecatalyst, catalyzedComité Européen de NormalisationcompareCode of Federal Regulations (UnitedStates)colony forming unitschapterChemikaliengesetz (Federal Republicof Germany)Colour IndexCombined Intelligence Objectives Sub­commitee Report (see also FIAT)Classification, Labeling and Packagingcentral nervous systemCompanychemical oxygen demandconcentratedconstantCorporationcriticalChemical Safety Assessment accordingto REACHChemical Safety Report according toREACHThe Cosmetic, Toiletry andFragrance Association (United States)Deutsches Arzneibuch, DeutscherApotheker-Verlag, Stuttgartdirect currentdecompose, decompositionDeutsche Forschungsgemeinschaft(German Science Foundation)dilute, diluted

XIV Abbreviations Vol. 1

DIN Deutsche Industrienorm (Federal Repub­lic of Germany)

DMF dimethylformamideDNA deoxyribonucleic acidDOE Department of Energy (United States)DOT Department of Transportation –

Materials Transportation Bureau(United States)

DTA differential thermal analysisEC effective concentrationEC European Communityed. editor, edition, editede.g. for exampleemf electromotive forceEmS Emergency ScheduleEN European Standard (European

Community)EPA Environmental Protection Agency

(United States)EPR electron paramagnetic resonanceEq. equationESCA electron spectroscopy for chemical

analysisesp. especiallyESR electron spin resonanceEt ethyl substituent (�C2H5)et al. and othersetc. et ceteraEVO Eisenbahnverkehrsordnung (Federal

Republic of Germany)exp ( . . .) e(. . . ), mathematical exponentFAO Food and Agriculture Organization

(United Nations)FDA Food and Drug Administration

(United States)FD&C Food, Drug and Cosmetic Act

(United States)FHSA Federal Hazardous Substances Act

(United States)FIAT Field Information Agency, Technical

(United States reports on the chemicalindustry in Germany, 1945)

Fig. figurefp freezing pointFriedländer P. Friedländer, Fortschritte der

Teerfarbenfabrikation und verwandterIndustriezweige Vol. 1–25, Springer,Berlin 1888–1942

FT Fourier transform(g) gas, gaseousGC gas chromatographyGefStoffV Gefahrstoffverordnung (regulations in

the Federal Republic of Germany con­cerning hazardous substances)

GGVE Verordnung in der BundesrepublikDeutschland über die Beförderunggefährlicher Güter mit der Eisenbahn

GGVS

GGVSee

GHS

GLCGmelin

GRASHalHouben-Weyl

HPLC

H statementIAEAIARC

IATA-DGR

ICAO

i.e.i.m.IMDG

IMO

Inst.i.p.IRISO

IUPAC

(regulation in the Federal Republic ofGermany concerning the transportationof dangerous goods by rail)Verordnung in der BundesrepublikDeutschland über die Beförderunggefährlicher Güter auf der Straße(regulation in the Federal Republic ofGermany concerning the transportationof dangerous goods by road)Verordnung in der BundesrepublikDeutschland über die Beförderunggefährlicher Güter mit Seeschiffen(regulation in the Federal Republic ofGermany concerning the transportationof dangerous goods by sea-goingvessels)Globally Harmonised System of Che­micals (internationally agreed-uponsystem, created by the UN, designed toreplace the various classification andlabeling standards used in differentcountries by using consistent criteria forclassification and labeling on a globallevel)gas-liquid chromatographyGmelin’s Handbook of InorganicChemistry, 8th ed., Springer, Berlin –

Heidelberg –New Yorkgenerally recognized as safehalogen substituent (�F, �Cl, �Br, �I)Methoden der organischenChemie, 4th ed., Georg Thieme Verlag,Stuttgarthigh performance liquidchromatographyhazard statement in GHSInternational Atomic Energy AgencyInternational Agency for Research onCancer, Lyon, FranceInternational Air TransportAssociation, Dangerous GoodsRegulationsInternational Civil AviationOrganizationthat isintramuscularInternational Maritime DangerousGoods CodeInter-Governmental Maritime Consul­tive Organization (in the past: IMCO)InstituteintraperitonealinfraredInternational Organization forStandardizationInternational Union of Pure andApplied Chemistry

Vol. 1 Abbreviations XV

i.v. intravenousKirk- Encyclopedia of Chemical Technology,Othmer 3rd ed., 1991–1998, 5th ed., 2004–

2007, John Wiley & Sons, Hoboken(1) liquidLandolt- Zahlenwerte u. Funktionen aus Physik,Börnstein Chemie, Astronomie, Geophysik u.

Technik, Springer, Heidelberg 1950–1980; Zahlenwerte und Funktionen ausNaturwissenschaften und Technik,Neue Serie, Springer, Heidelberg,since 1961

LC50 lethal concentration for 50% of the testanimals

LCLo lowest published lethal concentrationLD50 lethal dose for 50% of the test animalsLDLo lowest published lethal doseln logarithm (base e)LNG liquefied natural gaslog logarithm (base 10)LPG liquefied petroleum gasM mol/LM metal (in chemical formulas)MAK Maximale Arbeitsplatzkonzentration

(maximum concentration at the work­place in the Federal Republic ofGermany); cf. Deutsche Forschungsge­meinschaft (ed.): Maximale Arbeits­platzkonzentrationen (MAK) undBiologische Arbeitsstofftoleranzwerte(BAT), WILEY-VCH Verlag,Weinheim (published annually)

max. maximumMCA Manufacturing Chemists Association

(United States)Me methyl substituent (�CH3)Methodicum Methodicum Chimicum, Georg ThiemeChimicum Verlag, Stuttgart

MFAG Medical First Aid Guide for Use inAccidents Involving DangerousGoods

MIK maximale Immissionskonzentration(maximum immission concentration)

min. minimummp melting pointMS mass spectrum, mass spectrometryNAS National Academy of Sciences (United

States)NASA National Aeronautics and Space

Administration (United States)NBS National Bureau of Standards

(United States)NCTC National Collection of Type Cultures

(United States)NIH National Institutes of Health

(United States)

NIOSH

NMRno.NOELNRC

NRDC

NSCNSF

NTSB

OECD

OSHA

p., pp.Patty

PBreport

PELPhPh. Eur.

phrPNSppmP statementq.v.REACH

ref.resp.Rf

R.H.RID

RNAR phrase(R-Satz)

rpmRTECS

National Institute for OccupationalSafety and Health (United States)nuclear magnetic resonancenumberno observed effect levelNuclear Regulatory Commission(United States)National Research DevelopmentCorporation (United States)National Service Center (United States)National Science Foundation(United States)National Transportation Safety Board(United States)Organization for Economic Coopera­tion and DevelopmentOccupational Safety and HealthAdministration (United States)page, pagesG.D. Clayton, F.E. Clayton (eds.):Patty’s Industrial Hygiene andToxicology, 3rd ed.,Wiley Interscience,New YorkPublication Board Report (U.S.Department of Commerce, Scientificand Industrial Reports)permitted exposure limitphenyl substituent (—C6H5)European Pharmacopoeia, Council ofEurope, Strasbourgpart per hundred rubber (resin)peripheral nervous systemparts per millionprecautionary statement in GHSwhich see (quod vide)Registration, Evaluation, Authorisationand Restriction of Chemicals (EU reg­ulation addressing the production anduse of chemical substances, and theirpotential impacts on both human healthand the environment)refer, referencerespectivelyretention factor (TLC)relative humidityréglement international concernant letransport des marchandises dangereusespar chemin de fer (international con­vention concerning the transportation ofdangerous goods by rail)ribonucleic acidrisk phrase according toChemG and GefStoffV (FederalRepublic of Germany)revolutions per minuteRegistry of Toxic Effects ofChemical Substances, edited by the

XVI Abbreviations Vol. 1

National Institute of OccupationalSafety and Health (United States)

(s) solidSAE Society of Automotive Engineers

(United States)SAICM Strategic Approach on International

Chemicals Management (internationalframework to foster the soundmanagement of chemicals)

s.c. subcutaneousSI International System of UnitsSIMS secondary ion mass spectrometryS phrase safety phrase according to(S-Satz) ChemG and GefStoffV (Federal

Republic of Germany)STEL Short Term Exposure Limit (see TLV)STP standard temperature and pressure (0°C,

101.325 kPa)Tg glass transition temperatureTA Luft Technische Anleitung zur Reinhaltung

der Luft (clean air regulation in FederalRepublic of Germany)

TA Lärm Technische Anleitung zum Schutzgegen Lärm (low noise regulation inFederal Republic of Germany)

TDLo lowest published toxic doseTHF tetrahydrofuranTLC thin layer chromatographyTLV Threshold Limit Value (TWA

and STEL); published annually bythe American Conference of Govern­mental Industrial Hygienists (ACGIH),Cincinnati, Ohio

TOD total oxygen demandTRK Technische Richtkonzentration

(lowest technically feasible level)TSCA Toxic Substances Control Act

(United States)TÜV Technischer Überwachungsverein

(Technical Control Board of the FederalRepublic of Germany)

TWA Time Weighted AverageUBA Umweltbundesamt (Federal

Environmental Agency)Ullmann Ullmann’s Encyclopedia of Industrial

Chemistry, 7th ed., Wiley-VCH,Weinheim 2011; Ullmann’sEncyclopedia of Industrial Chemistry,6th ed., Wiley-VCH, Weinheim 2002;Ullmann’s Encyclopedia of Industrial

USAEC

USANUSDUSDA

U.S.P.UVUVV

VbF

VDE

VDI

volvol.vs.WGK

WHO

Winnacker-Küchler

wt$

Chemistry, 5th ed., VCHVerlagsgesellschaft, Weinheim1985–1996; Ullmanns Encyklopädieder TechnischenChemie, 4th ed., VerlagChemie, Weinheim 1972–1984; 3rd ed.,Urban und Schwarzenberg, München1951–1970United States Atomic EnergyCommissionUnited States Adopted NamesUnited States DispensatoryUnited States Department ofAgricultureUnited States PharmacopeiaultravioletUnfallverhütungsvorschriften der Ber­ufsgenossenschaft (workplace safetyregulations in the Federal Republic ofGermany)Verordnung in der BundesrepublikDeutschland über die Errichtung undden Betrieb von Anlagen zurLagerung, Abfüllung und Beförderungbrennbarer Flüssigkeiten (regulation inthe Federal Republic of Germany con­cerning the construction and operationof plants for storage, filling, and trans­portation of flammable liquids; classi­fication according to the flash point ofliquids, in accordance with the classi­fication in the United States)Verband Deutscher Elektroingenieure(Federal Republic of Germany)Verein Deutscher Ingenieure (FederalRepublic of Germany)volumevolume (of a series of books)versusWassergefährdungsklasse (water haz­ard class)World Health Organization (UnitedNations)Chemische Technologie, 4th ed., CarlHanser Verlag, München, 1982-1986;Winnacker-Küchler, ChemischeTechnik: Prozesse und Produkte,Wiley-VCH, Weinheim, 2003–2006weightU.S. dollar, unless otherwise stated

Vol. 1 Frequently Cited Companies (Abbreviations) XVII

Frequently Cited Companies(Abbreviations)

Air Air Products and Chemicals IFP Institut Français du PétroleProducts INCO International Nickel Company

Akzo Algemene Koninklijke Zout 3M Minnesota Mining andOrganon Manufacturing Company

Alcoa Aluminum Company of America Mitsubishi Mitsubishi Chemical IndustriesAllied Allied Corporation ChemicalAmer. American Cyanamid Monsanto Monsanto CompanyCyanamid Company Nippon Nippon Shokubai Kagaku KogyoBASF BASF Aktiengesellschaft ShokubaiBayer Bayer AG PCUK Pechiney Ugine KuhlmannBP British Petroleum Company PPG Pittsburg Plate Glass IndustriesCelanese Celanese Corporation Searle G.D. Searle & CompanyDaicel Daicel Chemical Industries SKF Smith Kline & French LaboratoriesDainippon Dainippon Ink and Chemicals Inc. SNAM Societá Nazionale MetandottiDow The Dow Chemical Company Sohio Standard Oil of OhioChemical Stauffer Stauffer Chemical Company

DSM Dutch Staats Mijnen Sumitomo Sumitomo Chemical CompanyDu Pont E.I. du Pont de Nemours & Company Toray Toray Industries Inc.Exxon Exxon Corporation UCB Union Chimique BelgeFMC Food Machinery & Chemical Union Union Carbide Corporation

Corporation CarbideGAF General Aniline & Film Corporation UOP Universal Oil Products CompanyW.R. W.R. Grace & Company VEBA Vereinigte Elektrizitäts- und Bergwerks-Grace AG

Hoechst Hoechst Aktiengesellschaft Wacker Wacker Chemie GmbHIBM International Business Machines

CorporationICI Imperial Chemical Industries

XVIII Country Codes Vol. 1

Country Codes

The following list contains a selection of standard country codes used in the patent references.

AT Austria IL IsraelAUBE

AustraliaBelgium

ITJP

ItalyJapan∗

BG Bulgaria LU LuxembourgBR Brazil MA MoroccoCA Canada NL Netherlands∗

CH Switzerland NO NorwayCS Czechoslovakia NZ New ZealandDD German Democratic Republic PL PolandDE Federal Republic of Germany

(and Germany before 1949)∗PTSE

PortugalSweden

DK Denmark SU Soviet UnionES Spain US United States of AmericaFI Finland YU YugoslaviaFR France ZA South AfricaGB United Kingdom EP European Patent Office∗

GR Greece WO World Intellectual PropertyHU Hungary OrganizationID Indonesia

∗ForEurope, FederalRepublic ofGermany, Japan, and theNetherlands, the type of patent is specified: EP (patent),EP-A (application), DE (patent), DE-OS (Offenlegungsschrift), DE-AS (Auslegeschrift), JP (patent), JP-Kokai(Kokai tokkyo koho), NL (patent), and NL-A (application).

Vol. 1 Periodic Table XIX

Part I

Introduction

Foods, 1. Survey

W. FRANK SHIPE, Cornell University, Ithaca, New York 14853, United States

1. Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 32. History of Food Production and

Preservation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 33. Components and Their Reactions . . . . . . . 63.1. Water . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 73.2. Proteins (→ Amino Acids; → Proteins);

[6, 7, 29, 37–44] . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 83.3. Lipids (→ Fats and Fatty Oils; → Fatty

Acids), [6, 7, 29–31, 35] . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 113.4. Carbohydrates (→ Carbohydrates),

[6, 23, 24, 35] . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 133.5. Mineral Components . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 16

1. Introduction

Foods are mixtures of chemicals that are con­sumed by humans to satisfy their appetites fornourishment and pleasure. The nature andreactivity of the chemical constituents determinethe properties of foods. The sensory properties,i.e., appearance, flavor, and texture, determinethe acceptance of food and the pleasure derivedfrom consuming it. Water-soluble components(salts, sugar, acids, and bitter substances) deter­mine the taste, and volatile compounds deter­mine the aroma. The texture is due to insolublecomplexes or compounds such as proteins andpolysaccharides; in some foods, lipids contributeto texture. Pigments are critical contributors toappearance. Most of the nutrients are providedby proteins, vitamins, and minerals, whereascarbohydrates and fats provide the energy. Theideal food should be both delicious and nutri­tious. Unfortunately, many nutritious foods areconsidered unappetizing by many people.

The following procedures or processes havebeen used to produce appealing, nutritious foods(for details, see → Foods, 2. Food Technology):

1. mixing products, e.g., fruit salads, vegetablesalads, and fruit yogurts

3.6. Vitamins . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 173.7. Enzymes . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 173.8. Miscellaneous Components. . . . . . . . . . . . 203.8.1. Flavor Components . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 20 3.8.2. Natural Pigments [6, 7, 35] . . . . . . . . . . . . 20 3.8.3. Undesirable or Potentially

Undesirable Constituents . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 214. Food Law . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 225. Documentation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 24

References. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 24

2. adding seasonings or other materials, e.g.,adding soy protein to sausage or smokingmeats

3. fractionating to produce new products, e.g.,separating milk to yield cream and skim milk

4. homogenizing to produce a more uniformproduct, e.g., peanut butter or milk

5. fermenting and pickling to produce newand more stable products, e.g., cheesemanufacture

6. enzymatic treatment, e.g., enzymatic modifi­cation of starch to produce corn syrups ofvarying sweetness

7. thermal processing including cookingand baking, to destroy undesirablemicrobes, enzymes, and antinutrients suchas trypsin inhibitors and enhance sensoryappeal.

2. History of Food Production andPreservation

In the beginning, foods were selected fromavailable natural products [1–8]. This led tothe development of regional eating habits. The

Ullmann’s Food and Feed 2017 Wiley-VCH Verlag GmbH & Co. KGaA, WeinheimISBN: 978-3-527-33990-7 / DOI: 10.1002/14356007.a11_491.pub2

4 Foods, 1. Survey Vol. 1

origin of modern economic plants was possiblyas follows [1]:

Central Asia apple, barley, broad bean, carrot, celery,cherry, cucumber, date, eggplant, lentil,lettuce, melon, mulberry, mustard, olive,onion, pea, pear, plum, pomegranate,quince, radish, rye, spinach, turnip,wheat

Mediterranean artichoke, asparagus, cabbage, cauliflower,fig, horseradish, parsley, parsnip

Southeast Asia banana, breadfruit, orange, peach, persimmon,rice, soybean, sugar cane, yam

Central or South avocado, cassava, corn, cranberry, kidney andAmerica lima bean, pineapple, potato, pumpkin,

squash, sweet potato, tomato

At first, selection of food from the availablesupply was based primarily on sensory propert­ies. By trial and error, people learned that someproducts satisfied their appetites while othersadversely affected their health. The peoplewho made the right choices lived to pass onthe information to the next generation.

Table 1. History of growing, processing, and preserving food [1]

In the days when humans were merely huntersor gatherers of foods, the adequacy of dietdepended on the types and quantity of availableplants and animals. The need to develop methodsfor preserving food for use throughout the yearbecame obvious. Concern over the quantity andquality of food increased as populationincreased. These food problems stimulateddevelopment of methods for producing and pre­serving foods (→ Foods, 2. Food Technology).The progression of civilization from the foodgathering stage to the early food production era,i.e., from the Old Stone Age to 400 AD, is shownin Table 1.

In Germany, substantial increases in agricul­tural production occurred after the introductionof the iron plow in the 6th century, the horse­shoe in the 9th century, and the horsecollarsoon after. The threefold rotation system (one­third of the land remained fallow, summercrops were raised on another third, and wintercrops on the other third) also increasedproduction.

Date (approximate) Food Farming–trading Preserving–processing Scientific–technologicalPeriod advances

Prior to 15 000 BC eggs, fish, fruits,Paleolithic (second honey, insects,period of Stone Age) nuts, seeds, roots,

small animals15 000 BC Mesolithic bigger selection of(transitional period of food, storingStone Age) berries and wild

fruits9000 BC Neolithic (last domesticatedperiod of Stone Age) animals, milk,villages butter, cheese,

gruel, dates,olives, grapes,beer, vinegar, wine

3500 BC Bronze cities soybeans, figs, rice,olive oil,vegetables, lentils,cabbage,cucumbers, onions

1500 BC Iron artichokes, beans,fruits, lettuce,sauces, spices

600 BC–400 AD Roman sugarcane, apples,asparagus, beets,oranges

cultivating cereals(seasonal) inpermanent fieldsusing hoes andhand plows,pruning

irrigating, plowingwith horses andoxen, muchtrading locallyand externally

trading by land andsea, using heavierplows

using reapingmachines, rotatinglegumes, usingplows withwheels, tradingextensively

drying, pounding, roasting

boiling, drying fish, smoking,steaming, storing food

alcoholic fermentation, addingacetic acid, salting, baking,making bread, sieving,pressing primitively,seasoning

filtering, lactic acidfermentation, more types offlavoring, flotating, leaveningbread, making sausage,frying, pressing (sophisticatedand complex), clarifying

refinement of flavoring andcooking

food adulteration common

bags, baskets, clothes, language,“made” fire, painting,sculpture, stone and boneimplements

bow and arrow; dog, goat,reindeer, and sheep(domesticated); claycoveredbaskets

pottery wheel; spinning;weaving; wood, flint, andbone sickles; saddle quern;mortar; fishing with hooksand nets

architecture, smelting, wheeledcarts, ships, writing, bronzetools, mathematics, rotarymillstones, bronze weapons,astronomy, shadoofs,medicine, chemistry

pulleys, glass, improved andcheaper tools and weapons,currency

water mills, donkey mills,wooden cooperage

5Vol. 1 Foods, 1. Survey

Table 2. Some components isolated from foods prior to 1800

Component CAS registry number Food Investigator

Lactose [63-42-3] milk F. BARTOLETTI (1586–1630)Fructose [57-48-7] honey, raisins J. R. GLAUBER (1604–1668)Gluten [8002-80-0] flour F. M. GRIMALDI (1618–1663)Tartar, ethanol [868-14-4, 64-17-5] wine J. D. PORTIUS (1636–1703)Sucrose [57-50-1] beets A. S. MARGGRAF (1709–1792)Citric acid [77-92-9] lemon juice, gooseberries C. W. SCHEELE (1742–1786)Malic acid [6915-15-7] applesGlycerol [56-81-5] olive oil

During the Middle Ages the variety of availa­ble foods increased as a result of increasedtraveling and trading. The discovery of Americahad a pronounced effect on the variety of foodwith the introduction of potatoes and corn, aswell as other native American products, such astomatoes, peanuts, lima beans, and turkeys.

The 16th century marked the beginning of theso-called Golden Age of Science [1], [6–10].During this time, scholars investigated the natureand composition of foods. Some of the compo­nents discovered are listed in Table 2. Thesediscoveries gave credibility to the scientificapproach to biological problems and stimulatedfurther research and technical developments(Table 3).

In the last two centuries considerable prog­ress has been made in increasing the quantity andimproving the quality of food [11, 12].

Food Quantity. Quantitative increases in thefood supply have resulted from the following:

Table 3. Chronology of some developments in food technology

1. The use of better breeding practices andcareful genetic selection, which led to thedevelopment of high yielding varieties ofwheat and rice.

2. Replacing draft animals with mechanicalpower increased the acreage that could befarmed and released millions of hectares ofland that had been devoted to raising feed forhorses. However, mechanization of agricul­ture increased fossil fuel consumption.

3. Irrigation has converted vast areas from des­ert or semidesert to profitable food producingareas. Unfortunately, continuous irrigationhas caused water logging and increased soilsalinity.

4. The use of chemical fertilizers has createdremarkable increases in production (→ Fer­tilizers, 1. General). The gains have beenpartially offset by the cost of the fertilizersin terms of dollars and expenditure of fossilfuel. In some cases the runoff of chemical

Date Inventor Process or product Purpose

1679 PAPIN digester cooking in iron pot with clamped on lid1809 N. APPERT appertization cooking in sealed glass jars1810 N. APPERT autoclave cooking canned food under pressure1830 A. COFFEY Coffey still continuous distillation1830 N. RELLIEUX triple effect evaporator energy efficient evaporation1835 SULZBERGER roller milling roller process for flour milling1855 J. A. JUST roller dryer energy-efficient drying1856 G. BORDEN evaporated milk milk evaporated under vacuum and packed in hermetically sealed cans1860 F. CARRE mechanical refrigerator water–ammonia system for providing refrigeration1865 L. PASTEUR heat treatment initially to preserve wine, then used to destroy pathogens in grape juice and milk1874 A. K. SHRIVER retort closed kettle using super-heated or live steam for canning1877 G. DE LAVAL cream separator rapid centrifugal separation of cream1911 A. J. A. OTTESEN quick freezing process minimizing adverse effects on food during freezing1920 KIDD & WEST controlled atmospheric storage minimizing quality changes during storage of fruits1931 C. BIRDSEYE multiple freezer energy-efficient freezing1945 E. W. FLOSDORF freeze-dryer drying of frozen food under vacuum

6 Foods, 1. Survey Vol. 1

fertilizers has polluted drinking water andincreased the growth of algae in the streams,which has killed fish.

5. The use of pesticides has also contributed tothe world food supply by eliminating peststhat reduce yields or pests that consumeharvested foods (→Crop Protection). Becausepesticides contribute to pollution and arehazardous to some species of animal life,alternative pest control methods have beenand are being sought. Some success hasbeen achieved in breeding disease-resistantvarieties of plants and in developing biologicalmethods, e.g.,microbial parasites, that destroythe pests.

6. Reduction in postharvest losses has beenachieved by using storage facilities and pack­ages that protect the food from biological,chemical, and physical damage (→ Foods,4. Packaging). In developing countries, post­harvest losses can be as high as 50% for somecommodities [13].

7. Recovery of foods and ingredients fromunderutilized products. For example, recov­ery of proteins from whey and blood[14–17], underutilized meats from chicken[18, 19] and fish [20, 21].

Food Quality. Much of the progress in solv­ing food quality problems can be attributed tobasic scientific studies that have identified thecauses for changes in quality, e.g., LOUIS PAS­TEUR’s studies, which led to pasteurization (→3.7 Foods, 2. Food Technology). In the processof studying the mechanism of thermal destruc­tion of microbes, researchers noted that in somecases thermal processing also affected flavor,color, and texture [6], [7], [22–24]. Heating fluiddairy products produced cooked (custardlike)flavor, which was found to be due to the releaseof sulfhydryl groups from proteins [25]. Moredrastic heating of milk or other foods containingcarbonyl and amino groups caused both flavorand color changes. In 1908, A. R. LING describedthis reaction, and in 1912 L. C. MAILLARD inves­tigated the mechanism [26]. Direct heatingof products with high sugar content producedboth caramel color and flavor. Heating affectedthe texture of meat and eggs by altering theproteins. It was found that the activity of

many endogenous food enzymes could be con­trolled by thermal processing [27], [28]. Theimportance and nature of enzymatic changesare discussed in Section 3.7 (→ Enzymes, 1.General).

Scientific studies have shown that manychanges in food quality are due to either oxida­tive or hydrolytic reactions, and therefore, con­trolling them is important [6, 7, 29–31].Oxidative changes have been minimized by(1) storing food in a controlled atmosphere,(2) using packages that are impervious tooxygen, (3) inactivating oxidative enzymes,(4) avoiding contamination with catalyticmetals, or (5) addition of antioxidants (→ Anti­oxidants ; → Foods, 3. Food Additives). Hydro­lytic changes have been inhibited by(1) inactivating hydrolytic enzymes, (2) main­taining the integrity of cell walls or membranes,which protect the substrate, or (3) adding inhibi­tors [32].

3. Components and Their Reactions

Foods range in complexity from a single com­pound (e.g., sugar) to multicomponent mixtures(e.g., meat). The properties of foods reflect theproperties of the individual components and theirinteractions. Food interactions include all typesof noncovalent (van der Waals, hydrogen, ionic,and hydrophobic) and covalent bonds. Theseinteractions contribute to a variety of structuralfeatures such as cell walls, micelles, fat globules,fat globule membranes, three-dimensional gelstructures, muscle fibers, and curds.

The reactions of components in foods areaffected by pH, temperature, concentration ofreactants, available water, catalysts, activators,and inhibitors. They may be catalyzed by light,enzymes, and nonenzymatic materials such asmetals. Inhibitors can be substances that chelatemetal catalysts or that interact with one of thereactants. Chelating agents can react with cal­cium or iron and thus reduce their nutritionalavailability. The nutritional quality of foods canalso be reduced by oxidation of essential fattyacids or other nutrients, or by the interaction ofproteins with tannins. The optimal sensory andnutritional properties can be obtained by con­trolling the reactions of the components.

7Vol. 1 Foods, 1. Survey

3.1. Water

Occurrence. Water [7732-18-5] is one of thebasic and most ubiquitous constituents of livingorganisms, [6, 7, 33–36]. The water contentof raw fruits, vegetables, and meats exceeds50 wt %, but the concentration in cereals, nutsand many processed foods is lower (→ Foods, 2.Food Technology).

Water exists naturally as an intracellular orextracellular component in plants and animalproducts. It is used as a solvent for sugars, salts,and acids in some foods, as a dispersing mediumfor hydrophilic macromolecular carbohydratesor proteins, and as a dispersed phase in emulsi­fied products such as butter and margarine.

Properties. Compared to other substanceswith similar molecular masses, water is unique(→ Water, 1. Properties, Analysis, and Hydro­logical Cycle). Its ability to engage in three-dimensional hydrogen bonding enables it tobond with organic molecules that contain nitro­gen, oxygen, fluorine, or chlorine. The dissolu­tion of sugar is because of bonding betweenwater and the polar groups of the sugar. Disso­lution of salts involves electrostatic forcesbetween water and the positive ions which aregreater than the attraction between ions.

Effect on Food. Water acts as a dispersingmedium for amphipathic molecules, such aspolar lipids, which have both hydrophilic andhydrophobic groups. The water associates withthe hydrophilic moieties, such as phosphategroups, to “solubilize” the molecules. Theamphipathic molecules form macromolecularaggregates, which are called micelles. Introduc­ing hydrophobic substances, such as apolargroups of fatty acids, amino acids, and proteins,into water leads to an association of the apolargroups, i.e., hydrophobic interactions.

Water may be present in food as “free” wateror “bound” water. Free water behaves like purewater, whereas the behavior of bound water islimited. Bound water has been defined as waterthat is not available as a solvent and does notfreeze at � 40 °C, although some scientists havesuggested other definitions. The term “waterbinding” has been defined as the tendency ofwater to associate, with various degrees of tenac­ity, to hydrophilic substances. “Water-holding

capacity” has been used to describe the ability ofa matrix of molecules to entrap a large amount ofwater in such a manner that exudation is pre­vented [7]. Although the entrapped water doesnot flow freely from the product, it behaves verymuch like pure water during processing. Thewater-holding capacity of meats and gels havea profound effect on rheological properties. Thewater-holding capacity of meats is affected bypH and salts, especially phosphates. A classifi­cation of water–protein thermodynamic associ­ations is as follows [34]:

Structural water is water that is hydrogen-bonded to specific groups; it participates instabilization of structure and is unavailable forchemical reaction.

Hydrophobic hydration water is structuredcagelike water surrounding apolar residues;like structural water, it is very much involvedin stabilizing protein structure.

Monolayer water is the first adsorbed watermonolayer; it is hydrogen-bonded and is un­available as solvent, but may be available forchemical reactions; ranges from 4 to 9 g/100 gprotein.

Unfreezable water includes roughly all water(structural monolayer, and perhaps someadsorbed multilayer water) that does not freezeat normal temperature; amounts to 0.3–0.5 g/g ofprotein and corresponds to water up to aw= 0.9;amount varies with polar amino acid content andincludes some water available for chemicalreactions.

Capillary water is water that is held physi­cally in clefts or by surface forces in the proteinmolecule (e.g., water entrapped in gels or cheesecurd); its physical properties are similar to thoseof bulk water.

Hydrodynamic hydration water “loosely”surrounds the protein and is transported withthe protein during diffusion (centrifugation);it has properties typical of normal water.

Water Activity [6]. A complete discussion ofwater activity can be found under → Foods, 2.Food Technology.

Perishability. A general correlation existsbetween the perishability of food and watercontent, but a better correlation exists betweenperishability and water activity (→ Foods, 2.

8 Foods, 1. Survey Vol. 1

Food Technology). Both enzymatic and non­enzymatic reactions tend to increase as wateractivity increases. However, enzymatic reactionsare less sensitive to water activity changes.Nonenzymatic browning reactions reach a max­imum rate at aw� 0.80. Lipid oxidation is inhib­ited by increasing water content. Under someconditions water may form a protective filmaround the fat. The destruction of vitamin Cand chlorophyll increases rapidly as the wateractivity increases. The rate of vitamin B1

destruction reaches a maximum at aw� 0.5 [7].

Food Quality. A complete discussion of theeffect of freezing the water in food has on foodquality can be found under → Foods, 2. FoodTechnology.

3.2. Proteins (→ Amino Acids;→Proteins); [6, 7, 29, 37–44]

Structure. Proteins are polymers composedof amino acids linked together by peptidebonds. Proteins constitute ca. 50% of thedry matter of living cells and perform a vitalrole in the function and structure of the cells.Proteins containing only amino acids arecalled homoproteins, whereas those contain­ing additional groups (i.e., prosthetic groups)are called heteroproteins. The heteroproteinsinclude lipoproteins, glycoproteins, phospho­proteins, hemoproteins, metalloproteins, andnucleoproteins.

The complexity of proteins depends on thenumber and types of amino acids and othergroups. The structural properties of some majorfood proteins are shown in Table 4.

Denaturation. The secondary and tertiarystructures of proteins are fragile and, therefore,can be changed by a variety of treatments that donot cleave covalent bonds (with the exceptionof disulfide bonds). The term denaturation isapplied to such processes. Heating is the mostcommonly used physical method for denaturingproteins. Most proteins are denatured or coagu­lated between 55 and 75 °C. The susceptibility ofproteins to denaturation depends on the nature ofthe protein and environmental factors such aspH, water activity, ionic strength, and the types

of ions present. The proteins of egg white arereadily denatured by heat, whereas casein andgelatin are relatively resistant. This resistance isattributed to the presence of high amounts ofproline and hydroxyproline and low levels ofsulfur-containing amino acids. Thermal denatur­ation of proteins can result in the following:

1. inactivation of enzymes2. destruction of microbes3. detoxification of toxic proteins4. increased protein digestibility5. improved texture of protein-rich foods6. increased exposure of hydrophilic groups

The exposure of hydrophobic groups can causechanges in water and flavor-binding capacity andin solubility.

Physical treatments other than heating canalso cause protein denaturation or other proteinalterations. Freezing and low-temperature stor­age can cause aggregation and precipitation ofsome proteins (e.g., gliadin, 11 S soy proteins,and some egg and milk proteins). Aggregationrefers to clustering of protein molecules or par­ticles. In food systems, aggregation usuallyinvolves hydrophobic forces, but other forcesmay be involved in some cases. Precipitationinvolves separation of the protein from the rest ofthe solution or suspension. In some cases aggre­gation leads to precipitation. After freezing, fishmay become tough and rubbery and lose mois­ture as a result of protein destabilization. Somemechanical treatments, such as the rolling andkneading of bread, may denature proteins. Highhydrostatic pressure may also have a denaturingeffect. Ovalbumin and trypsin have beenreported to be denatured at pressures of 50and 60 kPa, respectively [7]. Electromagneticirradiation can cause changes in the conforma­tion of proteins. The extent of such changesdepends on the wavelength and energy involved.

Proteins can also be denatured by chemicalreagents. The structural stability of proteins isinfluenced by pH, with each protein having acharacteristic stable range. Consequently, shift­ing the pH outside of this range with either acidor base denatures the protein. In some cases,native structure can be restored by readjustingthe pH to within the stable range.