food as medicine in muslim civilization with images

8/12/2019 Food as Medicine in Muslim Civilization With Images

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Food as Medicine in Muslim

Civilizationby:

Nil Sari

1. Introduction

Figure 1:A banquet given by the commander-in-chie !ala Mustaa "ahsa to the #anissaries in $zmit% & A'ril 1&(). *o'+a'i "alace

Museum !ibrary% MS ,1&% ol. /b

Food and diet 0ere central to ttoman clinical and 'reventive medicine. ttoman medical manuscri'ts

begin by s'eciying 2si3 rules that should be ollo0ed or a healthy lie%2 and one o these rules 0as eating

a balanced diet. $n both ttoman cuisine and ttoman medicine great im'ortance 0as attached to the ty'e

and characteristics o oods and beverages% and 0hich o these should be consumed 0hen and ho0 by

'eo'le o dierent constitutions. ttoman medicine 0as based on $slamic medicine% itsel rooted in the

teachings o ,i''ocrates and 4alen% and or medical 're'arations and oods dre0 'rinci'ally on 0or+s by

the $slamic 'hysicians $bn Sina 5Avicenna6 and $bn al-7aytar.

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*he main reason 0hy ood and beverages 0ere o such im'ortance in medicine is that they not only

'rovide nutrition but also 'reserve health and 'ossess curative 'ro'erties. Consequently healthy dietary

'ractice emerged as a distinct ield o medical +no0ledge. *he sub#ects o nutrition% diet and digestion 0ith

res'ect to leading a healthy lie and the treatment o disease are discussed at length in ttoman 'eriod

medical manuscri'ts. 8egetables% ruits% animal oods and minerals such as salt are dealt 0ith not only in

medical and 'harmaceutical 0or+s% but even in 0or+s on chemistry. Although carbohydrates% 'roteins andvitamins 0ere as yet un+no0n% the im'ortance o good ood and a balanced diet or healthy living 0as

recognised.

*he 'rinci'les o healthy and balanced nutrition in ttoman medicine are based on the theories o

2elements2 and 2humours2. 9ven today 0e can observe relics o this theory% 0hich remained current until

the beginning o the t0entieth century. *o clearly e3'lain the im'ortance o nutrition in ttoman medicine%

it is necessary to ta+e a brie loo+ at the theory o elements and humours in other 0ords% the 'hiloso'hy o

medicine at that 'eriod. $ 0ill endeavour to e3'lain this theory as sim'ly as 'ossible% although it consists o

deinitions and inter'retations that cover a 0ide ield% are very com'le3% and sometimes diicult to

com'rehend. ;es'ite some variations in o'inion regarding the details o this theory among ttoman

'hysicians% the basic rame0or+ o the 'hiloso'hy o medicine corres'onded to the outline $ 0ill give

belo0.

All o the inormation in this te3t is based on manuscri'ts and 'rinted ttoman sources% 0ithout any

inter'retation o my o0n. $t should not be orgotten that evaluating the medical conce'ts o the ttoman

'eriod in the light o today


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According to the 'hiloso'hy o the 'eriod% the universe is made u' o our main elements: ire% air% 0ater

and earth. *hese are the basic substances that ma+e u' all inanimate and animate ob#ects. *he our elements

are not material but e3'ress characteristics o mass and energy. *hese elements have hot% cold% moist or dryqualities% described as their 2state2 5keyfiyet6. *hese qualities are inherent and described as 2nature2 5tabat6.

For e3am'le% the nature o a human being is deined as hot blooded and that o grass as cold. 9arth has a

cold and dry nature 0ater% cold and moist air% hot and moist ire% hot and dry. Not only human beings but

all animate and inanimate entities are under the inluence o one or a combination o the above-mentioned

our qualities. *he essential substance o any ob#ect is characterised by these qualities% each being hot% cold%

moist or dry. 9ach ob#ect has a hotter% colder% drier or moister nature in com'arison to others. rgans also

have these characteristics. For e3am'le% the heart has the tendency to be hot and moist the liver hot and

dry the brain moist and cold the s'leen dry and cold. *hese natural qualities are also 'resent to a greater or

lesser e3tent in every ood or medicament. For e3am'le% a ood or medicament might be hot in the irst%

second% third or ourth degrees% and hence the heating eect o that ood or medicament varies according tothe degree it 'ossesses that characteristic. *he combination o qualities in a ood or medicament determines

the balance in the body o the 'erson 0ho consumes it.

3. Humours (khilt) and Their Qualities

*he human body contains our luids or humours that is% blood% 'legm% yello0 bile and blac+ bile. ?e

cannot deine the our humours in the literal sense o the 0ords used to e3'ress them. ,umours are the

luids irst generated by the 'rocess o digestion. 7lood has a hot and moist nature 5sanguine6 'hlegm is

cold and moist 5'hlegmatic6 yello0 bile is hot and dry 5choleric6 blac+ bile is cold and dry 5melancholic6.

A good and healthy humour or combination o humours can be digested and assimilated into the tissues.*hese are restorative% beneicial humours. ,umours 0ith the a''ro'riate qualities ta+en in moderate

amounts nourish the body. 9ach o the our humours also has sub-categories.

7alance bet0een the humours indicates health. ?hen the quality or amount o the humours deviate rom

the normal% ho0ever% the humoral balance is disturbed and this causes disease. *he humours that have

caused the disease need to be e3'elled rom the body by means o medicaments. *he humoral balance may

be distorted by e3ternal actors% es'ecially diet% resulting in disease. Abnormal humours that cannot be

digested or transormed into a 'ro'er orm are e3'elled rom the body. ?hen necessary one should hel' the

e3'ulsion 'rocess by means o diet or medicaments.

4. Temperaments

*he 0ays in 0hich the o''osing qualities o the our elements combine and interact are called

2tem'eraments2. $ the o''osing characteristics are 'resent in equal amounts there 0ill be a balance. 7ut i

one or more o the hot% cold% moist or dry qualities are dominant the balance is disturbed. ?hen this occurs

the 'erson


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and moist qualities are both dominant in a 'erson% that 'erson has a sanguine tem'erament. $ hot and dry

qualities are dominant they 'roduce a choleric tem'erament i cold and dry qualities dominate they

'roduce a melancholic tem'erament and i cold and moist qualities dominate they 'roduce a 'hlegmatic

tem'erament. *hese tem'eraments may be 'resent in a stronger or 0ea+er orm% and this causes dierences

amongst individuals. $n addition% tem'erament varies according to the geogra'hic location% season% age and

gender. *em'erament should al0ays be ta+en into consideration both in medical treatment and diet. 9ach'erson should eat in accordance 0ith their o0n tem'erament. Although some 'eo'le may have a strong

constitution and be able to eat and digest un0holesome ood% this should not be de'ended u'on% because

the bad humours% 0hich cannot be digested% accumulate gradually% damaging the 'erson


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ood is transormed into a luid called chime 5keyms6 resembling thic+ barley gruel. *he solid 'articles

that have no nutrient value are e3'elled rom the body as e3crement. *he 0atery 'art o the chime is

absorbed by the stomach and the intestines. "art o the chime is transormed into 'hlegm beore digestion is

com'leted. Chime enters the liver through the 'ortal vein. ,ere% a second 'rocess o digestion occurs that is

again called 2coo+ing2% leading to the ormation o yello0 bile 5the 2oam2 o the blood6% blac+ bile 5the

sediments o the blood6 and blood itsel. A certain amount o natural blac+ bile% 0hich is accumulated at themouth o the stomach% arouses the a''etite. 7lac+ bile is ormed as a result o a cold and dry diet. *he

blood contains the most valuable 'arts o the digested nutrients. 7lood reaches the heart via the vena cava%

leaving the more 0atery 'art o the chime to be dis'osed o by the +idneys. *he third 'hase o digestion

occurs in the blood vessels and is distributed to other organs via the arteries. ?ith the ourth and inal 'hase

o digestion in the organs% digestion is com'leted. $neicient digestion results in distorted% diseased yello0

bile and blac+ bile is ormed.

$t is because humours are ormed by digested nutrients that the characteristics and amount o 0hat a 'erson

eats and drin+s aects the health o a 'erson either avourably or adversely. "reserving the humoral balance

and thus a 'erson


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Figure 4:A 'lant igure. Source: $bn 7aytar% Cmiu mufredat al-adviya wa'l-agdiya. Sleymaniye !ibrary% Ayasoya Coll.% M,(/).

*he oods and beverages that aect the humoral balance are also classiied according to the theory o

elements as being hot% cold% dry or moist. Foods and beverages that are moderate in nature generate blood.

7ecause diseases are also hot% cold% dry or moist in nature% each disease is treated 0ith oods or

medicaments 'ossessing the o''osite qualities. *he medical eects o oods vary according to their

essential nature:

Cold foods:Foods that are cold create 'hlegm. Cucumber% squash% 'urslane and lettuce are cold vegetables.

*hey cause 0ea+ness 5sst6.

Hot foods:Foods that are hot by nature create yello0 bile. Such oods mainly consist o s'ices and similar

condiments added to ood. For e3am'le% ginger% 'e''er% dry coriander% cumin% cinnamon% onion% garlic and

mastic are hot oods.

Dry foods:;ry oods create blac+ bile% a cause o melancholy. *hey lead to loss o a''etite and

consti'ation. Foods such as millet% lentils and dried meat are e3am'les o dry oods.

Moist foods:Moist oods are those 0ithout strong salty% s0eet% sour or bitter lavours. *hey have asotening eect. Noodles and s'inach coo+ed 0ith rice and meat are e3am'les o moist oods.


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. Ho! Foods and edicaments E*ert an E""ect on the Health

Figure :A 'lant igure. Source: $bn 7aytar% Cmiu mufredat al-adviya wa'l-agdiya. Sleymaniye !ibrary% Ayasoya Coll.% MS(/).

Foods and medicaments aect human health in diverse 0ays:

Essential qualities:A ood


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as in the case o sevkern1D% or e3am'le% it is described as having the 2'o0er o 'oison2.

Not0ithstanding that substances are eective through their qualities it is their 2'o0ers2 that 'revail. For

e3am'le% there is la3ative 'o0er in the dried #uice obtained rom scammony 5Convolvulus scammonia6 root

and tur'eth 5pomoea turpethum6 root. *o give another e3am'le% the 'oison o the vi'er sna+e is hot and

scor'ion 'oison is cold% but it is not these characteristics that do the +illing 0hat is atal is the 2'o0er o

'oison2.

#$ount:*he eect o a substance varies according to the amount that is ta+en. Some that do not have any

eect the irst time they are ta+en become eective 0hen they are ta+en a second or third time% or 0hen the

amount is increased. !affron "Crocus sativus#% 0hich is used as a stimulant and a''etizer% is an e3am'le o

this. *here also are oods that become harmul as the amount is increased. For e3am'le% eating too much

onion causes rec+les on the ace and vertigo.

+. %lassi"ication o" Foods &ccording to ,igestion

Foods are also classiied according to their being easily digested or not.

%entle (ltif" &oods:Most o the 2gentle2 oods are digested 0ith very little residual humour or other

residual substances. *he gentle oods also assist in e3'elling ood residues. *he consum'tion o gentle

oods results in boiling and burning o the blood% and the 'roduction o additional yello0 bile. Most

vegetables 5es'ecially radish and mustard6% meat stoc+% egg yol+% liver% mutton and chic+'ea sou'>D%

young dove% s'arro0% 'ic+les 5ca'ers% onion% garlic% radish 'ic+le 0ith vinegar% beetroot 'ic+le 0ith

mustard etc6 are gentle nutrients 5although eating too much 'ic+le causes aging and 0ea+ens the nerves6.

7ecause the 2digestive 'o0er2 o 'eo'le 0ho get little e3ercise and the elderly is diminished% such 'eo'le

should eat in moderation and choose mainly 2gentle2 oods. For e3am'le% instead o meat% they should eatsou' made 0ith meat stoc+.

Coarse ('al!)*+" &oods:Coarse oods increase moistness and 'hlegm% so that the quantity o 'hlegm

becomes e3cessive. Coarse oods also increase bodily strength and cause 'lum'ness. *hese oods and

beverages should be consumed 0hen very hungry and in moderate amounts so that they are 0ell digested%

because they cause indigestion. $ a 'erson suers rom congestion 5sudde6% such as consti'ation% as a result

o eating coarse ood% they should eat gentle nutrients% 0hich 0ill unbloc+ the congestion. Accordingly% i

congestion occurs ater eating coarse oods such as herse/D%shee'


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0ill be easily obtained by the morning. For some 'eo'le > dirhemso mastic 0ith > dirhemso sugar is

suicient.2

-. Foods !ith %uratie /roperties (0id'i de)

Figure $:A 'ainting o t0o sea creatures: stingray and cuttleish. Source: $bn 7aytar% Cmiu mufredat al-adviya wa'l-agdiya.Sleymaniye !ibrary% Ayasoya Coll.% MS (/).

Substances that are used solely as oods are called gid-i mutlak5absolute oods6 and these are non-

'oisonous nourishing nutrients such as meat and bread% 0hich have no medicinal eect. *hose that are

classiied as medicaments only and described as semm5'oison6 are called dev'-i mutlak5absolute

medicaments6.

Foods consumed or the 'rotection o health or treatment o disease are called dev-yi gidor gid-yidev5oods 0ith curative 'ro'erties6. Some substances used both as medicament 5dev6 and as a ood or

beverage 5gid6 may be called dev-i gid-i $ hassaor gid-yi dev-i $ hassa5oods 0ith 'articular

curative 'o0er6. *his category consists o oods 0ith a curative eect or substances that are em'loyed

'rimarily or curative 'ur'oses but also used as ood. For a substance to be classiied as a gid-yi devit

must be eective both in its quality and in its substance. Such substances are non-'oisonous 5n-$ehr6.

Foods such as kesk-i c% a ty'e o blancmange made 0ith barley lour and e0eDthat

'ossess both medicinal and nutritive characteristics% 'rovide relie by their cold quality 5brdet6 on one

hand and serve as oods on the other. "hysicians 'rescribe such oods and beverages to their 'atients.

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8egetables and ruits are curative oods. For e3am'le% igs% ully ri'e gra'es and dates are more curative in

their nature and so should be eaten s'aringly. *hose 0ho 0ish to 'rotect their health should avoid a diet

consisting solely o ruit and vegetables because these are oods 0ith curative 'ro'erties.

1. E*amples o" Treatment !ith Foods: 5irds and Fish 6sed in Treatment

Figure :Ma+ers o the s0eet 5halva6 2ma6. *o'+a'i "alace Museum!ibrary% MS ,1//.6. Source: &urkish edical %istory through iniature (ictures )*hibition % 'ublished by Nil Sari-l+er 9r+e%

$stanbul: $S,$M% >EE>.

*he seventeenth century *ur+ish 0riter 9vliya Gelebi relates that the meat o various birds 0as given to

'atients as dietary ood at the Fatih Sultan Mehmet ,an Mental ,os'ital and at the 7ayezid ,os'ital in

9dirne: 2H various delicious dishes are 're'ared or the 'atients t0ice a day. *he endo0ment deed or the

oundation includes the instruction% Ii 'artridges and 'heasants are not available% nightingales% s'arro0s

and 'igeons should be coo+ed and given to the 'atients


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Stoc+ made rom young chic+en% hen or rooster is both nutritious in its substance and a medicament% 0hile

the brain% testicles and e3crement are medicaments. $t is said that the best roosters are those that have not

yet started cro0ing and the best hens those that have not yet laid eggs. ?e ind diverse reci'es or coo+ing

chic+en to obtain the required eects. For e3am'le% i a chic+en is stued 0ith mis+ a''les 1(Dor quince

and then roasted% it is very nutritious. ;rin+ing stoc+ 're'ared by coo+ing a rooster 0ith am'le 0ater and

adding 'oly'loidy1)Dis a la3ative. Beci'es are given or dishes to treat certain diseases. For e3am'le% orthe treatment o lumbago the ollo0ing dish is 'rescribed: 2*a+e a rooster and add >E dirhems o 'ounded

salo0er 1=Dseed% 1& dirhems o 'oly'ody% a 'inch each o dill>ED% ennel seed>1D% cumin and

carnation% and some chic+'eas. Ma+e the dish slightly more salty than usual. ?hen 0ell coo+ed strain and

drin+ the #uice as sou'. Coo+ed garlic is a cure or latulence.2

8arious ish s'ecies% including the goby% turbot% eel% car'% sea bass% 'i+e% red mullet% 'laice% blueish% bream%

'icarel% grey mullet% sole% t0o-banded bream% bonito% mac+erel and trout% and also the dol'hin% are

described as curative by medical authors. *he beneit o eeding 'atients 0ith red mullet% goby and

scor'ion ish is 'articularly em'hasised. *here is e3tensive inormation in medical boo+s about 0hich ish

are best% 0here they are caught% ho0 to coo+ them% and 0ith 0hich oods they should and should not be

eaten.

Since ish are cold by nature they calm the hot humours and thereby have a beneicial eect in cases o

diseases o a hot nature. For e3am'le% they are good or a dry cough% #aundice% debility% dysentery and

issurations. Fish eggs im'rove virility and are good or coughs and dysentery. Medications 're'ared 0ith

ish are used in the treatment o various diseases such as chronic uruncles% 0arts% 'oisonous stings such as

scor'ion stings% bites by rabid dogs% s0ellings in the anus% high ever% malaria% deaness% hard lum's on the

uvula% 'soriasis and #aundice. Medical 0riters e3'lain 0hich coo+ing and 're'aration methods are to be

used or the treatment o 0hich diseases. $n other 0ords% ish reci'es are used or healthy nutrition and or

'rotection rom and treatment o disease. ,ere are some e3am'les o medications containing ish and ish

dishes ta+en rom medical manuscri'ts:

&ish oultice:*his medicament is made 0ith scorched ish and a''lied to s0ellings in the anus. $t is also

a''lied to bites rom rabid dogs or stings by 'oisonous animals such as scor'ions.

Scorched fish head:*he head o a salted ish is scorched and the ashes s'rin+led on uruncles and 0arts.

-urnt fishbone:*he ashes o burnt ishbone are beneicial or 'soriasis.

Fish heart: *he heart o the ish cut in hal and coo+ed 0ith vinegar is es'ecially good or those suering

rom malaria or #aundice and those 0ith a hot tem'erament.

&ish cooked in vine'ar:Fish coo+ed 0ith vinegar is good or those 0ith malaria and a hot tem'erament.

&ried fish:Fish ried in a little oil is good or those 0ho are recu'erating rom a disease because it gives

strength.

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&ish la.ative:*he stomach o the ish is slit% illed 0ith sil+ and se0n u' 0ith string. *hen it is 'laced into

1)EE dirhems o 0ater and coo+ed until only EE dirhems o 0ater remain% then strained. ;rin+ing this

0ater causes e3treme diarrhea.

Dolhin fat:Colocynth>>Dis coo+ed in dol'hin at% 0hich is o a hot tem'erament. *his oil is then

dro''ed into the ear to cure deaness.

Figure +:Ma+ers o a s0eet called 2halva2 5!urnme-i %mayun% year 1&)>6. *o'+a'i "alace Museum !ibrary% ,. 1//.6.Source: &urkish edical %istory through iniature (ictures )*hibition % 'ublished by Nil Sari-l+er 9r+e% $stanbul: $S,$M% >EE>.

11. & 5alanced ,iet "or /resering Health

7alancing the diet orms one o the leading branches o traditional medicine% 0hich treats this sub#ect

0ithin the rame0or+ o the humoral theory. *he conce't o balanced nutrition to give 'rotection against

disease and as a method o treatment is deined by the 0ord mu'tedil5moderate6. Medical boo+s discuss

ho0 to guard against 'ossible harmul eects on the digestion o eating and drin+ing reely by means o

eating a ood 0ith the qualities o an antidote. For e3am'le% the harm done by oods li+e ruit and

vegetables that 'ossess curative 'ro'erties can be avoided by consuming oods 0ith the o''osite qualities.

$ vegetables 0ith cold qualities such as cucumber% squash or lettuce are eaten% the balance is redressed by

eating some garlic% lee+% 0hite 0horehound >Dor mint as a 'recaution against any 'ossible harm that

might be caused. 9ating unri'e gra'es% sumac% thyme% 'e''er or ginger together 0ith ish% 0hich is a cold

ood and ater the ish eating s0eets such as ginger murabb>/D% honey% halva or rose #am% 0hich are hot%

is suggested as a 'recautionary measure. ;rin+ing lemon and honey sherbet >&D% sour lemon sherbetor sarab-i mselles>D0ith ish hel's its digestion and 'revents adverse eects. $ a hot ood such as

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garlic% 0hite horehound% onion or the li+e is eaten% its eects are oset by cucumber% resh 'urslane >(D%

lettuce% squash or sour sherbets. ,o0ever% eating a diversity o oods 0ith o''osing qualities at the same

meal is itsel harmul.

$ a ood has the 'ro'erty o obstructing the channels in the body% oods 0ith the 'ro'erty o dissolving and

e3'elling ood and beverages are added to the diet. For e3am'le% 0oodcoc+ meat is consti'ating and to

avoid this harmul eect 0oodcoc+ meat should be eaten 0ith unri'e gra'es and lemon #uice.

$ coarse 5gal$6 oods such as keskek% shee'


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nion should not be eaten together 0ith garlic.

;rin+ing mil+ and 0ine on the same day causes gout.

Fresh ish% mil+% mil+ oods% resh cheese and eggs should not be eaten together. Among the oods

that should not be eaten 0ith ish% eggs come irst. $t is even claimed that death may result rom neglecting

this dietary rule. ne should not drin+ 0ater ater eating ish% but 'atiently 'ut u' 0ith being thirsty.

ne should not eat yoghurt 0ith ish.

9ating meat% es'ecially the meat o land animals% together 0ith ish is very harmul and the cause

o chronic disease.

13. ,ietar' 8ules according to Temperament

Figure -:Sou' coo+s. 5+lbum% *o'+a'i "alace Museum !ibrary% Ahmed $$$ Collection% MS =E6. Source: &urkish edical%istory through iniature (ictures )*hibition% 'ublished by Nil Sari-l+er 9r+e% $stanbul: $S,$M% >EE>.

9ach individual should eat in accordance 0ith their o0n tem'erament.

?hen 'eo'le have a balanced tem'erament and are thereore in good health their diet should consist o the

ollo0ing: meat% in 'articular lamb% veal or goat


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"eo'le 0ith a hot tem'erament should ta+e ood and beverages that are light and o a cold quality. $n the

mornings these 'eo'le should eat one or t0o morsels o bread soa+ed in a sour sherbet made o

'omegranate% sour gra'e% sour a''le or lemon #uice% and drin+ a sour sherbet o this +ind. ;ishes such as

sour sherbet% ste0 0ith unri'e gra'es% ste0 0ith 'lums% ste0 o lentils 0ith vinegar% or

marro0 kalye>=Dare 'ro'er nutrients or a 'erson 0ith a hot dis'osition. ;ue to its cold quality ish calms

hot humours and is thereore beneicial or 'eo'le 0ith hot tem'eraments. $ a 'erson 0ith a hottem'erament eats ish they should drin+ o3ymel or some vinegar. $ a 'erson 0hose stomach is very hot

eats late it 0ill cause a headache. A 'erson 0ho gets 2hot2 ater meals should be careul not to eat ast and

should divide the meal into t0o small meals.

A 'erson 0ho is 'hlegmatic% that is% has a moist and cold tem'erament should eat gentle and hot oods or

e3am'le% mutton and chic+'ea sou'% young 'igeon% s'arro0% and hot herbs such as mastic% cinnamon and

cumin. "lum' 'eo'le 0ith a moist tem'erament should eat red meat ried in 0alnut oil or olive oil% and

seasoned 0ith cumin% cinnamon and garlic. ne dirhem o 'ounded blac+ 'e''ercorns tied in a 'iece o

muslin and coo+ed 0ith chic+'ea sou' lends strength to the dish. 7ecause ish have a cold and moist

quality and increase 'hlegm% they are harmul or those 0ith a cold tem'erament and those 0ith 'hlegm in

the stomach. An e3cess o 'hlegm is harmul or the nerves and brain% causing lumbago% a'o'le3y and

'aralysis. *o e3'el this harmul 'hlegm rom the body% la3ative herbs% hot 0ater or honey 0ith vinegar

should be ta+en.

"eo'le 0ith a cold and dry melancholic tem'erament should eat moist oods and avoid dry oods such as

millet% lentils% dried meat and salty oods. For e3am'le% salt ish seasoned in vinegar% a dry and cold

oodstu% 'revents the building u' o yello0 bile in the stomach% 0hich causes indigestion and an increase

o blac+ bile% resulting in uruncles and itching.

"eo'le 0ith a choleric tem'erament and dry nature should eat cold and moist oods or e3am'le% noodles%

s'inach coo+ed 0ith rice and meat. Foods li+e salt ish% 0hich is hot and dry% should be avoided since the

'o0er o the salt causes an increase in yello0 bile.

14. &d9usting ,iet &ccording to the eason

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Figure 1:*he "alace head coee ma+er 5+lbum% *o'+a'i "alace Museum !ibrary% Ahmed $$$ Collection% MS =E6.Source:&urkish edical %istory through iniature (ictures )*hibition % 'ublished by Nil Sari-l+er 9r+e% $stanbul: $S,$M% >EE>.

Foods are closely related to the seasons% because the seasons aect the density o the humours. *hereore%

diet should also be ad#usted according to the season.

*he nature o s'ring is hot and moist. So cold and dry oods should be eaten in am'le amounts in the

mornings and evenings as these 'revent the blood rom being corru'ted. 8ery s0eet oods that have bad

eects on the blood should be avoided. ;uring s'ring% oods such as meat and sherbet should be consumed.

*he nature o summer is hot and dry. 7ecause yello0 bile increases in summer% oods that activate or

'roduce yello0 bile should not be eaten 0hile oods that cause the body to become cold and moist should

be consumed in am'le amounts. Sour oods and beverages are very a''ro'riate or summer. Foods that

decrease yello0 bile% such as ruits% the #uice o 'omegranates% unri'e gra'es% lemons% roses and a''les

cold vegetables li+e cucumbers% marro0 and 'urslane% and dishes or sou's lavoured 0ith vinegar and other

sour ingredients are beneicial. Foods 'reserved in brine% and those that are salty% s'iced or have a strong

lavour should be avoided in summer.

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$n autumn blood decreases and blac+ bile increases. *he tem'erament o this season is cold and dry.

*hereore during this season one should avoid dry and salty ood% instead eating oods that are hot and

moist.

;uring 0inter 'hlegm increases and thereore one should avoid oods and beverages that increase this

humour. *he nature o this season is cold and 0et% so it is a''ro'riate to eat hot and dry oods during

0inter or e3am'le% dishes coo+ed 0ith garlic% onion or s'ices such as 'e''er and ginger roast meat

5kebab6 and s0eetmeats. ColdyahniEDshould be avoided in the 0inter. ;ishes should be consumed hot

in 0inter% and cold or 0arm in summer. At the same time oods and beverages should not be either

e3cessively cold or e3cessively hot.

*here is a list o dishes to be eaten according to the season in a document 5;.=&==6 in the *o'+a'i "alace

archive. $n this document the dishes are listed by the season% ta+ing into account the humoral theory that

orms the basis o classical ttoman medicine. For e3am'le% in summer% sour ood and beverages% ruits

and vegetables 'redominate and s'ices are avoided% as 'rescribed or 'eo'le 0ith a hot dis'osition0hereas in 0inter% coarse oods such as +ebabs and s0eets% and dishes seasoned 0ith s'ices are

recommended. *he dishes consumed throughout the our seasons% such as 'ila 0ith meat and chic+en

+ebab% are those classiied as 2moderate2% and do not u'set the humoral balance. *he document is entitled

2an account o oods a''ro'riate or the our seasons2. 7elo0 are some e3am'les o daily menus

recommended or the summer months:

ummer eason:Additional light sou's should be coo+ed rom the beginning o summer to the end and

hot 'lants 5s'ices6 should be avoided.

ridayFried 'ila 0ith meat1D% sour gra'e sou'% stued aubergine% barberry>Dsou'% 'lain chic+ensou' 0ithout rice% chic+en +ebab.

!aturdayBice coo+ed 0ith mil+% marro0 burani D0ith unri'e gra'es /D%lemon sou'% chic+en sou'

0ith lemon #uice% chic+en +ebab.

!unday8egetable 'ila% +alye 0ith S0iss chard% stued marro0 0ith unri'e gra'es% chic+en sou' 0ith

sour 'omegranate #uice% and chic+en +ebab.

onday"ila% sumac &Dsou'% ried marro0% meat kalye0ith lemon #uice% 'lain chic+en sou'% chic+en

+ebab.

&uesday"ila% marro0 coo+ed 0ith unri'e gra'es%pideD0ith marro0 illing% rice coo+ed 0ith sour

#uice(D% chic+en sou'% chic+en +ebab.

.ednesdayBice coo+ed 0ith mil+% ried aubergine 0ith meat% bozca sou')D% mint sou'% chic+en sou'

0ith lemon #uice and eggs% chic+en +ebab.

&hursdaySot boiled rice% ried marro0% tutmac=D0ith sour #uice% 0hite sou' /ED0ith sour

'omegranate #uice% chic+en +alye 0ith chic+'eas and onion% chic+en +ebab.

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From time to time these seasonal dishes may be re'laced by the ollo0ing dishes:

Noodle sou'% umac sou'/1D% sour almond sou'% sour sou's% +alye 0ith sour #uice% hekim asi/>D.

1. eal Times and &mounts

Figure 11:A 'arade o syru' ma+ers. 5!urnme-i %mayun% year 1&)>6. *o'+a'i "alace Museum !ibrary% MS ,1//.6.Source: &urkish edical %istory through iniature (ictures )*hibition % 'ublished by Nil Sari-l+er 9r+e% $stanbul: $S,$M% >EE>.

*here is nothing so harmul as becoming e3cessively hungry or eating to e3cess. Meals should not be eatenbeore one is really hungry% nor delayed or long ater one is really hungry. $ the a''etite is not ulilled%

the stomach becomes u'set and illed 0ith un0holesome 5fsid6 humours. ?hen there is true hunger% one

should not delay eating. *he meal should be eaten 0ith a 2loyal a''etite2 5 sdik istih6% that is% a real

a''etite% but one should sto' eating beore the a''etite is entirely satiated. $t is better to eat quic+ly and

leave the table rather than sit all through the re'ast eating continuously and unnecessarily. 7ecause 0hen a

re'ast is 'rotracted% the ood eaten earlier is digested% but that eaten later is not% giving rise to disorders.

ne should not eat too soon ater a re'ast% but 0ait until the 'revious meal has been digested% to avoid

harmul eects. $ one is obliged to eat% then one should lie do0n and rest or a 0hile ater eating% and then

do slo0 but 'lentiul e3ercises. *o hel' digestion one should ta+e some cvris/Das a''ro'riate to the

tem'erament. ver-eating brings about accumulation o blood and satiation. 93cessive consum'tion oeither ood or beverages is very harmul and could even cause death rom congestion.

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"reerably meals should be arranged as ollo0s: three times every t0o days that is% morning and evening

meals on one day and lunch on the second day. ,o0ever% a 'erson 0ho is in the habit o eating t0ice a day

becomes 0ea+ i they start to eat once a day. And i a 'erson in the habit o eating once a day then starts

eating t0ice a day% they become 0ea+ and suer rom indigestion and distension o the stomach.

1$. Importance &ttached to Food /reparation and to the %oo;

$normation about the 're'aration o ood to be used in 'rotecting against and treating diseases is ound in

boo+s called mfredt5materia medica6 and mrekkebt5com'ound medicines6 consisting o recei'ts or

drugs and medicaments% as 0ell as in general medical 0or+s. *he sub#ect o 0hich coo+ing methods and

ingredients should be used to ma+e a dish healthier is regarded as an integral 'art o medical science. *his

can be illustrated by the ollo0ing e3am'le recommending that ish be coo+ed in vegetable oils o various

+inds: 2ishD should be coo+ed in 0alnut oil or olive oil% and should be served s'rin+led 0ith 'e''er or it

should be coo+ed in sesame oil% 0alnut and almond oil. *his latter method 'rovides s'ecial 'rotection

against the harmul eects o ish2. $n another e3am'le 2grilling ish 0ith unri'e gra'e and sumac2 isdescribed as 2the most a''ro'riate coo+ing method2 and 2better2 than rying in oil.

$t 0as essential that the 'erson 0ho 're'ared the ood and beverages so crucial to human health be an

e3'ert. ?hen the close relationshi' bet0een ood and health in ttoman medicine is considered the

im'ortant role o the coo+ in the treatment o 'atients can be understood. For e3am'le% the 'erson

a''ointed as tabbah5coo+6 to a hos'ital 're'ared not only ood or the 'atients but also syru's and

medicaments +no0n asmatbht//D% al0ays ollo0ing reci'es and ormula 'rescribed by the 'hysician

2according to the tem'erament o the 'atients2. *he im'ortance given to nutrition in the treatment o

'atients is clearly evident in the endo0ment deeds o hos'itals. For e3am'le% the endo0ment deed or the

Fatih Sultan Mehmed oundation 5vakif6 s'eciies that 2t0o ine u'standing coo+s2 be a''ointed to 're'aremeals or the 'atients in the hos'ital. *hese t0o coo+s must 20or+ hard to lighten the 0retched 0ounded

hearts o the 'atients coo+ ood to nourish the lie orce o these suering 'eo'le 0hose s+ins are as sallo0

as an autumn lea% 0ho are alicted by so many troubles% debilitated by diverse ailments% in need o

com'assion% in des'air o a cure.2 *heir 0ages 0ere three ak/ea day.

9vliya Gelebi 0rites that in the ,os'ital o 7ayezid $$ in 9dirne delicious dishes 0ere distributed rom the

+itchen to every 'atient% 0hether their illness be mental or 'hysicial% and each dish 0as 're'ared in

accordance 0ith their individual needs. $n the endo0ment deed o the hos'ital it is em'hasised that the

coo+s 're'are diet ood in accordance 0ith the instructions o the 'hysicians: 2*0o ca'able% clean% honest%

u'right master coo+s shall do their utmost to coo+ 0hatever dishes the 'hysicians may 'rescribe accordingto the malady o each 'atient in the mental hos'ital +itchen and to carry out all the duties 0hich by custom

are their res'onsibility quic+ly and in a cleanly manner.2

At the Sleymaniye ,os'ital 0e ind that our master coo+s are to be em'loyed t0o res'onsible or

beverages and t0o or ood. $t is s'eciied in the endo0ment deed that the t0o 2beverage coo+s2 5tabbh-i

ashrba6 be 'eo'le 2accom'lished and e3'ert% 0hose s+ill at coo+ing syru's has been clearly demonstrated%

and 0ho 0ill serve unceasingly 0ith com'lete dedication% endeavour and 'erseverence.2 Mean0hile the

t0o 2ood coo+s2 5tabbh-i at'ima6 must be 'eo'le 20hose understanding and +no0ledge o coo+ing ood

is com'lete in every 0ay2 and they are e3'ected to 2're'are diet dishes and other oods in accordance 0ith

the instructions given by the 'hysician to suit the dis'ositions% tem'eraments and maladies o the 'atients%and ma+e sure that the lavour and other attributes o the ood they coo+ is as it should be.2

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*he conditions laid do0n or the t0o coo+s to be a''ointed to the Ati+ 8alide ,os'ital 0ere as ollo0s:

2they shall coo+ oods a''ro'riate or the 'atients such that a clever master 'hysician may 'lace trust and

conidence in them% and they shall be diligent and ta+e great 'ains that the ood they coo+ shall arouse the

a''etite o the 'atients.2

*he ,alvahane 5,alva Kitchen6 at *o'+a'i "alace is o 'articular note in illustrating the im'ortance

attached to the +itchen and the coo+ 0ith res'ect to health. As 0ell as 're'aring s0eet dishes o all +inds

or the table the ,alvahane 0as also a dis'ensary 0here medicines in the orm o tissanes% 'reserves%

sherbets and macun5a ty'e o electuary% having a sot te3ture and s0eetened 0ith honey or sugar6 0ere

're'ared. A boo+ +e't by the ,alvahane coo+s discovered by Nasid 7aylav and translated by him into

modern *ur+ish contains numerous recei'ts or medicines/&D.

"alace 'hysicians used ood and beverages to 'rotect the health and treat the medical disorders o members

o the 'alace household. A re'ort by the chie 'hysician dated 1E February 1> 5> February 1=116

'reserved in a *reasury Begister sho0s clearly ho0 'hysicians attached im'ortance to coo+ing as anintegral 'art o medical care right u' to the end o the ttoman 'eriod:

2,ere0ith it is strictly commanded that as a medical necessity s'ecial care shall be given to coo+ing the

chic+en and lamb cutlets or the table o her ladyshi' the irst avourite% that chic+en coo+ed in various

0ays shall be 'rovided every day% and that similar care shall be ta+en 0hen coo+ing cutlets and other dishes

or her.2

1. /rescriptions "or Foods and 5eerages Eth century. Since traditional medicine had already been su'erseded by9uro'ean medicine in both medical training and 'ractice% it is conceivable that traditional a''roaches to

diet had been observed to 'roduce avourable results. 7elo0 are some e3am'les rom the irst 'age o the

register containing dietary 'rescri'tions 0ritten or members o the 'alace household or curative or

'reventive 'ur'oses:

2*his re'ort here0ith submitted 'rescribes as a medical requirement a bo0l o yogurt 'er day or her lady

chie cler+ o the ,arem. > March o the year >( 51& March 1=116. Chie "hysician.2

2*his re'ort 'rescribes that "eyvend +ala o the ,arem !aundry ice be given chic+en and sou' or ive

days in accordance 0ith the dictates o medical science. 1= March o the year >( 51 A'ril 1=116.9vlamyus.2

>E
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2*his re'ort 'rescribes that as a''ro'riate or her ailment 7edrsaa +ala shall be given mutton cho's and

a''le com'ote every day until a second re'ort shall be submitted. >( March o the year >( 5= A'ril 1=116.

Nizameddin.2

2*his re'ort here0ith submitted 'rescribes that or medical reasons the meal on the table o ,er ,ighness

the mother o ,is ,ighness "rince Nazim shall consist o 0ell coo+ed cutlets% and sometimes grilled

meatballs and occasionally ried meat% and that sometimes mil+ 'udding and 'asta shall be 'rovided. >=

March o the year >( 511 A'ril 1=116. ,ead-'hysician.2

2*his re'ort here0ith submitted 'rescribes that Nevin +ala o the ,arem *reasury ice be given noodle

sou' made 0ith chic+en stoc+% mallo0 and o+ra every morning and evening or a 0ee+. 11 A'ril o the

year >( 5>/ A'ril 1=116. Nazi.2

2*his re'ort has here0ith been 0ritten concerning the illness o Nevin Kala o the ,arem *reasury ice%

'rescribing that boiled chic+en and t0o cutlets be added to her meals on alternate days or the 'eriod o a0ee+. 1/ A'ril o the year >( 5>( Nisan 1=116. Nazi2

2*his re'ort 'rescribes that 0ith res'ect to the illness o the honorable Nevin o the ,arem *reasury ice

she shall be served as ormerly 0ith chic+en and cutlets on alternate days% together 0ith articho+es coo+ed

0ith minced meat in meat stoc+% marro0 kalyeand stued marro0 to be served in turn% instead o sou' and

o+ra and mil+ 'udding. >E A'ril >( 5 May 1=116. Nazi.2

2*his re'ort 'rescribes that on medical grounds the honorable chie clar+ shall be given our resh eggs

every day or a month. > May 1>( 51& May 1=116. Ahmed2

2*his re'ort here0ith 'rescribes that as a medical requirement 7esim Aga% gentleman-in-0aiting% shall be

given sou'% cutlets% marro0 and o+ra or three days on account o his illness. >1 une >( 5/ uly 1=116.2

1+. From Toda'=s /erspectie

"hysicians 0riting in the ttoman 'eriod used to com'ile inormation ta+en rom various medical boo+s%

sometimes adding their o0n e3'eriences to those recorded by earlier 'hysicians. *his meant that 0hile the

eects o a 'articular substance 0ere re'eated in many sources% sometimes quite dierent eects 0ere

attributed to the same substance. $t is diicult to determine 0hether such inormation 0as ne0 +no0ledgeirst recorded by the 0riter. ,o0ever% the use o ood in 'reventive and clinical medicine is a common

a''roach to all these 0or+s. Similarly use o the humoral theory to determine the tem'erament o 'atients%

their ailments and a''ro'riate medication% and in e3'laining diagnosis and treatment 0as also common to

all 'hysicians.

As can be seen% most o the methods o treatment by means o oods and beverages that $ have illustrated

here 0ith e3am'les rom ttoman 'eriod medical boo+s dier considerably rom reci'es to 0hich 0e are

accustomed today. Nevertheless there are some similarities bet0een this inormation and modern culinary

'ractices in *ur+ey today. For e3am'le% ish is still coo+ed 0ith sour ingredients li+e unri'e gra'es% vinegar

or lemon 0e still eat a s0eet course ater ish% usually halva and 0e still avoid eating yogurt 0ith ish.

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Such customs% 0hose origin 0e rarely sto' to consider% are relics o traditional medicine that survive in our

gustatory tastes.

1-. ources

anuscripts

9mir Gelebi 5Seyyid Mehmed et-*abb es-Sehr bi-9mir Gelebi6:+nm$a0 al- &ibb51>&6. $stanbul

Oniversity Cerrah'asa Faculty o Medicine Medical ,istory Museum% no. =.

$bn 7aytar 59bu Mehmed Abdullah b. Ahmed Piyaeddin6:1itab +l-2mi' al-ufradt al+dwiya

wa al-+gdiye3*rans. Abdurrahman b. Jusu: &ar0amat al-ufradt3Sleymaniye !ibrary% KiliQ Ali "asa%

no. (1L/.

$bn 7aytar 59bu Mehmed Abdullah b. Ahmed Piyaeddin6:1itab +l-2mi' al-ufradt al+dwiya

wa al-+gdiye3*rans. ,ezaren ,seyin 9endi: &ar0amat al-ufradt51(th century6% Sleymaniye !ibrary%

!ala $smail% no. )=L=% ,amidiye% no. 1E1 and Ayasoya (/&.

$bn Sina 59bu Ali el-,seyin b. Abdullah6: al-4nn f +l-tibb3*rans. Mustaa b. Ahmed b.

,seyin el-*o+ad: &abh$ al-athn51)th century6% Sleymaniye !ibrary% ,amidiye% no. 1E1&.

$bn-i Seri: 5digr f al-&ibb51&th century6% $stanbul Oniversity Cerrah'asa Medical ,istory

Museum !ibrary% no. 1&& and 11.

$sa 9endi b. Ali el-Sa+iz:ufradat sa )fendi f +l-&ibb51(th century6% Sleymaniye !ibrary%

,e+imoglu no. &( and Jeni Camii no. 11(/ $stanbul Oniversity Cerrah'asa Faculty o Medicine Medical

,istory Museum !ibrary% no. &)E.

1itb min al-&ibb f al-+hkm al-1ulliyt wa al-+dviyt al-ufradt3Sleymaniye !ibrary%Ayasoya no. (/).

Mehmed M and /1.

SuRr: &a'dil al-+m$i0a3$stanbul Oniversity Cerrah'asa Faculty o Medicine Medical ,istoryMuseum !ibrary no.% >(=.

&abiatnma5*ranslated rom "ersian% 1/th century6: $n this 0or+ the relation bet0een nutrition

and health is e3amined under the headings% 7read% ?ater% Meat% 8egetables% S'ices% S0eets and Fruits. *he

acsimile edition 'ublished by "ro. ;r. $smail ,i+met 9rtaylan has been used.

An old medical boo+ on coo+ing in the Millet !ibrary 5Ali 9miri !ibrary6 Mteerri+ No. 1/ is a

valuable source or our ood history. $t contains many reci'es or meat and vegetable dishes% s0eet dishes

and sherbets% and s'eciies their eects on health.

Peynel Abidin b.,alil: !hifa al-uad% $stanbul Oniversity Cerrah'asa Faculty o Medicine Medical

,istory and ;eontology Science 7ranch !ibrary% no. &.

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&rchie ,ocuments

"rime Minister ttoman Archive%: ,att-i ,umayun ;eteri% nr. E).

8usl-i erbaya mnsib gidlarin beyn edildigi defter8: *o'+a'i "alace Archive No. ;. =&==.

*he document lists dishes to be served during the our seasons o the year to the em'loyees o the 'alace.

*he archivists date the document to the si3teenth century.

/rinted .

$brahim ,a++i% 9rzurum ,asan+aleli:arifetname. vol.% >nd ed. "ut into modern *ur+ish by

*urgut Olusoy% Ahmed Said% $stanbul% 1=(&.

KagitQi% M.A.: ;esin 1ilavu$u. $stanbul% 1=/=.

K@hya% 9. 5tr6:bn-i !ina )l-1nn fi't-&ibb37oo+ 1. Atatr+ Kltr Mer+ezi 7as+anligi% An+ara%

1==&.

K@hya% 9. 5tr.6:)l-1nn fi't-&ibb bn-i !ina. 7oo+ >. Atatr+ Kltr Mer+ezi 7as+anligi% An+ara%

>EE.

Kt+oglu% S. M.: 21EE= 51EE6 *arihli Narh ;eterlerine 4Ure $stanbul


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sman ,ayri Mrsid b. ,alil *arsus:1en$'s-!ihhat'l-)bdaniye )ser-i rsid-i 9smaniye.

Matbaa-i smaniye% $stanbul% 1>=)L1))1.

zden% M.A.: 2$bn Sina *ibbina 7ir 7a+is2 7y+ *r+ Filozo ve *ib stadi $bni Sina Sahsiyeti

ve 9serleri ,a++inda *et+i+ler.2 *r+ *arih Kurumu% Series: 8$$% No. 1% $stanbul% 1=(.

(hilosophy of edicine and !cience3 (roblems and (erspectives. Com'iled by ;e'artment o"hiloso'hy o Medicine and Science. $nstitute o ,istory o Medicine and Medical Besearch% Ne0 ;elhi

1=>.

Sari% Nil: 2smanli "alace>-E.

Sari% Nil: 2*r+ *i' *arihinde Jeme+ ile *i' Arasinda+i $lis+iye Ait rne+ler 5*he Belation

7et0een Food and Medicine in *ur+ish Medical ,istory62. Bnd nternational ood Congress &urkey ">-?!eptember ?@AA#% Konya Kltr ve *urizm 8a+i% An+ara% 1=)=% ''. =>-/E>.

Sari% Nil% M. 7edizel Pli+ar 5Aydin6: 27eslenme ile Sagli+ Arasinda Kurulan $lis+i ve

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1==>% ''. >.

Sari N% 7. Pli+ar: 2$slam *ibbindan smanli *ibbina Kuslarla *edavi2.G3 illetlerarasi 5emek

1ongresi ">-H )yll l@@B, 1onya# ;ildirileri3Konya Kltr ve *urizm 8a+i% 1==% ''. >&=->(l.

Sari N% M. 7. Aydin: 2smanli *i' Jazmalarinda 7ali+ "isirme ve Meal *arileri. G3 illetlerarasi

5emek 1ongresi "?-> )yll l@@D, +nkara# ;ildirileri% Atatr+ Kltr Mer+ezi 7as+anligi% 1==/% ''. >&E->&.

Sari N% 7. Aydin: 2*i' Jazmalarinda 7ali+la *edavi2. &arih ve edeniyet1==&% No. >>% ''. &(-E.

Sari N: 2smanli ;arssialarina *ayin 9dilece+ 4Urevlilerde Aranan Niteli+ler.2 5eni &ip &arihi

+rastirmalari% No. 1% $stanbul% 1==&% ''. 11-&/.

Sari N% 7. Aydin: 2Kuslarla *edavi2. &arih ve edeniyet% 1==% No. >% ''. /-).

Sari N% B. *ug: 29nderun-i ,mayun Kil@r-i ,assa 7as+ullu+Qusu ;ervis Mehmed/


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nver% A. S.: &arihte E &rk 5emegi3$stanbul niversitesi *i' *arihi 9nstits% No. =. $stanbul%

1=/).

nver% A. S.:atih /1E.

Jalt+aya% M. S.: 2$bni Sina(-

1/>.

Footnotes

1D 1. ,emloc+ Conium maculatum3 B3 %elleborus. A 'oisonous substance called heleborin is e3tracted

rom some s'ecies o this genus.

>D Kohud-b: chic+'eas are boiled in 0ater% drained and coo+ed 0ith chic+en or meat stoc+.

D Although the 0ord gal$means coarse or thic+% in a medical conte3t it reers to oods that are diicult to

digest and high in calories% containing large 'ro'ortions o at% carbohydrates or sugar. *he 0ord l$cet%0hich means viscous% is similarly used. For e3am'le% gal$oods 0ith e3cess l$cetcause 'hlegm.

/D %erse: a dish made 0ith mutton and 0hole 0heat grains coo+ed together until tender and then beaten to

a 'orridge.

&D A 'udding made by coo+ing starch in butter and then adding 0ater and honey or sugar.

D 6emmae capparidis. 7uds o the Capparis spinos'lant used to ma+e 'ic+les. *hey are congestive and

strengthening.

>&
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(D Mustard enhances the a''etite. *able mustard is made o seeds o the blac+ 5;rassica nigra6 and 0hite

5!inapis alba6 mustard 'lants.

)D 3ymel. A drin+ made o honey and vinegar.

=D grams.

1ED Besin o the mastic tree%(istacia lentiscusvar. latifolius.

11D


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>&D Sherbets are s0eetened drin+s made o ruit #uice or lavoured 0ith s'ices or herbs.

>D !arab-i mselles: gra'e #uice or 0ine boiled do0n to a third o the original quantity.

>(D (ortulaca oleracea. 7esides being eaten as a vegetable% 'urslane leaves are ta+en as a diuretic or usedas a 'oultice or the treatment o hemorrhoids.

>)D &irid: a dish o bread soa+ed in mil+ or stoc+.

>=D 1alye: a dish o vegetables or ruit coo+ed 0ith small 'ieces o meat that have been ried.

ED 5ahni: 7oiled meat dishes served 0ith the #uice.

1D )b6.

>D ;erberis vulgaris. ;ried barberries 0ere requently used in coo+ing.

D ;urn: a dish consisting o a vegetable% oten aubergine% coo+ed 0ith ried meat% s'ices% saron and

eggs. $t enhanced the a''etite and 0as said to be a''ro'riate or all tem'eraments.

/D 1oruk: unri'e ruit% es'ecially sour unri'e gra'es.

&D *he ruits o=hus coriaria. *he sour sumac ruits 0ere dried and used as a substitute or lemon #uice.

D "itta bread. *his ty'e o thin leavened bread 0as oten s'read 0ith a illing beore ba+ing in the oven.

*he various illings included cheese% and% as here% marro0.

(D )ksi: the sour #uice o lemon% sumac% 'omegranate etc.

)D Sou' made 0ith yogurt% chic+'eas and coarsely ground 0heat or barley.

=D &utma/: noodle sou' 0ith yogurt. *he noodle 'aste is cut into long stri's and then cut cross0ays into

narro0 'ieces. *hese are then boiled briely in boiling 0ater and coo+ed 0ith onion% butter and minced

meat. Jogurt is added i desired.

/ED +k sorba: sou' made 0ith lour and yogurt% or 0ith buttermil+ and hulled 0hole 0heat grains.

/1D Imac sorbasi: sou' made 0ith small noodles coo+ed in 0ater 0ith butter and tomato 'aste. *he sou'

is served s'rin+led 0ith mint.

/>D %ekim asi: no reci'e has been ound or this dish.

>(
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/D Cvris: an electuary or aiding digestion. *hese 0ere in the orm o a 'aste mi3ed 0ith honey.

//D atbht: a general name or medicines in the orm o tissanes 're'ared by boiling or stee'ing 'lants

in 0ater.

/&D *his translation by Nasid 7aylav 0as later 'ublished by Arslan *erzioglu.

L (rofessor Kil !ari, (h3

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