FOR 500 Research Methods

Today’s Pro Tip: As you write your proposal, put it into the university’s final

thesis template. It will end up there anyway.

Research Is Simply Knowledge Creation

Theory Research Fact

Alternatives to Research

• Overgeneralization

• Selective observation

• Premature closure

• Halo effect

KEY TERMS

Empirical

• Empirical (adj.) – data gathered directly by sensory perception

• By instrumentation extending sensory input

• More generally, data gathered through research

Data

• “Data” is plural.

• “I gathered these data.”

Methodology vs. Methods

Methods

Assumptions

Context Ethics

After Neuman 2006

RESEARCH PARADIGMSPositivist, interpretive, critical, feminist

Positivist Paradigm

• Logical empiricism, postpositivism, naturalism, etc.

• Emphasis on exact measures, dispassionate research, determinism

• Reductionist: convert phenomena to numbers

• Truth is spelled with a capital “T”

The Positivist View of Religion

Religion

The Positivist View of Religion

Religion Sociology

The Positivist View of Religion

Religion Sociology Psychology

The Positivist View of Religion

Religion Sociology Psychology Biology

The Positivist View of Religion

Religion Sociology Psychology Biology Chemistry

The Positivist View of Religion

Religion Sociology Psychology Biology Chemistry Physics

The Positivist View of Religion

Religion Sociology Psychology Biology Chemistry Physics Math!

Interpretive Paradigm

• Study of social phenomena toward empathic understanding

• Relative values– Free will, volition, morality

• Meaningful social action: the phenomenon affects others

IDIOGRAPHIC VS. NOMOTHETIC

Idiographic Research

• Explanation of a case

• Complete

• Detailed

Nomothetic Research

• The Truth Is Out There: logic and reasoning

• Causal law governs all into patterns

• Covering Law Model– Few big abstract laws permit deduction of cases

• Disproof of current factual model

The Scientific MethodResearch questions

Hypotheses

Methods

Trials

Data analyses

Results & discussion

Deductive Reasoning

We form opinions on

groups via media

USA television covers Muslims

negatively

American teens view Muslims

negatively

General theory

Specific theory

Testable application

Inductive Reasoning

Observed applications

Specific theory

General theory

Observe American teen

views of Muslims

Teens in contact with Muslims are

less afraid

Contact Hypothesis

Theory

Hypotheses

Observation

Empirical generalization

Induction

Deduction

Topical Lifecycle

• Exploratory research – What

• Descriptive research – When Where Who

• Explanatory research –Why / How

The Story So Far

• Research paradigms• The Scientific Method• Inductive vs. deductive reasoning• Exploratory, descriptive, and explanatory

research

Where The Story Goes

• Formulation of research question(s)

• Literature search and synthesis

Exploratory Research

• Useful for emergent phenomena

• Less commonly published

• “Pilot” “preliminary” studies

Getting To Research Question Drafts

• First, identify: descriptive vs. explanatory work

ExploreDescribe

Explain

Descriptive Research

• Details understanding of phenomenon

• Much social research

• Early physical sciences research

• Examines correlation

• Examples?

Descriptive vs. Explanatory

Descriptive• Central tendency values• Range• Variables’ distributions• Crosstabulation

Explanatory• Y = f(x,z)

• Necessary cause• Sufficient cause• Contributory cause

• Dose-response

• Divines process/mechanism

Sandbox 1

• Campus awareness of sustainability issues

• Descriptive statistics?• Summary statistics?• Statistical causality tests?

• Qualitative or quantitative

Explanatory Research

• Tests mechanisms described in phenomenon

• Examines causality

• Novel / test competing / extend existing causality

• Examples?

Sandbox 2

• Effects of balsam fir on understory & soil

• The descriptive phase would deliver what?– Composition changes?– Altered understory vigor?– Altered wildlife utilization?– Altered soil chemistry/structure?

• The Explanatory phase would deliver what?

Testing for Causality

• Temporal order

• Association– Exceptional cases– Necessary vs. sufficient

• Disproof of alternatives/fail to disprove cause– Confounding factors– Spurious factors

Causality Examples

• Males perform better on standardized math and engineering tests than do females

• The rare Saluki Leopard’s home range is upland pine

• For undergraduates, more studying results in better grades

• The Colorado Rockies score more runs at home

• Sugar maples are sap-productive in Februaries

Time in Research

• Cross sectional

• Longitudinal– Time series / “trend” study– Panel– Cohort

Cross Sectional Studies

• Simple, cost-effective

• Usually descriptive

Time Series (Longitudinal)

• Repeatedly measures the group of interest

• Not necessarily the same individuals

• Trends through time

• U.S. Census

• Animal populations

Panel Study (Longitudinal)

• Tracks same individuals with repeated measures

• Long-term health studies

• Forestry and plant research

Cohort Studies (Longitudinal)

• Tracks members of specified group, not individuals

• Birth cohorts

• Graduation cohorts

Examples

Studies• ACAD hiker study

• OZAR river user study

• OZAR river user studIES

Study Types• Cross sectional

• Longitudinal– Time series– Panel– Cohort

Large n vs. Small n Studies

Large n• Cross-section

• Time series

• Panel

• Cohort

Small n• Case study

– Intensive scrutiny of small set– Meso timescale