foreign policy- -·the individual 2003

8/4/2019 Foreign Policy--The Individual 2003

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Foreign PolicyThe Individual Level

There are differencesbetween humanbeings rather than

similarities.

Not all humans havethe same nature.

Some humans areclearly more capablethan others.

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The Individual Level

The mind of a policy-

maker is not a tabula

rasait contains complex

and intricately related

information and thought

patterns, such as beliefs,

attitudes, values,

experience, emotions,

operational style, memoryand national self-

conceptions.


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The Individual Level

Differences in thepsychological make-up ofindividuals are importantto the understanding of

foreign policy.

Franklin Roosevelt,Winston Churchill,Ronald Reagan, Mikhael

Gorbachev, George BushSr., Josef Stalin, SaddamHussein, and GeorgeBush Jr., etc.


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Do Individuals matter? The individual

characteristics of thedecision-makersskills,personalities, beliefs,psychological

predisposition, values,talents, and priorexperiencesmatter inFP.

The premise that anindividual decision-makers attributes aresource of FP rests on thebelief that decision-makers possess unique

personal qualities that areconstant and stable.


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When do Individuals Matter?

-when the formal andconstitutional proceduresrequire so.

-when a leader ispermitted great latitudeand discretion to makedecision.


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The Individual

-when a leader has ahigh degree of interestin the issue and

decision.

-when only oneinstitution isresponsible for thedecision.


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When do individuals

-when the decision is notroutine orunanticipatedcrisis.

-when the information islacking or overwhelming.

-when the top decision-

maker has littleexperience.

-during stressfulsituations.


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Rational Actor Model

Decisions made by individual

leaders are seen as the decisions

of the state.

This is because leaders act in

the way consistent with the

long-terms and persistent

national interests of the state.

This is because culture andsocialization produce

regularities among the

individuals who rise to national

office eliminating individual

differences.


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Rational Actor Model

Decision-makers examine

the internal and external

environments.

Define the situation on

hand and consider

alternative course of

actions.

Select the course of action

best suited to the national

interests.


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Psychological Needs Theory

Psychological NeedsMaslows hierarchy of needs:1) physical; 2) safety needs; 3)affection and belongnessneeds;4) Esteem needs; 5) self-actualizationimplicationspeople with high self-esteemare more trusting and moreopposed to the use of force,while people with low-esteemare more likely to use force.Deprivation lead to power-oriented people who tend todominate others, to beargumentative, to be paranoid,to have very littlehumanitarian concern, and to

be hesitant to take risk.Kissingers analysis of Sovietleadership in the 60s andmainstream American analysisof revolutionary regimes


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Personality Traits

Personality Traitssomepersonality types havespecial relevance for thetopic of foreign policy:

dogmatic personality;authoritarian personality;extroverted versusintrovert personalities;risk acceptant versus risk

averse; and narcissisticpersonalities.


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James David Barbers Presidential

Style

Refers to the fourfoldcategorization for leadersusing the axelsActive-Passive/Negative-Positive.

The first axel taps into theleaders energy level andsense of satisfaction in his

job (Image of their jobdescription); the second

axel looks into hisdifficulty in effectingchange and lower level of

job satisfaction (level ofcommitment to their jobs).


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Presidential Characters: Active

Versus Passive Active Presidents are

movers and shakers,energetically engagedin the challenge ofleading, eagerlyattentive to the

responsibilities of theoffice, and willing toaccept risk;

Passive Presidentsrefer to steer an even

and face course,maintaining currentarrangements andavoiding conflicts thatinvariably accompanychanges.


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Presidential Characters:

Positive-Negative Positive presidents-

enjoy their jobs, thedemands that go withthem and the perks thatgo along with the

positions.

Negative presidentsdonot enjoy their positionsand look at withdisfavor on the burdenof responsibility. Theydutifully accept but donot enjoy the demandsthat go along with theposition.


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Presidential Types

Styles Active Passive

Positivewant to achieveresults and effectchanges.

want to remain inpower.

Negative want to beaccepted and areafter affection.

tend to bedemocratic andtend toemphasize civilvalues and

responsibilities.


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Presidential Types

Style Active Passive

Positive Not driven by twisted

and dark motives.Are willing to workand effectimprovements orchanges in thesystem.

Compelled to power

by deep-seatedfeelings ofinadequacy and fearof humiliation andostracism. They wantto be feared than

loved. They canbreak rules in orderto maintain power

Negative They take the mantleof power out ofobligation or duty,not of the desire forpower and control.

They focus on theissues of acceptanceand affiliation. Proneto graft andcorruption.


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ClassificationsStyles Positive Negative

Active FranklinRoosevelt,

John F. Kennedy;

George Bush;

Bill Clinton

Woodrow Wilson;

Lyndon Johnson;

Richard Nixon

Positive William Taft;Ronald Reagan

DwightEisenhower and

Calvin Colledge


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Cognition, Belief System, and

Misperception

Refers to the mental filtersthat help decision-makersdecide when sensoryinputs are worthy of more

detailed processing. Thesefilters might includestereotypes, biases, andheuristic--are all mentalshort-cuts that help the

mind decide which sensoryinputs should be focusedupon given the situation.


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Pyschohistory

Psychological problemsusually affect high governmentofficials and political leaderscases of Joseph Stalin,Woodrow Wilson, and RichardNixon.

Leaders, generally, haveneurotic personality. Thisrefers to people who possessedan idealized images ofthemselves as heroic figures.

They are supposed to intenseego defense mechanism. Theneed to protect ones self-esteem and defend againstanxiety caused by frustration.


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Stress

Ancient biological mechanismdeveloped to prepare humanbeings for stressful encountersmay actually distract humansfrom dealing with stressfulsituations.

Stress has some debilitatingeffects on the ability ofindividuals to react rationallyto their environment. Theymay also cause physical illnessand mental disorder todecision-makers. (Cases theBritish leadership during theSuez Canal Crisis and thecaptain of the Vincennes in

July 1988)


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What about misperception?

Human belief system or worldview affect how leaders makesense of the world and respondto world events: Sprout andSprout the psychological

milieu and the operationalmilieu; Alexander Georgesoperational code (philosophicaland instrumental code forunderstanding a leaders viewtoward politics) cognitive

consistency and cognitivedissonance; inherent bad faithmodel of politics; and evokesets and images of the lessonsof history.


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Misperception

Alexander Georges

Operational Codes for

Decision-makers

particular set ofbeliefs about

international affairs.

It affects the decision-

makers perceptionand responses to

international events.


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Motivational Factors for

MisperceptionAll human beings have thestrong needs to constructand maintain a highlyideological image ofourselves and our

environment.

Decision-makers strive forcognitive consistency andwill cling to their old imagesif there is limitedinformation or the situationis extremely complex.


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Misperception

In face of rapidlychanging environment,DM will: ignore or rejectnew information;

discredit the source ofnew information; twist ordistort the information;search for otherinformation that will

conform to the old image;or simply treat the newinformation as theexception which provesthe rule.


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National Self-Image or Conception?

Political leaders have some viewof their own states and theirplace in the world: These viewsinclude: 1)the other side hasmore hostile intention; 2)inaccurate perception of the

relative balance of powerbetween one-self and oneopposed; 3) perception that waris inevitable; 4) perception thatwar is relatively inexpensiveand short; misperceptions ofintentions of third states;misperception of oneself and theopponents image of oneself.


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Tit for Tat and Evoke Images

Perceptions or misperception

may intervene in the stimulus-

response process that can

either accelerate or decelerate

a crisis.

Certain events can affect how

we will interpret information

from environment by creating

predispositions to notice

certain things and ignore

others.


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Limits of the First Level Analysis

Any of these variables couldplay an important role in theFPP.

Decision-making is not always

an individual process, often itis a collective political process.

This ignores the dynamicfunction of the role sourcethe impact of the office andstatus on the behavior of its

occupant. Socially prescribedbehaviors and legallysanctioned norms attached tothe position also affectdecision-makers.

foreign policy- -·the individual 2003

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