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FORENSIC AND POLICE PSYCHOLOGY
To begin with...
Introduction of the course Syllabus Credits Requirements
„Forensic“ in other fields
Psychology and psychiatry which individuals become criminal and why
Sociology which segments of the population are criminal
Criminology empirical knowledge concerning crime, offenders
personality.
analysis of the circumstances, which relate to the beginning, development and control of the crime.
Distinction
units of analysis Crime rates (sociology) – examination
of comparative rates and distribution of offences in relation to social structures
Individual criminal (psychology) – relate criminal behaviour to the personal attributes, histories, and immediate situations of offenders
Terminology
Forensic psychology latin word forum - market place on
which public life took place including the law dealings.
encompasses all applications of psychology in the region of law.
What is forensic psychology?
– A closer definition …that branch of applied psychology
which is concerned with the collection, examination and presentation of evidence for judicial purposes.
Gudjonsson and Haward (1998, p.1)
…the provision of psychological information for the purpose of facilitating a legal decision.
Blackburn (1996, p. 7)
Forensic psychology
Many definitions Usually describe only practitioners „within
the legal system“ and not researchers Study of criminal behaviour Legal framework Application of psychology to criminal
investigation, legal, custodial and treatement processes
Relevant to offenders, victims, witnesses, investigators
Practical aspects in assessment, investigation, decision making, criteria
Terminology
Criminal (istic) psychology investigation of criminal cases
Criminal (ogical) psychology theories of criminal behaviour
Criminal psychology Psychological aspects of crime,
offender psychology and motivation of behaviour
Terminology
Law psychology psychological aspects of law
negotiations Police Psychology
behaviour of people in situations that concern law abiding, public order and safety
Terminology
Investigative psychology encompasses all aspects of psychology,
which are relevant to criminal investigations.
concentrates upon the way of how the criminal acts researched, how they are researched, and how they are understood for the investigation to be effective.
TerminologyDo not confuse with…
Criminalistics science about the mechanisms of the
crime using specialised methods and tools for investigation.
DNA Fingerprints Bullet trajectories
Forensic Psychology
Researcher x practitioner
Research practitioner
Forensic psychology includes
Police Ψ recruitment,
stress Investigative Ψ
profiling Clinical Ψ
assessment Prison Ψ
treatment, parole
Biological Ψ inheritance of criminality
Developmental Ψ aggression, delinquency
Cognitive Ψ testimony, interviewing
Social Ψ media influences
AcademicApplied
What are roles of forensic psychologist?
Trial Consultants Expert witnesses Evaluators Prison psychologists Probation Police Profiler Health service Victims Researchers
The Beginnings
History in general
Crucial aspects 14th century – acceptance of insanity 16th century – acceptance of
witnesses 18th century – development of
criminology
Malleus Maleficarum (The Hammer of Witches)
combined local popular beliefs on witches with theological underpining and legal procedures
1486 – Heinrich Krames, Jacob Sprenger to systematically refute all arguments against the reality of
witchcraft, refute those who expressed even the slightest scepticism
about its reality, to prove that witches were more often women than men, to educate magistrates on the procedures that could find
them out and convict them. Section 1
refutes critics who denied the reality of witchcraft, thereby hindering its prosecution
Section 2 describes the actual forms of witchcraft and its
remedies Section 3
to assist judges confronting and combating witchcraft
Classical Criminology
Individuals have a “Free Will” choose to commit crimes after weighing
the consequences of their actions. Can be deterred from committing crime
by fear of punishment A reaction against system of law,
punishment, and justice that existed before the French Revolution of 1789
Cesare Beccaria
In 1763 Beccaria was assigned to prepare a report on the prison system.
He published his paper called “On Crimes and Punishment” in 1764.
He stated that the crime problem could not be traced to bad people but to bad laws.
Punishment is based on harm Must be due process Aim is at prevention
Cesare Beccaria’s Principles
All people should be treated equal before the law Only legislators should create laws Judges should impose punishment according to the law Judges should not interpret the laws Punishment should be based on the pleasure/pain principle Punishment should be based on the act, not the actor The punishment should be determined by the crime Punishment should be prompt and effective Capital punishment should be abolished The use of torture to gain confessions should be abolished It is better to prevent crimes than to punish for them
The historical context
The 19th century forces of positivism and evolution moved the field of criminology from a philosophical to a scientific perspective.
Rise of biological determinism Variety of physical characteristics and
disfigurements have been said to characterize individuals of “evil” disposition.
The Italian School - Lombroso
Published in 1875 “On Criminal Man” Replaced the concept of “free will” Theory of “Born Criminals”
Criminals are distinguishable from non-criminals by physical features similar to creatures at an earlier stage of development
Criminals frequently have huge jaw bones, strong canine teeth, long arms.
They lack intelect, maturity, self-control
The Italian School - Enrico Ferri
Attacked the idea of free will Argued that criminals could not be held
morally responsible They did not choose to commit crimes
but rather were driven to commit crimes by the conditions in their lives.
Strict adherence to preventative measures
William Sheldon’s Somatotype School
He formulated the groups into the following:
• Endomorph – Heavy builds, move slowly, more likely to fence stolen property than violent crime.
• Mesomorph – Athletic builds, more likely to be violent criminals.
• Ectomorph – Tall, thin, and less social, more intellectual.
Mesomorphs more likely to commit crime.
Mesomorph
Body Type:– hard, muscular body
– overly mature appearance
– rectangular shaped
– thick skin
– upright posture
Personality traits: – adventurous, competitive
– desire for power and dominance
– courageous
– indifference to what others think or want
– assertive, bold
– zest for physical activity
– love of risk and chance
Gabriel Tarde
Criminals were normal people who learned crime just as others learned legitimate trades.
Formed his theory according to Laws of Imitation. Individuals imitate others more if they
have a lot of contact with each other. Inferiors imitate superiors
Research studies on origins of crime
Genetics & Criminality
The XYY Syndrome Chromosomes The “supermale” Studies conducted among inmates
found that XYY inmates tended to be more aggressive.
However studies undertaken since that time have discounted the relation between the extra Y and criminality.
Twin Studies
Identical and fraternal twins. A study to determine if genetics
plays a role in criminality. In twins about 50% chance if one
twin is a criminal the other will be too! (Identical Twins)
20% for same sex fraternal twins.
Adoption Studies
If a child is adopted will the child exhibit a criminal trait if the genetic parents are criminal? If so at what percent?
What about if the adoptive parents are criminal (environment) will they tend to be criminal as well and if so at what percent?
The Answers
If adoptive and biological parents neither had a criminal record then 13.5% of children convicted of crime.
If criminal adoptive parents and noncriminal genetic parents then, 14.7% of children convicted of crime.
Noncriminal adoptive and criminal biological parents then, 20% convicted of crime.
Both adoptive and biological parents criminals then 24.5% were convicted of crimes!
No one yet has found any direct link between genes and violence.
Theories of Crime
Crime stems from environment
Anomie Strain theory Social disorganization
Anomie: Emile Durkheim
The explanation of human conduct lies within the group and the social organization.
Set of rules changes, groups become fragmented, actions and expectations of one group clash with those of another group.
Emile Durkheim
Universally known as the father of sociology.
Crime is a normal part of society such as birth and death.
If all members of society had the same values crime would disappear.
Strain Theory
Society holds out the same goals to all its members without giving them equal means to achieve them.
Social structure is the root cause of crime People are law-abiding but when under great
pressure will resort to crime. Crime is also related to anger and frustration
that result when an individual is treated in a way that he or she doesn’t want to be treated in a social relationship.
Social Disorganization Theory
In high crime areas there is a disintegration of conventional values caused by rapid industrialization, increasing immigration, and urbanization.
Crime stems from culture
Cultural deviance theory Cultural transition Cultural conflict theory Subculture
Cultural Deviance Theories
Attribute crime to a set of values that exist in disadvantaged neighborhoods.
Society is made up of various groups and subgroups, each with its own standards of right and wrong. Behavior considered normal in one group may be considered deviant in another group
Cultural transition
The position of the group is defined in terms of economic status and cultural values.
Delinquency is socially learned behavior, transmitted from one generation to the other in disorganized urban areas.
Areas of high crime rates also had high community problems.
In the high delinquency areas there was a general acceptance of non-conventional norms.
Cultural Conflict Theory
Different groups learn different conduct norms and that the conduct norms of some groups may clash with conventional middle-class rules.
Theory of subculture
Subculture – a subdivision within the dominate culture that has its own norms, beliefs, and values.
Delinquent subcultures, like all subcultures, emerge in response to special problems that members of the dominant culture do not face.
The subculture of violence thesis argues that the value systems of some subcultures demand the use of violence in certain social situations.
Crime stems from social contacts
Differential association theory Opportunity Labelling
Differential Association Theory
Process by which criminal traditions are transmitted
Social influences that people encounter determine their behavior.
Therefore whether a person becomes a law abiding citizen or criminal depends on their contacts with criminal values, attitudes, definitions, and behavior patterns.
Crime is learned through social interaction with people who are favourable to crime
Opportunity
Delinquents remain goal oriented. The kind of delinquent behavior they
engage in depends on the illegitimate opportunities available to them.
In other words as opportunities appear the individual may take it.
Labeling Theory
Individuals become criminals because of what people with power do.
Individuals have criminal status conferred upon them by both the criminal justice system and the community
criminal acts themselves are not particularly significant; but the social reaction to them is
reactions of other people and the subsequent effects of those reactions create deviance
Aggression
Social psychology is concerned with the many facets of people’s social lives, their thoughts, feelings, and behaviours towards other people and the impact of those others on the way they themselves feel, think and act.
Aggression
Tedeschi & Felson (1994) The behaviour must be carried out with intention
to inflict negative consequences on the target, which in turn presumes the expectancy that the action will produce a particular outcome.
Willingness on behalf of the target person to avoid the harmful treatment
Exludes behaviours which result in unintended harm or injury
Includes behaviours which do not lead to intended consequences
Includes non-action, such as failure to help Excludes self-directed aggression
Aspects of typology of aggressive behaviour
Response modality Verbal vs. physical
Response quality Action vs. failure to act
Immediacy Direct vs. indirect
Visibility Overt vs. covert
Instigation Unprovoked vs. retaliative
Goal direction Hostile vs. instrumental
Type of damage Physical vs. psychological
Duration of consequences Transient vs. long-term
Social units involved Individuals vs. group
Norm violation
Behaviour should only be considered aggressive if it involves the violation of a social norm
Problem – normative evaluation of a behaviour frequently differs depending on the perspectives of the parties involved
Persuasion
Communication to influence another’s cognition or overt behavior in which the recipient has some level of free choice
Social influence in which the recipient experiences no choice.
Coercion
Coercion
Action taken with the intention of imposing harm on another person or forcing compliance
Threats, punishments, bodily force Coercion includes the use of contingent threats to gain
another person’s compliance, which cannot easily be reconciled with the minimal definition of aggression.
Coercive actions are interpreted as a form of social influence, which highlights the social nature of this type of behaviour and brings it conceptually closer to processes of communication and interaction not previously examined in the context of aggression
Coercion is recommended as less value laden than aggression because it avoids the issue of legitimacy.
Violence
Subtype of aggression referring to extreme forms of physical aggression
The infliction of intense force upon persons or property for the purpose of destruction, punishment and control
6 functions of violent behaviour Change of, or escape from, aversive situation Positive reinforcement Release of negative affective arousal Resolution of conflict Gaining of respect Attack on culturally defined enemy
Aggressivity Permanent disposition or a personality trait Influenced by biological and social factors Person can stand by his opinions and put forth own rights
Violence Tendency to harm Use of force
Assault Causing bodily injury
Hostility Attitude characterized by negative feelings toward others
2
Theories of aggressive behaviour
Why people engage in such behaviour
Psychological theories are best regarded as complementary, stressing different aspects involved in aggression as a complex form of social behaviour
Biological explanations
Basic assumption that roots of aggressive behaviour lie in the biological nature of humans rather than their psychological functioning.
Biological explanations - Ethological view: aggression as an internal
energy Organism continuously builds up
aggressive energy Whether or not this energy will lead to
aggression depends on: The amount of energy accumulated inside the
organism at any one time Strength of external stimuli capable of
triggering an aggressive response There to factors are inversely related
The lower the energy level, the stronger the stimulus required to elicit aggressive response
Biological explanations – Sociobiological view: aggression as a
product of evolution Sociobiology is concerned with applying
the logic of evolutionary theory to the explanation of social behaviour.
Aggression is a form of behaviour that has evolved in animals as well as humans because of its potential to enhance an individual’s reproductive success, thereby facilitating the selective transmission of his or her genes to future generations.
Psychological explanations – Freudian psychoanalysis: aggression
as a destructive instinct
Individual behaviour is driven by two basic forces – life instinct (eros, pleasure seeking, wish fulfillment) and death instinct (thanatos, self-destruction).
The instincts are source of sustained intrapsychic conflict, which can be resolved only by diverting the destructive force away from the person to others.
Psychological explanations – frustration-aggression hypothesis: aggression as a goal directed drive
Aggression is a drive motivating aggressive behaviour.
Drive is activated only if the organism finds itself deprived of means to satisfy a vital need.
Drive is aimed to end the state of frustration. Frustration produces instigation to a number
of different types of response, one of which is an instigation of some form of aggression.
Psychological explanations – Cognitive neoassociationism: role of
negative affect
Negative affect in the form of anger is important mediator between frustration and aggression.
Frustrations lead to aggression only to the extent that they arouse negative affective states. Frustrations can be seen as just one of different aversive events that elicit negative affect. Other events are fear, pain, discomfort.
Psychological explanations – excitation transfer theory: anger and
the attribution of arousal Whether or not an individual will react with
aggressive response to aversive stimulation depends on how the stimulation is interpreted by the recipient.
The intensity of an anger experience is a function of two components Strength of the physiological arousal generated by an
aversive event the way in which arousal is explained and labeled.
If emotional arousal is unspecific and its origins not readily apparent to the individual, he or she tries to make sense of the arousal by drawing on informational cues present in the current situation.
Psychological explanations – social cognitive approach: aggressive scripts and social information
processing The way in which people think about an
aversive event and about the emotional reaction they experience as a consequence is critical in determining the manifestation and strength of an aggressive response. The development of cognitive schematas that
guide the performance of aggressive behaviour Characteristic ways of processing social
information that distinguish between aggressive and non-aggressive individuals.
Psychological explanations – learning theory: role of
reinforcement and imitation
Acquisition of aggressive scripts Instrumental conditioning
Learning through reinforcement and punishment
Modelling Learning through observation of models
Perception of consequences Bobo doll
A. Bandura
Learning process Reinforcement provide information about
effects of behaviour This is required through observation upon
which people develop expectations about the likely outcome of behaviour
Outcomes include consequences Then behaviour is adjusted to meet
personal and social standards through self-regulation of self-reward and punishment
A. Bandura Aggression is learned socially Agression is under the control of outer rewards or punishments Aggression can be learned through inner self-reward or self-
punishment Learning aggression is also under cognitive control of our
expectations of the effects of behaviors.
http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=IK4NPc7HCnY
http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=pDtBz_1dkuk&feature=related
Psychological explanations – social interactionist model: aggression as
coercive social influence Coercive strategies are used by the actor to inflict
harm on the target or to make the target comply with the actor’s demands in the service of three major goals To control behaviour of others To restore justice To assert and protect positive identities
Coercive actions are outcomes of decision making process
Three forms of coercive actions Threat Punishment Bodily force
Types of aggression
Basic Typology Fesbach (1964)
Expressive aggression Response to anger-inducing conditions such as insults,
physical attack or personal failures.
The goal is to make the victim (the person) suffer
Instrumental aggression Answer to a desire for something owned by somebody else –
money, territory
To obtain the desired object regardless of the cost.
No intent to harm anyone, although if someone interferes with the thief's objective, he may feel forced to harm that person or risk losing the desired goal
Toch (1969) Violence is based on a learned strategies that have
proved to be effective
The typology views aggression as function self preserving - use of violence to preserve an individual’s
reputation or self-concept
needs-promoting - egocentric people who see themselves and their own needs as being the only fact of social relevance. Other people are viewed as objects rather than as persons
Types of aggression
Different types of aggression cannot be explained according to the same paradigm Bullying Torture Murder Terrorist act Violent acts of police Mass killing
Family violence Abuse of power within the family Conditions
No interuptions No defense of the victim Is not seen
Active violence Physical, mental and sexual abuse Reinforced by anger toward victim
Passive violence neglect
Aggression and emotion
Cumulation of negative events Impulsive Expressive Hostile Not planned
Aggression and cognition
Cognitive scripts Intellect Motive Learned through observation Decision strategy
Moral Development
We know that it is wrong to steal. But are there situations where it would
not be wrong? Or is it always wrong to steal?
Lawrence Kohlberg pioneered Moral Developmental Theory: Morals develop in three periods from youth to
elder Criminals operate under the youth
development.
Jean Piaget
Founder of the mental and moral development theory. children go through a series of developmental stages
through which they eventually become less and less egocentric.
At each stage, a child achieves a greater sensitivity to the perspectives of others.
Responsible actions (those meeting a person’s needs without impeding the needs of others) will consequently increase along with cognitive development.
Implied in this theory is that the higher degree of cognitive development there is, the less the likelihood of criminality.
Lawrence Kohlberg
Theorized that not everyone goes through all the stages of moral development or progresses at the same rate.
Incomplete moral development was a major reason for criminal and deviant behaviour.
Control theory
Hirschi Restraining factors in individual Conformity depends on bond between
individual and society Attachment to others Commitment to goals Involvement in pursuits Belief in values
Crime is natural consequence of unrestrained human tendencies to seek pleasure and avoid pain
Aggression and Personality
Research supports consistency of aggression
Individual differences Cognition, emotions, inhibition of aggression
Aggression and personality
Factors Attention disorder Impulsivity Mother abusing drugs or alcohol Bad prenatal sustenance Low postnatal stimulation
Hostile interpretation of events Choose or create environment in
accordance to antisocial behaviour
Group aggression
Group aggressiondevelopment and
behaviour Competition between groups
Pervasive and enduring phenomenon Used to explain
origins of class struggle Rebellions Warfare Cultural and social structures
Competition is over resources Power, prestige, territory, status, wealth
Realistic conflict theory
Seeks to explain the nature and consequences of such competition
One’s group gain is perceived as another group’s loss
Aspects influences are Perception of group’s threat Prejudice Stereotyping Heightened group solidarity and identity
Muzafer Sherif study
Summer camp studies 24 white, middle-class 11-12 year old
boys 3 weeks 3 stages
Group formation (1 week, activities separately)
Intergroup conflict (2 week, tournament) Conflict reduction (3 week, cooperation)
Social identity theory
Simply being divided into groups, without interaction can create in-group bias
Tajfel (1970) – Minimal group studies Two groups, no interaction even with
members of own group The mere perception that one belonged to a
particular group appeared to be sufficient to elicit discrimination in favour of own group
In-group favoritism Out-group discrimination
Explanations
Existence of discriminatory norms, which are taught – us x them
Experimenter bias – subjects believed it was expected of them to be biased
Perceived similarity Discriminatory behaviour is a result of
perception Categorization
Social categorisation, social identity, social comparison
Social dominance theory
Inter-group relations derive in large measure from perceived social hierarchies By age By gender Abitrary systems – ethnicity, race, class, caste,
religion, region, nation Arbitrary-set social hierarchies are
pervasive, enduring, resistant to change and major cause of intergroup aggression
Low-level aggression
Ostracism – being avoided, rejected, excluded Physical Social
Gossip – rumour, report of intimate and personal nature Malicious, demeaning, degrading
Uncertainty Outcome-relevant involvement Personal anxiety Credulity
Low-level aggression
Hazing – initiation customs Teasing
Aggression Humour Ambiguity about its seriousness
Cursing
Low-level aggression
Bullying Harm-intending behaviour of verbal and/or
physical character that is typically unprovokes and repeated.
Intended behaviour Frequetly causes distress to the victim
Direct – face-to-face confrontation, open physical attack, threats, intimidation
Indirect – social exclusion, isolation, scapegoating, spreading of rumours
Bullying as group phenomenon
A
B
C
D
E
F
G
Y
•A – The bully – Start the bullying
•B – Followers – Take active part, but do not start
•C – Supporters – Support but do not také active part
•D – Passive supporters, possible bully – like it but do not display open support
•E – Onlookers – feels its not their problem
•F – Possible defenders – Dislike it, think they should help but do not
•G – Defenders – Help or try to help
•Y – The victim
Frequency – difficult to estimate Boys bully more frequently then girls Most bullying happens in middle school Directed toward special needs children
Causes Signs of distress from possible victims Counteraggression Helplessness Nonchalance
Intervention
Enhance individuation Intimate contact Multiple contact Institutional support Cooperation Empathy Moral education
Aggression Levels
Levels of aggression can be influenced by situational factors and individual differences.
Individual Differences:Biological factorsCultural normsFamily background
Situational Factors:FrustrationDiscomfortAggressive cues
Psychodiagnosis of aggression
Questionnaires Buss-Durkee Inventory
75 questions 5 subgroups of aggression
FAF Freiburger Aggression Fragebogen 11 subtypes of aggresion
Projective techniques TAT – Thematic Apperception Test, Murray PFT – Picture Frustration Test, Rosenzweig Draw a human figure test Rorschach
Aggression indicators
Irritability and tendency to emotional reactions Heightened emotional reaction to events
that are perceived as frustrating Hostile thinking
Either goes away quickly or remains for a long time
Whether the person overcomes thoughts for revenge and aggression quickly or not
Aggression indicators
Tolerance toward violence Positive attitude toward violence
Feelings of guilt and fear of punishment Guilt from aggression can be manifested
by fear of punishment and empathy Fear is passive reaction Empathy is more active, when the person
tries to make up for the behavior
Different types of aggression cannot be explained according to the same paradigm Bullying Torture Murder Terrorist act Violent acts of police Mass killing
Questions and back
Crime Analysis and Investigation
Change in Police
Pressure on police to demonstrate effectiveness and efficiency
Performance indicators Monitoring
Lead to prioritization of activities Set targets against which is police
measured Analysis of what they are doing How they are doing it
Change in Police
Consideration of usage of resources
Data collection Analysis of the situation
Crime pattern analysis
Crime pattern analysis
Serves to establish links between crimes
Helps to predict when and where future offences might occur
Helps to target resources effectively Helps to recognise most victimised
areas
PROFILING
What do you think is a profiler?
Getting inside the mind of the offender
Intuition Visions TV shows - Profiler Silence of the Lambs
What is it then?
“strategy that helps the police to narrow down the field of possibilities and define the scientific conjectures about the offender”
(Douglas et al. 1992)
“Profiling is neither a readily identifiable nor a homogenous entity”
(Gudjonsson & Copson, 1997)
Myths
Can identify exact person whom the police should arrest
Profile generates hypotheses about offenders most likely demographic and physical characteristics, behavioural habits and personality
“ The answers that are offered are not solutions. Profile does not solve the crime”
“It is a tool that can be useful in guiding strategy development, supporting information management, and improving case understanding.”(Jackson & Bekerian, 1997).
The belief that characteristics of an offender can be deduced by a careful examination of the characteristics of the offence.
Used when police have few clues to help in solving the case and are unsure about the type of offender.
New field in investigation Based upon experiences of clinicians and
investigators not a scientific method If more often used more
studied more questions asked validity
and reliability
When used?
Serial crime Crimes that call for swift action Difficult to solve by traditional
methods “contact crime” - aspects of offenders
personality and motivations are most likely to be revealed through the way the crime has been carried out.
Goals of profiling
Social and psychological assessment of the offender
Psychological evaluation of possessions found with suspected offenders
Consultation with law enforcement officials on the strategies which might be best employed when interviewing suspects
The beginning of profiling
FBI – Behavioral Science Unit – To describe the processes using the
inferences about the ofender and suspects and their characteristics based upon the behaviour at the crime scene.
Hazelwood, Ressler, Douglas – their approach is deductive - based
upon general knowledge
The beginning of profiling
Organized offender planning, control over the crime,
little evidence, unknown victim
intelligent, socially and sexually able, antisocial and psychopathic, evil, depressed
The beginning of profiling
Disorganised offender little planning, evidence of confused
behaviour at the crime scene, little signs of masking the evidence
loner, lives closer to the crime, sexually unable, lower intelligence, abused as a child
Problem
Subjects 36 american arrested serial
killers
no representative sample validity and reliability low
Profiling as a science
Scientific method based upon the definition of the main
problem based upon theories clarifying certain
position which is then empirically tested
Profiling ignores these rules. It is based upon quick answers based
solely upon experience than research.
When do we use profile
Crime in a series - murders, rapists, arsonists, burglars
crime so evil that calls for immediate search and arrest - media
crime on an unknown person is harder to solve
crime done upon other person contains most traces of the personality of the offender
Why to use a profiler?
To consider the advantages of outside expert in a very specialised area
Not appropriate to make a profile based upon not exact information
Once the information is gathered maybe there is no need of an expert to interpret it
Investigation team has to know the limitations of the specialist
Why is profiling NOT possible?
nomothetic – general predictions behaviour is determined -
predictable non-situational – same in different
environment difference between intution and
empirical study
Advantage of profiles
Distinguishable identifiers Knowing motives
target, explanation, charakter problem with motiveless crimes
Investigation is a decision making process
Limitations Information we have is a description
of what happened, when and where and who is the victim,
Psychologist reconstructs information about the possible sequence of events and the characteristics of a person who took part in those events
Profile is made of subjective opinions Closer analysis of profiles uncovers
the absence of any systematice procedures and theoretical models of behaviour