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The Twenty-fourth IHP Training Course
Forest HydrologyConservation of Forest, Soil, and WaterConservation of Forest, Soil, and Water
Resources23 Nov.~7 Dec., 2014 @ Nagoya, Japan
Forest DynamicsForest Dynamics~basis and modelling~
26 Dec 09:30-12:00, Lecture26 Dec 14:00-16:30, Exercise
Hisashi SATOLecturer
Hisashi SATO(Japan Agency for Marine-Earth Sciences and Technology)
MIROC-ESM: Japan’s ESMBlock Diagram
Grid ResolutionsAGCM: T42(128×64), 80 levsOGCM: Cartesian(256×192)
Block Diagram
OGCM: Cartesian(256×192), 44 levs
Developing team:Universities (Tokyo, Hokkaido, Nagoya, Kyushu), JAMSTEC, NIES
i l tf f O tiFrom Watanabe et al. (2011)
Main Platform for Operation:Earth Simulator (JAMSTEC)
Interactions betweenInteractions between Vegetation and Atmosphereg p
[Example] Climatic effects of Tropical deforestation
Foley et al. (2003)
How vegetation affects interactionsbetween terrestrial surface and atmosphere
Carbon Soil SurfaceTemp.
Soil Surface
Carbon Transpiration/ ShortwaveSensible
Carbon Soil SurfaceTemp.
Carboncycle
Transpiration/Latent heat Precipitation Shortwave
reflectionSensible
heat
[Example] Vegetation impact on surface temperature
Geographical distribution of surface temperature observed at Sendai city during daytime on a mid-summer day
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Timescales of land-ecosystem processes
PHYSIOLOGICAL ECOLOGICAL
Photosynthesis
Stomatal Opening
Demography(Changes in growth, mortality, & recruitment rates)
Biome Shift(Changes in Stomatal Opening recruitment rates)
Succession(Changes in canopy structure
Leafx
( gdistribution of biome)
(Changes in canopy structure & composition)Phenology
Hours Months Years Decades CenturiesWeather Inter-annual Anthropogenic
Incorporating ecological Processes is critical to forecast the
Prediction Variabilityp g
Climate Change
Incorporating ecological Processes is critical to forecast the responses of land‐ecosystems to anthropogenic climate change
Original Figure: Prof. Moorcroft, P.R.
The Development of Climate models
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Basis for plant population Basis for plant population dynamicsdynamics
Topics: • One-sided competition for light• Self-thinning rule & Three-halves lawSelf thinning rule & Three halves law• Succession• Gap dynamics• Gap-dynamics• Wild fire as a major disturbance scheme
One sided competition for lightOne-sided competition for light
A Light attenuationTree ATree A
A Light attenuation formulation based on the Lambert‐Beer law
Tree BTree B
Tree CTree CI = e(k×LAI)
Relative Sun‐Light Intensity
Leaf Area Index above the mentioned la er (m2)
I
LAI
GrassRelative Light Intensity Leaf Density Forest Structure
Grass mentioned layer (m2)
Light Attenuation Factor (Typically around ‐0.5)
K
Local vertical structure prominently controlsLocal vertical structure prominently controls competition for light among trees
The Self-thinning & Three-halves lawI d l t l ti th "S lf thi i " ithIn a dense plant population, the "Self‐thinning" occurs with growth of mean plant size. This process generally results in the "Three‐halves law"the Three halves law
Theory
t (g) Example (Obs.)
W ∽ L 3 A ∽ L 2
per
plan
t
Figure :Iwatsubo (1996) 森林⽣態学
n bi
omas
s
W ∽ A 3/2 A ∽ D -1 Tree Density (m-2)Mea
n
L : Length of side of a plantW : Mean biomass per plantA : Area per a plantW ∽ D 3/2 A : Area per a plantD : Plant density
W ∽ D -3/2
Secondary Succession
Succession: Sequential changes of physiognomy, those are mediated by plant induced environmental changes (such as soil
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[Example] Temperate forest in North America
mediated by plant induced environmental changes (such as soil formation and sun light interception)
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Secondary succession is a much faster process y pthan to the primary succession
Primary Succession
If succession begins in barren areas without soil, it is
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If it begins in barren area where soil was not formed S tr frIf it begins in barren area where soil was not formed, it is called Primary Succession
Changes in land-atmospheric interactions with successionSchematic diagram for post‐fire changes observed
( )
interactions with succession
in the Alaska (during summer time)
Albedo
Soil Surface temp.
13
Net Radiation
n(2
008)
JGR
1
Sensible Heat flux
L t t H t fl
u &
Rand
erso
nLatent Heat flux
Figu
re :
Liu
Carbon cycles development of a Single Storied Stand
Foliage respiration rate
Foliage biomass ∝ GPP Phase 1
Stem respiration rate
Foliage respiration rate
Phase 2 F li bi
NPPGPP
Phase 2 Foliage biomass reaches maximum
Total respiration rate
Phase 3熱帯
林の
⽣態
NPP
Phase 3Phase1 Phase2 Phase3
Stem biomass still growth, resulting in higherFig
ure:
Kira
(198
4) 熱
Time
in higher respiration
Sour
ce f
this
F
• Foliage biomass saturate faster than stem biomass• So, NPP gradually declines after foliage saturation
Gap DynamicsGap Dynamics
Small gapSmall gap
Saplings of shade‐tolerant species fill the gapspecies fill the gap
Saplings of sun treeSaplings of sun tree species fill the gap
Large gap
Shade tolerant trees Sun trees
g g
Deaths of a canopy tree can cause gap dynamics, which is a partial decay and recovery (due to secondary succession)partial decay and recovery (due to secondary succession) of small area in a dense forest
Wild Fire as a major disturbance scheme
Fire frequencyFire frequency(ASTER2)
Wild Fire is a common disturbance scheme among gSemi‐arid area and Boreal forest area
Role of wild fire in semi-arid regions
Sparse forest maintain thick grass layer, and it produces
h f l l dVegetation Type Fire frequency
much fuel load
h d h f lIn the dry season, this fuel load helps to spread wild fire
Mortality rate due to wild fireFi tl kill ll Short
Tree type
Fire mostly kills small trees, and such size dependency maintains
Tree type b
Tree type
Tree type d
Tree type
Talla
p ysavanna
b c d e
Hoffmann & Solbrig (2003) For. Ecol. Manage., 180
Wild Fire maintains Savanna ecosystem
Role of wild fire on Larch Forest in East Siberia
Accumulation of organic layer on soil surface
Reduction of tree growth due to little soil water
Recruitment of Larch Trees
Rising Permafrost layerRising Permafrost layer
~10 years 20~40 Years 100 years~
Stand replacing fire (ca. 200 years interval in Eastern Siberia)
Lowering Permafrost layerLowering Permafrost layerExposed soil enhances heat exchanges between
il d t h0 Years
soil and atmosphere
Wild Fire is a key for regeneration of larch forest
L d S f M d lLand Surface Models (LSMs) those treat plant ( S s) ose ea p apopulation dynamics
About SEIB DGVM
VegetationI/O and Composition of SEIB-DGVM
About SEIB-DGVM
VegetationRepresentation
I/O and Composition of SEIB DGVM
A simulation result for
Individual trees compete f li ht d
A simulation result forTemperate forest
for light and space within a virtual forest
Sub-models that compose SEIB-DGVMProcess Approach Source
Physical process
Radiation Beer's law
Penman-Monteith transpirationEvapotranspiration
p+ interception+ evaporation from soil surface
Monteith & Unsworth(1990)
Soil water process Simple bucket model Manabe (1969)
Physiology Photosynthesis Michaelis-type function
Maintenance respiration
respiration rate is in proportion to nitrate contents for each organ Ryan (1991)
Growth respiration based on chemical composition of each organ Poorter(1994)
Stomatal conductance a semi-empirical model as a function of VPD Leuning et al. (1995)
Phenology a set of semi-empirical models of which parameters were estimated from satellite NDVI data Botta et al. (2000)
Decomposition 2 carbon source of decomposition: labile part of litter andpassive part in mineral soil
Sitch et al. (2003) p p
EcologocalDynamics
Establishment climatically favored PFTs establish as small individuals Sitch et al. (2003)
Mortality function of “annual NPP per leaf area”, “heat stress”, “bioclimitic limit” and “fire” Sitch et al. (2003) y bioclimitic limit , and fire
Disturbance (fire) an empirical function of soil moisture and fuel load Kirsten et al (2001)
Plant species were summarized intoPlant Functional Types (PFTs)Plant Functional Types (PFTs)
Woody PFTs (8 types)Tropical broad-leaved evergreenTropical broad-leaved raingreenTemperate needle-leaved evergreenTemperate needle-leaved evergreenTemperate broad-leaved evergreenTemperate broad-leaved summergreenBoreal needle-leaved evergreenBoreal needle-leaved summergreenBoreal broad-leaved summergreenBoreal broad leaved summergreen
Grass PFTs (2 types)C3 - grassC4 - grass
Grass PFTs (2 types)
Herbaceous species are represented by average biomass per unit areaC4 grass by average biomass per unit area
Photosynthesis condition for woody PFT (Di t di ti )PFTs (Direct radiation)
Midday radiation is calculatedfor each individual treefor each 10cm‐interval crown layer.
Lower crown layer suffers from self‐shadingg
To avoid ‘edge effect’ it is assumedTo avoid edge effect , it is assumed that virtual forest repeats
Photosynthesis condition for woody PFT (Diff d di ti )
Leaf area Relative
PFTs (Diffused radiation)
Leaf areadensity
Relativeradiation
1.00.00.0
Based on average leaf‐area‐density for each crown layer, mean intensity of diffused radiation was calculated for each crown layery y
Horizontal structure was ignoredHorizontal structure was ignored
Growth procedure for woody PFTs (1)
Daily Allocation f
Daily available computationcontrol factors
l fbiomass G h f
resource
constantroot
leaf
biomassbiomass Growth of
Root
Growth of Stock organ
constantstock
leaf
biomassbiomass
Water supply constraindue to the cross‐section
Growth ofLeaves
Packing constrain
area of sapwood
E ill bgdue to the crown size Excess resource will be
accrued over to the next day
Growth procedure for woody PFTs (2)Allocation
Spatial constraint Adjustments of
Monthly computationAllocation
control factors
Spatial constraintby proximate trees
Adjustments of Trunk, Tree height, and crown diameter growth
Allometry rules among DBH, tree height, Reproductionand crown diameter with all remaining carbon at this stage
Annual total
Adjustment
Mean NPP for each crown layer Optimum
Annual computationAdjustment of crown depth
y pCrownDepthMean maintenance
respiration cost for depthrespiration cost for each crown layer
Growth procedure for Grass PFTs
DailyAllocation
/
Daily computation
Weekly
Allocation control factors
massleaf Leaf/Root growthRunningmeans
.__ const
massrootmassleaf
Stock Organ growthUntil it comes to same amount
NPP on top of the grass layer Optimal
Until it comes to same amount of existing leaf mass
Maintenance respiration
LAI
ReproductionAll remaining resource is used for reproduction (add to litter)
respiration rate of leaves
for reproduction (add to litter)
Carbon and Water cyclesy
Carbon cycles Water cycles
From Sato et al. (2007)
Class Discussion
How Dynamic Vegetation Models can be utilized for Forest Managementutilized for Forest Management
SupplementsppPlant geography andPlant geography and BiomeTopics:• Global distribution of natural vegetation• Biomes (Definition, Distribution, and Boundary)( , , y)• Bioclimatic limits
An example of Biome:Tropical rain forest
Dense and stratified
Tropical rain forest
Common characteristicsforest structure
Epiphytic plantsButtress root
Common characteristics
Drip tipsButtress root
Photos are gathered from the Web
These characteristics are commonly observed in Tropical rainThese characteristics are commonly observed in Tropical rain forests, although species composition much differs among regions
Global Distribution of Natural Vegetation1
Tropical Evergreen ForestTropical Evergreen ForestTropical Deciduous ForestTemperate Broadleaf Evergreen ForestTemperate Needleleaf Evergreen ForestTemperate Deciduous ForestBoreal Evergreen ForestBoreal Deciduous ForestBoreal Deciduous ForestEvergreen/Deciduous Mixed ForestSavannaGrassland/Steppe/ShrublandTundraDesert
Biome:Biome: A major regional ecological community characterized by distinctive life forms and principal plant species2by distinctive life forms and principal plant species .Terrestrial ecosystems are typically classified into 5~20 biomes, those are mostly determined by climate.
1 ISLSCP22 A Dictionary of Ecology, Evolution and Systematics
biomes, those are mostly determined by climate.
Biome distribution in eastern AsiaBiome distribution in eastern Asia
Very short summer, andVery short summer, and very cold winter
Needle leaves are tolerant for frost damage and
Winter is not suitable for
for frost damage and dehydration
Moderate climate throughout the year
photosynthesis
Warm and Humid throughout the year
g y
Adams (2010) Vegetation-Climate Interaction
Warm throughout the year, but dry season exist
In eastern Asia, alternative band of Evergreen and Deciduous forest exists along latitude
Biome boundaryBiome boundary
[Example] Northern part of Mongolia
North-faced slope:Larch forest
South-faced slope: StSteppe
Photo: Forests of Northern Mongolia - FCA Today (www.fca-today.com/page13.html)
Biome boundaries generally transit gradually, but topographic heterogeneity produces mosaic‐structured transition zone
Biome distribution (Whittaker)
This is just an empirical patternImages are gathered from the Web
Biome distributionBiome distribution(Holdridge life zone)
Images are gathered from the Web
Efforts have been paied to establish more mechanistical criterion by employing a Bio‐criterion by employing a Biotemperature and an Aridity index.
Bioclimatic limits 1: Physiological Requirements†
Biome distribution was actually controlled by Bioclimatic limits for each Plant Functional Types (PFTs)
[Example] High-temperature injury49 ° C : For most plant species64 ° C : For some succulent species
[Example] Frost damage-15 °C < T -40 ° C < T
: Evergreen Broad Leaved Species: Deciduous Broad Leaved Species-40 C < T
No limits‡: Deciduous Broad Leaved Species: Boreal Conifer Species
PFTs: a classification of plant species in terms of their responses to environmental changes such as higher air‐temperature and CO
† : Beerling & Woodesrd (2001) Vegetation and the Terrestrial Carbon Cycle: "植⽣と⼤気の4億年(及川武久 監修)“‡ For the Minimum Air temperature in the nature of the earth surface
to environmental changes such as higher air‐temperature and CO2
Bioclimatic limits 2:Bioclimatic limits 2: Requirements for satisfying Life Cycle
[Example] Temperature requirements for Woody SpeciesKoppen (1936) Ojima (1991)T > -5T < 42×log P 106
T : annual mean temperature (in °C)P : annual precipitation (in mm)
P > 100P > 20.0 × T
[Example] Growth Degree Day (GDD)* requirements for woody PFTs in the LPJ‐DGVMfor woody PFTs in the LPJ DGVM
GDD> 1200 : Temperate broad‐leaved (evergreen/summergreen)GDD> 900 : Temperate needle‐leaved evergreenGDD> 600 : Boreal needle‐leaved evergreenGDD> 350 : Boreal summer greeen (neelde/broad‐leaved)
* Annual sum of daily air temperature above which 5 °C.
How to determine Biome in vegetation modelsHow to determine Biome in vegetation models
Cli d
St ti t ti d l D i t ti d l
Climate data
Static vegetation models Dynamic vegetation models
Bioclimatic envelopeBioclimatic envelope determines PFTs to establishBioclimatic envelope determines PFTs to establish
Competition among PFTs
Combinations of PFTs those existCombinations of PFTs those exist
Biome was determined with some criteriaBiome was determined with some criteria
Biome ShiftG hi l Di t ib ti f Cl d F t d D tGeographical Distribution of Closed-Forest and Desert
@Present Day
tion
nter
actio
n 2n
ded
it
]
e: geta
tion-
Clim
ate
I
@18000 yrs ago
urce
of t
he F
igur
eda
ms
(200
7) V
egSo
uAd
Ranges as indicated by pollen percentages in sediment ofRanges, as indicated by pollen percentages in sediment, of spruce and oak in eastern North America
& S
haw
(200
1)
f f f k h l
Dav
is &
Species of trees, not communities of forests, tracked their climatic niches at their own rates and along their own trajectories
Carbon cycles in vegetationCarbon cycles in vegetation
Topics:• GPP, NPP, NEE, ,• Estimation methods for carbon cycles• General patterns of carbon cyclesp y
Carbon Cycles in Land-Ecosystems
CO2 emission CO2 Uptake
h b
GPP (Total Photosynthesis Production)
ΔY: Growth biomass
ΔG: Grazed biomass
ΔL: Litter fall
NPP
Rr: Respiration
BiomassBiomass
ΔL: Litter fall
Rh: HeterotrophicSoil Organic
Matter (SOM)
GPP † = NPP + Rr
pRespiration
( )
NPP ‡ = ΔY + ΔG + ΔLNEP ¶ = GPP – Rr – Rh = ΔBiomass + ΔSOM
NEP Estimation 1 (Summation Method)
NPP by Stem diameter t
ΔY (Growth Biomass)+
measurements=
+ΔL (Litter Fall)
+ http://www.forestry.ac.nz/+ΔG (Grazed Biomass)
Combined with
by Litter TrapMeasurements
Species-SpecificAllometricEquations
by Estimated Root Turnover rate
+Gill & Jackson (2000) New Phytol 147http://www.crestmonsoon.org/maemoh/
NEP Estimation 2GPP Estimate
Measurements of
Integration for both of
Measurements of photosynthesis rate
Time and Leaf layershttp://www.licor.com/
Respiration rate EstimateStem Diameter Measurements
AllometryRelationship
Respiration rate Estimate
Mori, S., et al. (2010)
PNAS 107
p
PNAS 107
http://www.forestry.ac.nz/
Adaptation and acclimation of photosynthesis properties of leaves to environmental light p p gintensity
High[Example] Stratified forest
Ph
Max
Main
High0
[ p ]in a tropical rain forest
Compensationpointotosyn
Photosy
tenanc
point
nthetic
ynthetic
e Respi
0This illustration is gathered from the Web
rate
c rate
iration
0
Low0
Leaf properties are “optimized” t th li ht i t it f th Light intensityto the sun light intensity of the given environment
Estimation of NEP (or NEE)With th Edd l ti th dWith the Eddy correlation method
Example: Estimation of Vapor fluxFlux tower
VerticalWind Speed
p p
Wind Speed
Absolutehumidity
Vaporflux
humidity
flux
Time
( )Ultrasonic Wind Sensor
NEP = ‐NEE = ‐(FC+SC)FC: CO2 fluxSC: Changes in CO concentration
CO2/H2O AnalyzerFigure: Terashima (2013) 植物の⽣態Photos: www.weather.co.jp/ex/tomakomai.htm、クリマテック株式会社
SC: Changes in CO2 concentration
Estimated carbon cycles of key biomes (1)
Figure: Eddy van der Maarel (2005) Vegetation Ecology
E ti t d b l f k bi (2)
Ranges of estimated NPP/GPP ratio
Estimated carbon cycles of key biomes (2)
0.6
0.7
Ranges of estimated NPP/GPP ratio
0.3
0.4
0.5
0.1
0.2
0.3
Amthor & Boldocchi (2001): Terrestrial higher plant respiration and
0Boreal Forest
Temperate Forest
Tropical Forest
Grassland Cropland
Amthor & Boldocchi (2001): Terrestrial higher plant respiration and net primary production In: Terrestrial global productivity
• Biomes without stem biomass have lower ratio Biomes without stem biomass have lower ratio• Tropical Forest has the lowest ratio among the key biomes