forest service nurseries: 100 years of ecosystem restorationseedlings from stuart nursery into a...

Forest Service Nurseries: 100Years of Ecosystem Restoration

R. Kasten Dumroese, Thomas D. Landis, James P. Barnett,and Frank Burch

The USDA Forest Service broke ground on its first nursery in 1902 and since then its nurseries haveadapted to many changes in scope and direction: from fire restoration to conservation, to reforestation,and back to restoration. In addition to providing a reliable source of native plant material, they havealso been a source of research and technology transfer in seedling production and quality. Today, ForestService nurseries face difficult times due to sharp declines in reforestation seedling orders, but striveto respond to increased demand for a wide variety of native plants for ecosystem restoration.

Keywords: nursery, forest restoration, seedlings, reforestation

F or more than 100 years, USDA For-est Service nurseries have been grow-ing plants to restore America’s for-

ests, protect watersheds, and conserve soil.These nurseries helped America climb out ofthe Great Depression and advanced the sci-ence of afforestation and reforestation. Asnational policies shift from timber produc-tion to ecosystem restoration, Forest Servicenurseries are adapting to their new mission.Here we take a brief look back at the birth ofthe national forest nursery system and itsrole during four distinct eras, the science andtechnology that emerged from these facili-ties over time, and the current role and chal-lenges the national nurseries face in an era ofecosystem restoration.

Four Nursery ErasRestoration Response: 1900s to

1930s. The first Forest Service nursery, Hal-sey Nursery in Nebraska, opened in 1902 toprovide seedlings for afforestation of the Ne-braska Sandhills. It was renamed in 1915 tohonor Charles E. Bessey, a professor of bot-any and horticulture at the University of Ne-braska, who along with other early environ-mentalists like Dr. Bernhard Fernow, Chiefof the Division of Forestry in Washington,

DC, and Gifford Pinchot, first Chief of theForest Service, were driving forces in estab-lishment of federal nurseries. The OrganicAct of 1897 opened the door for nurserydevelopment, and Bessey Nursery was fol-lowed by Higgins Lake in Michigan (1903),Monument in Colorado (1907), Savenac inMontana (1908), and Wind River in Wash-ington (1909). All these nurseries had theprimary objective of growing seedlings tostabilize soils and protect watersheds afterlarge fires and indiscriminate harvesting(Figure 1). In addition to resource protec-tion, these nurseries had secondary goals ofgrowing commercial timber species and test-ing of exotic hardwoods.

Conservation and Jobs Creation:1930s to 1950s. Many more Forest Servicenurseries, such as Vallonia in Indiana, Hay-ward in Wisconsin, Licking in Missouri,Stuart in Louisiana, and Oakes in North Da-kota, were opened during the Great Depres-sion (Figures 2 and 3). These nurseries wereneeded to meet the goals of President Frank-lin D. Roosevelt’s Emergency ConservationWork Act of 1933. This act enlisted Ameri-ca’s unemployed men to mitigate the effectsof soil erosion and widespread decline oftimber resources. Commonly known as the

Civilian Conservation Corp (CCC), these 3million men were responsible for many nat-ural resource projects, including the plant-ing of about 3 billion seedlings between1933 and 1942 (Figure 4). Although manyof these facilities subsequently closed duringWorld War II, others were converted intoregional nurseries to meet demand for refor-estation seedlings during the postwar boomin timber harvest. A few, including Vallonia,Hayward, and Licking, were transferred tostate forestry organizations and still produceseedlings for state programs.

Responding to the Public’s Demandfor Timber: 1950s to 1990s. The nation’spostwar demand for timber caused timberharvest on National Forests to increase from3 bbf (billion board feet) in 1950 to 12 bbfby 1965. Forest Service nurseries were in-strumental in providing source-identifiedand locally adapted tree seedlings for refor-estation of public lands. Improved nurserymechanization helped meet demand (Figure5). Continuing timber harvest of around 10bbf kept the need for reforestation seedlingshigh from 1965 into the early 1990s. In1979, 14 Forest Service nurseries grew about100 million seedlings annually (Burch2005).

Return to Restoration: 1990s toPresent. Around 1990, the long-term trendof timber harvest on National Forestschanged drastically. Timber harvests de-creased because of a shift away from use ofeven-aged regeneration practices (clearcut-ting in particular), more emphasis on inter-mediate treatments such as thinning, and areduction in the landbase available for tim-ber production for reasons such as endan-gered species habitat requirements and pro-

Journal of Forestry • July/August 2005 241

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tection of roadless areas (Burch 2005). In adecade, the number of active Forest Servicenurseries dropped from 14 to six as annualseedling demand plummeted from 100 mil-lion to 30 million seedlings.

In addition, the drop in timber harvestfrom 12 bbf in the late 1980s to 4 bbf in1994 severely disrupted traditional fundingto nurseries. When timber harvest levelswere at their zenith, roughly two-thirds of

reforestation work on National Forests wasfinanced with Knutson–Vandenberg Act de-posits derived from timber sales. The Knut-son–Vandenberg Act was signed into law in1930 and requires purchasers of NationalForest timber to deposit funds necessary toreforest the timber sale area. These funds arealso used to operate Forest Service nurseries.Today, less than one-half of the reforestationprogram is financed this way, placing in-

creased pressure on scarce, annual appropri-ations (Burch 2005). Forest Service nurser-ies have reduced their workforce and usedother measures to improve cost efficiency,and more recently have been growing othernontraditional plant materials to help supporttraditional nursery programs. Concurrently,

Figure 1. Nursery workers transplanting seedlings at the Wind River Nursery in Carson,WA, circa 1915. Photo credit: US National Archives 95-G-152502.

Figure 2. Distribution and current status of Forest Service nurseries. Map created by JeffreyS. Evans, USDA Forest Service, RMRS.

Stuart Nursery personnel spraying Bor-deaux mixture in 1935 to control dis-ease in bareroot longleaf pine. Photocredit: USDA Forest Service 293414.

Stuart Forest Nursery.Established in 1933 near Pollock,

LA, as Catahoula Nursery, the nurseryname was soon changed to the StuartNursery to honor Forest Service ChiefRobert Y. Stuart, who was responsible forestablishment of the nationwide forestnursery system. Stuart Nursery was oneof a few federal nurseries established inthe South in response to the tremendousneed for reforestation capability. Mil-lions of acres of forestland, from Virginiato eastern Texas, were harvested in thelate 1800s and early 1900s, converted toagriculture, and much was either aban-doned or left decimated and subject toerosion (Figure 4). Establishing the nurs-ery and seed extractory was primarily aCCC project. The first crop of nearly 9million seedlings was planted throughoutLouisiana and Mississippi. ResearcherPhilip Wakeley of the Southern ForestExperiment Station collaborated withnursery personnel M.A. Huberman andA.D. McKellar—together they grew andoutplanted nearly 750,000 seedlings be-tween 1933 and 1950. Results of theirwork set the standard for pine seedlingquality in the South that is still used to-day (Barnett 2004). Although the nurs-ery closed in 1964, the extractory contin-ued to provide seeds until 1991.

242 Journal of Forestry • July/August 2005

demand for a variety of noncommercial forestplants is increasing. New stock types (Figure 6)and new species are needed to restore areas af-fected by fire, recreation, and grazing; restore

riparian zones, sensitive habitats, wetlands, en-dangered species, and wilderness areas; en-hance wildlife value; and to continue introduc-ing plants resistant to foreign pests like white

pine blister rust (Landis et al. 1992). Theseopportunities present new challenges to nurs-ery managers because little is known aboutpropagating these new species.

Figure 3. Many Forest Service nurseries, like Licking Nursery on the Mark Twain NationalForest in Missouri, opened during the Great Depression. Here, left to right, this crew isforming beds, pressing seed rows, and sowing seeds. Photo credit: USDA Forest Service290709 provided by Gregory Hoss, George O. White State Nursery, Licking, MO.

Figure 4. Civilian Conservation Corp crews, similar to this team planting loblolly pineseedlings from Stuart Nursery into a gully near Moscow, TN, in 1954, worked to mitigatesoil erosion and enhance timber resources. Photo credit: USDA Forest Service 502031.

A shipment of seedlings from SavenacNursery pulls out onto the YellowstoneTrail in 1916. Photo credit: US NationalArchives 95-G-031136A.

Savenac/Coeur d’Alene Nursery.Savenac Nursery was established on

one acre of ground near Haugan, MT, in1908 by Elers Koch, the Assistant Re-gional Forester in the Northern Region.Perhaps fortuitously, the nursery burnedto the ground in the 1910 fire in which 3million acres in northern Idaho and west-ern Montana were charred. Rebuiltquickly, the need to reforest the burnedarea was immense and by 1912 the facil-ity was the largest Forest Service nursery.About 3 million seedlings were shippedannually with another 10 million in theground on 35 acres (Olson 1930). Thenursery’s location on the YellowstoneTrail, the first engineered road in theNorthwest, was essential for shippingseedlings throughout the region for res-toration activities. During the Great De-pression, Savenac expanded to about 60acres and provided employment for someof the CCC men in nearby Camp Taft.In 1960, the Coeur d’Alene Nursery wasdeveloped in northern Idaho to replaceSavenac, which closed in 1966. SavenacNursery was added to the National Reg-ister of Historic Places in 1984, and thesite still serves as an education center.The Coeur d’Alene Nursery’s 130 acresof bareroot seedbeds can yield 20 millionseedlings annually, and its 90,000 squarefeet of indoor growing space produce anadditional 4 million container seedlings.


Supporting ReforestationScience and SharingTechnology

Besides growing seedlings, Forest Ser-vice nurseries have always been leaders indeveloping new techniques for seedlingproduction, reforestation, and ecologicalrestoration. Most early research that be-came the foundation for the nursery in-dustry was done at Forest Service facilities(for example, Pettis 1909, Tillotson 1917,Olson 1930). Pettis (1909) was instru-mental in developing quality seedlings inthe eastern United States, while Tillotson(1917) helped shape artificial regenerationnationwide. For decades, James Toumey’swork in Forest Service nurseries was thesource for nursery production techniques

(Toumey 1916)—in recognition, ToumeyNursery in Michigan was named for himin 1937. Researcher Philip Wakeley of theSouthern Forest Experiment Station col-laborated with nursery personnel at theStuart Nursery in Louisiana. The resultingpublication (Wakeley 1954) still sets thestandard for seed, seedling, and tree-plant-ing technology in the South, and it stim-ulated research in seedling quality world-wide. In 1979, Richard Tinus combinedhis pioneering research with Stephen Mc-Donald’s nursery experience and theirHow to Grow Tree Seedlings in Greenhousesbecame the standard reference for the rap-idly expanding container nursery industry(Tinus and McDonald 1979). These au-thors teamed with James Barnett andThomas Landis to produce the seven-vol-

ume Container Tree Nursery Manual,which has become the primary nursery ref-erence throughout the world (for example,Landis et al. 1999). And, as the ability toproduce seedlings with superior morpho-logical characteristics became more rou-tine, Forest Service nurseries and research-ers collaborated to understand seedlingphysiological parameters important to re-forestation success, and to pass that infor-mation on to other nursery managers (forexample, Tinus 1996).

Perhaps the most significant contribu-tion of Forest Service nurseries was the qual-ity and variety of their stock. In the early1900s, nurseries produced only barerootseedlings and transplants that took from 3 to5 years to grow (Figure 7). Modern nurseriesoffer a variety of stock types from containerseedlings that can be grown in less than 1year to container transplants that can surviveand grow on the most challenging reforesta-tion or restoration site. Information on howto produce these species and stock types hasbeen shared with other nurseries throughtechnology transfer publications and work-shops. Modern forest and conservationnursery equipment, such as the Wind Riverseed drill, can trace its lineage back to ForestService innovations and modifications.

Besides producing billions of seedlings forrestoration, the real legacy of Forest Servicenurseries lies in their research and develop-ment and sharing those techniques. Their ef-forts enabled other state and private nurseries,and nurseries worldwide, to develop successfulmethods for producing reforestation and con-servation seedlings during this past century.

The Future of Forest ServiceNurseries

Two recent national reviews validatethe importance of the nurseries to the For-est Service and nation; however, a long-

Figure 5. Transplanting was an important practice during the timber years. Self-propelledtransplanters like this one in the Lake States improved efficiency. Circa 1955. Photo credit:US National Archives 95-G-450868.

Table 1. Current Forest Service nurseries and their production of native plants for ecosystem restoration

LocationYear

established Regions servedProduction(millions)

Number ofspecies

Charles E. Besseya Halsey, NE 1902 E Wyoming, Colorado, South Dakota, Nebraska, Kansas 3.5 49Coeur d’Alene Coeur d’Alene, ID 1960 Idaho Panhandle east to North Dakota 9.0 45J. Herbert Stone Central Point, OR 1978 Washington, Oregon 6.5b 169James W. Toumeyc Watersmeet, MI 1935 Minnesota to Missouri and east to the Atlantic Ocean 14.5 25Lucky Peak Boise, ID 1960 S Idaho, Utah, Nevada, W Wyoming 2.0 20Placerville Camino, CA 1957 California 3.0 15

aHalsey Nursery renamed Charles E. Bessey Nursery in 1915.bAlso produces 15 tons of native grass and forb seeds annually.cWatersmeet Nursery renamed James W. Toumey Nursery in 1937.


Figure 6. New stock types and technologies are developing for unique restoration projects.The outplanting of stock grown in tall pots (A) on difficult sites can be automated with largeequipment (B). Photos by Kas Dumroese.

Nursery workers tending 1�0 seedlingsgrowing beneath “Pettis frames” at theCharles E. Bessey Nursery, circa 1915.Photo credit: USDA Forest Service39206.

Charles E. Bessey Nursery.In 1890, Dr. Bessey of the Univer-

sity of Nebraska and Dr. Fernow estab-lished test plantings of seedlings on theprairies of the central Nebraska Sand-hills. Based on their success, PresidentTheodore Roosevelt created the DismalRiver and Niobrara River forest reserves,and Halsey Nursery was established in1902 to produce seedlings. The originalpurpose of these “planted forests” was toprovide timber to homesteaders underthe Kinkaid Act of 1904 and to expandthe transcontinental railroad. The firstseeds sown were ponderosa pine—seedcollection costs were $1.36 per pound.Success of the outplantings in 1904 wasmarginal because of poor seedling sizeand quality. After new cultural tech-niques (transplanting and root pruning)were adopted, outplanting survivaljumped to 85 to 90%. An ice pond wascreated on the nursery to provide largeblocks of ice during winter months tokeep seedlings dormant until spring. In1915 the name was changed to honor Dr.Bessey. During the Prairie State ForestProgram of the 1930s, Bessey Nurserywas one of two nurseries supplying seed-lings for windbreak plantings throughoutthe Great Plains. Men in the CCCcamped at Bessey Nursery and workedeither in the nursery or forest. Currently,Bessey Nursery is the bareroot and con-tainer seedling production facility for theRocky Mountain Region of the ForestService and the Nebraska Forest Service(Fleege 1995).


term solution to the current financial crisisbrought on by reductions in timber har-vests has yet to be found. Clearly, the tra-ditional role of Forest Service nurseries hasexpanded from growing native trees for af-forestation and reforestation to the pro-duction of a wide variety of other nativeplants for the expanding needs of ecosys-tem restoration. Currently, these nurseriesare producing even more species and stocktypes to meet the demands of public landmanagers (Table 1).

As a nation, we should value Forest Ser-vice nurseries as they continue to fulfill keyroles that initially led to their establish-ment—reliable sources of locally adapted,high-quality, native plant materials for eco-system restoration (Figure 8). The surge indemand for native species for restoration,

and techniques for propagating them, com-pletes the circle—Forest Service nurserieswere at a similar point 100 years ago withimportant timber species. Then, as now,their “can do” attitude and broad nationalsupport played a pivotal role in the ForestService becoming the world’s leading con-servation organization. That positive atti-tude can still be found at nurseries, but thechallenge for the next century is to leveragethe capabilities of these facilities with thegrowing need for restoration on publiclands, and to ensure we preserve the skillsand science needed to respond to emergingissues.

Literature CitedBARNETT, J. 2004. Phil Wakeley: Pioneer refores-

tation scientist. Forests & People 54(1):12–13.

BURCH, F. 2005. Twenty Years of Nursery His-tory—A Forest Service Perspective. In Na-tional proceedings: Forest and conservation nurs-ery associations—2004, Dumroese, R.K., L.E.Riley, and T.D. Landis (Tech. Coords.).USDA Forest Service, Rocky Mountain Re-search Station, Fort Collins, CO. ProceedingsRMRS-P (in press).

FLEEGE, C. 1995. History of Bessey Nursery. InNational proceedings, forest and conservationnursery associations, Landis, T.D., and B. Cregg(Tech. Coords.). USDA Forest Service, PacificNorthwest Research Station, Portland, OR.General Technical Report PNW-GTR-365:60–63.

KORSTIAN, C.F., AND F.S. BAKER. 1925. Forestplanting in the intermountain area. USDA Ag-riculture Bulletin 1264, Washington, DC.56 p.

LANDIS, T.D., L.A. LIPPITT, AND J.M. EVANS.1992. Biodiversity and ecosystem manage-ment: The role of forest and conservation

Figure 7. In the first half of the 20th cen-tury, transplant stock types (2�2, secondfrom left; 3�1, center; 3�2, second fromright) were preferred over seedlings (3�0,left; 5�0, right) because transplants hadmore fibrous root systems and better shoot-to-root ratios. From Korstian and Baker(1925).

Figure 8. A crop of 2�0 ponderosa pineseedlings for reforestation growing at thePlacerville Nursery near Camino, CA. Photoby Kas Dumroese.


nurseries. In Proceedings, Western Forest Nurs-ery Association, Sept. 14–18, 1992; Fallen LeafLake, CA, Landis, T.D. (Tech. Coord.).USDA Forest Service, Rocky Mountain Forestand Range Experiment Station, Fort Collins,CO. General Technical Report RM-221:1–17.

LANDIS, T.D., R.W. TINUS, AND J.P. BARNETT.1999. Seedling Propagation. The container treenursery manual, vol. 6. Agriculture Handbook674, USDA Forest Service, Washington, DC.166 p.

OLSON, D.S. 1930. Growing trees for forest plant-ing in Montana and Idaho. Circular No. 120,USDA, Washington, DC. 92 p.

PETTIS, C.R. 1909. How to grow and plant conifersin the northeastern states. Bulletin 76, USDAForest Service, Washington, DC. 36 p.

TILLOTSON, C.R. 1917. Nursery practice on thenational forests. Agriculture Bulletin 479,USDA, Washington, DC. 86 p.

TINUS, R.W. 1996. Cold hardiness testing totime lifting and packing of container stock:A case history. Tree Planters’ Notes 47(2):62– 67.

TINUS, R.W., AND S.E. MCDONALD. 1979. Howto grow tree seedlings in containers in green-houses. General Technical Report RM-60,USDA Forest Service, Rocky Mountain Forestand Range Experiment Station, Fort Collins,CO. 256 p.

TOUMEY, J.W. 1916. Seed and planting: A man-ual for the guidance of forestry students, forest-ers, nurserymen, forest owners, and farmers,1st Ed. John Wiley and Sons, New York.455 p.

WAKELEY, P.C. 1954. Planting the southern pines.Agriculture Monograph No. 18, USDA ForestService, Washington, DC. 233 p.

Kas Dumroese ([email protected]) is re-search plant physiologist and national nurseryspecialist, USDA Forest Service, Southern Re-search Station, 1221 South Main Street, Mos-cow, ID 83843. Tom Landis was nationalnursery specialist, USDA Forest Service, Coop-erative Forestry until his retirement in 2004.Jim Barnett is chief silviculturist and projectleader, USDA Forest Service, Southern ResearchStation, Pineville, LA. Frank Burch is forester,USDA Forest Service, Forest and RangelandManagement Staff, Washington, DC.


forest service nurseries: 100 years of ecosystem restorationseedlings from stuart nursery into a...

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