foreword chapter i organic and inorganic environmental

8/14/2019 Foreword Chapter i Organic and Inorganic Environmental

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CONTENT

Page

FOREWORD 1

Chapter I

ORGANIC AND INORGANIC ENVIRONMENTAL POLLUTANTS IN

AIR AND WATERS. SONIC AND ELECTROMAGNETIC POLLUTION 3

I.1. AIR POLLUTANTS 4

I.1.1. ORGANIC AIR POLLUTANTS 4

I.1.1.1. Volatile Organic Compounds (VOCs) 4

I.1.1.2. Other Compounds 8

I.1.2. INORGANIC AIR POLLUTANTS 9

I.1.2.1. Fixed Gases 9

I.1.2.2. Variable Gases 10

I.1.2.3. Characteristics of Selected Gases and Aerosol ParticleComponents 11

I.1.2.4. Aerosol Particles in Smog and the Global Environment 22

I.2. WATER POLLUTANTS 26

I.2.1. TYPES OF WATER POLLUTANTS 26

I.2.2. METALS (Cadmium, Lead, Mercury, etc.) (Meyers, R.A. & Dittrich,D.K., 1999) 27

I.2.2.1. Metal Toxicity 27

I.2.2.2. Biotransformation of metals 29

I.2.3. METALLOIDS AND ORGANOMETALLIC COMPOUNDS 30

I.2.3.1. Metalloids 30

I.2.3.2. Organically Bound Metals and Metalloids 32

I.2.4 ANIONIC INORGANIC SPECIES 34

I.2.4.1. Chloride 34

I.2.4.2. Fluoride 34

I.2.4.3. Nitrate and Nitrite 36

I.2.4.4. Sulfate and Sulfide 37

I.2.4.5. Cyanide 38

I.2.4.6. Phosphate 38

I.2.5. ACIDITY, ALKALINITY AND SALINITY 39

I.2.5.1. Acidity 39

I.2.5.2. Alkalinity 40

I.2.5.3. Salinity 42I.2.6. ORGANIC POLLUTANTS 43


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I.2.6.1. Sewage 44

I.2.6.2. Surfactants 46

I.2.6.3. Halogenated Carbons 48

I.2.6.4. Polycyclic Aromatic Hydrocarbons 48

I.2.6.5. Dioxins 49

I.2.6.6. Polychlorinated Biphenyls 50

I.2.6.7. Brominated Flame Retardants 51

I.2.6.8. Phthalates 52

I.2.7. PESTICIDES 52

I.2.7.1. Chlorinated Pesticides 53

I.2.7.2. Organo-phosphoric Pesticides 53I.2.7.3. Carbamate Pesticides 53

I.2.7.4. Pyrethrins and Pyrethroids 54

I.2.7.5. Phenoxyacetic Acid Herbicides 54

I.2.8.RADIONUCLIDES 54I.3. SONIC AND ELECTROMAGNETIC POLLUTION 56

I.3.1. THE SOUND 56

I.3.1.1. Introduction 56

I.3.1.2. Aural Environment 59

I.3.2. ELECTROMAGNETIC POLLUTION 65

I.3.2.1. The Electromagnetic Fields. An Introduction 65

I.3.2.2. Electromagnetic Environment 67

References 71

Chapter IIANALYTICAL TECHNIQUES FOR ENVIRONMENTAL

MONITORING AND CONTROL 78

II.1. INTRODUCTION 79

II.2. ELEMENTARY STATISTICS 80

II.2.1. ACCURACY AND PRECISION 80

II.2.2. ERRORS AND WAYS OF EXPRESSING ACCURACY 80

II.2.3. MEASURES OF PRECISION 82II.3. SAMPLE AND SAMPLING AND PREPARATION 84

II.3.1. SAMPLE AND SAMPLING 84II.3.1.1. Statistics of Sampling 85

II.3.1.2. Sample Handling 85

II.3.3. SAMPLE PREPARATION 86

II.3.3.1. Sample Extraction 86

II.3.3.2. Sample Cleanup 89

II.3.3.3. Digestion 91

II.3.3.4. Dilution 91

II.3.3.5. Filtering 92


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II.4. ANALYTICAL TECHNIQUES USED IN ENVIRONMENTAL

ANALYSIS 93

II.4.1. GRAVIMETRIC METHODS 93

II.4.1.1. Physical Gravimetry 94

II.4.1.2. Thermogravimetry 10

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II.4.1.3. Precipitative Gravimetry 10

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II.4.2. VOLUMETRIC METHODS 10

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II.4.2.1. Fundamentals of Titrimetry 109

II.4.3. UV-VIS SPECTROMETRY 12

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II.4.3.1. Nature of Electromagnetic Radiation 121

II.4.3.2. Molecular Absorption of Electromagnetic Radiation 12

2

II.4.3.3. Quantitative Law of Radiation Absorption 12

4

II.4.3.4. Quantitative Analysis in the UV-VIS 12

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II.4.3.5. Instrumentation for UV-VIS Spectrometry 12

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II.4.4. ATOMIC ABSORPTION AND EMISSION 13

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II.4.4.1. Introduction 13

2

II.4.4.2. Atomic Absorption Spectrometry 13

3

II.4.4.3. Atomic Emission Spectrometry 14

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II.4.4.4. Physical and Chemical Interferences in AAS and AES 14

4II.4.5. ELECTROCHEMICAL METHODS OF ANALYSIS 14

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II.4.5.2. Conductimetric Methods 14

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II.4.5.3. Potentiometric Methods 146


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II.4.5.4. Voltammetric Methods 14

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II.4.5.5. Modes of Current-Voltage Measurements 15

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II.4.5.6. Stripping Voltammetry 15

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II.4.6. CHROMATOGRAPHY 16

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II.4.6.2. Types of chromatography 162

II.4.6.3. Classification of Chromatographic Processes 16

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II.4.6.4. Chromatographic Theory. An Overview 166

II.4.6.5. Ion Chromatography 17

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II.4.6.6. Gas Chromatography (GC) 18

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II.4.6.7. High Performance Liquid Chromatography (HPLC) 18

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II.4.7. MASS SPECTROMETRY 20

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II.4.7.1. Definition 20

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II.4.7.2. Principles 20

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II.4.7.3. The Mass Spectrum 20

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II.4.7.4. Sample Introduction 20

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II.4.7.5. Ionization Modes in Mass Spectrometry 20

3II.4.7.6. Mass Analyzers 21

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II.4.7.7. Ion Detection Systems 21

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II.4.7.8. Multiple Sequential MS (Tandem MS) 21

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II.4.7.9. Mass Spectrometry Working Modes 221


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II.4.8. GAS CHROMATOGRAPHY / MASS SPECTROMETRY 22

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II.4.8.1. Definition 22

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II.4.8.2. Principles 22

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II.4.8.3. Interfacing MS to GC 22

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II.4.8.4. Data System for GC / MS Instrumentation 22

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II.4.8.5. Data interpretation modes in GC / MS 229

II. 4.8.6. Qualitative information in GC / MS 22

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II.4.8.7. Quantitative information in GC / MS 232

II. 4.8.8. Applications 23

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II.4.9. IMMUNOASSAY 23

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II.4.9.1. Immunoassay Principle 23

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II.4.9.2. ELISA Technique 23

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II.4.9.3. Immunochemical Sensors (Immunosensors) 23

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II.5. METHODS FOR MONITORING THE MOST IMPORTANT

POLLUTANTS

24

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II.5.1. PHENOLS 24

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II.5.2. NITROGEN (Nitrate, Nitrite, Ammonia) 24

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II.5.2.1. Nitrogen (Nitrite, Nitrate and Ammonia) 24

6II.5.2.2. Ammonia 24

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II.5.2.3. Nitrite and Nitrate 24

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II.5.3. CYANIDES 24

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II.5.3.1. Samples Pretreatment 249


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II.5.3.2. Silver Nitrate Titrimetric Method 25

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II.5.3.3. Colorimetric Method 25

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II.5.3.4. Ion-Selective Electrode Method 25

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II.5.3.5. Cyanide in Solid Samples 25

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II.5.3.6. Cyanide in Aerosol and Gas Samples 25

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II.5.4. HEAVY METALS 251

II.5.4.1. Sampling and Treatment 25

2

II.5.4.2. Sample Digestion 253

II.5.4.3. Atomic Absorption Spectrometry for Heavy Metals

Determination

25

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II.5.4.4. Specific Methods for Determination the Most Important Heavy

Metals Pollutants

25

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II.5.5. PESTICIDES 26

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II.5.5.1. Monitoring of Pesticides 26

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II.5.6. POLYCHLORINATED BIPHENYLS (PCBs) 28

1

II.5.6.1. Quantitation 28

2

II.5.6.2. Sample Extraction and Cleanup 28

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II.5.6.3. Alternative Analytical Methods 28

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II.5.7. BIOLOGICAL OXYGEN DEMAND, BOD 28

4II.5.8. CHEMICAL OXYGEN DEMAND, COD 28

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Chapter III

AUTOMATIC ANALYTICAL METHODS FOR ENVIRONMENTAL

MONITORING AND CONTROL

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III.1. INTRODUCTION 288


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III.2. FLOW ANALYSIS TECHNIQUES 29

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III.2.1. INTRODUCTION IN CFA, SFA, FIA AND SIA 29

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III.2.1.1. Continuous Flow Analysis 29

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III.2.1.2. Segmented Flow Analysis 29

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III.2.1.3. Flow Injection Analysis 30

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III.2.1.4. Sequential Injection Analysis 317

III.2.1.5. Hyphenated Systems 32

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III.2.2. AUTOMATED FLOW ANALYZERS 322

III.2.2.1. Continuous and Discontinuous Systems 32

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III.2.2.2. Commercial Automated Flow Analyzers 32

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III.2.2.3. The Future Microfluidics 33

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III.2.3. APPLICATION OF THE FLOW TECHNIQUES OF ANALYSIS IN

ENVIRONMENTAL MONITORING AND CONTROL

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III.2.3.1. Introduction 33

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III.2.3.2. Water Monitoring and Control 34

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III.2.3.3.Monitoring and Control in Rain Water 345

III.2.3.4.Water Quality, Wastewater 347

III.2.3.5.Atmospheric Monitoring and Control 347

III.2.3.6. Soil Pollutants 35

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III.3. MODERN TECHNIQUES FOR AIR POLLUTANTS 35

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III.3.1. LIDAR (LIGHT DETECTION AND RANGING) 35

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III.3.1.1. LIDAR Design 358


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III.3.1.2. Application of LIDAR in Environmental Monitoring 36

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III.3.2. DOAS FOR ENVIRONMENTAL CONTROL 36

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III.3.2.1. Principle of DOAS Operation 36

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III.3.2.2. Spectral Regions Usable for DOAS Measurements 36

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III.3.2.3. How does a DOAS Based Instrument work? 36

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III.3.2.4. DOAS Application in Pollution Monitoring 366

III.3.3. AUTOMATION IN IMMUNOASSAY 36

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III.4. AUTOMATIC SPECTROPHOTOMETRY 373

III.4.1.NUTRIENTS: ENVIRONMENTAL SIGNIFICANCE AND

MEASUREMENT

37

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III.4.1.1. Nitrite / Nitrate 37

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III.4.1.2. Ammonia 37

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III.4.1.3. Phosphate 38

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III.4.1.4. Metals 38

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III.4.1.5. Chlorine 38

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III.4.1.6. Cyanide 38

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Chapter IV

STANDARDISATION AND LEGISLATION IN THE FIELD OF

ENVIRONMENTAL MONITORING AND CONTROL

39

2IV.1. AN INTRODUCTION TO INTERNATIONAL ENVIRONMENTAL

CONTROLS

39

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IV.1.1. AN OVERVIEW OF INTERNATIONAL CONVENTIONS AND

AGREEMENTS

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IV.1.2. THE RELATIONSHIP BETWEEN INTERNATIONAL TRADE

AND ENVIRONMENTAL CONTROLS

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IV.1.3. THE EUROPEAN UNION ENVIRONMENTAL PROGRAMMES 396


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IV.2. LEGISLATION IN THE FIELD OF ENVIRONMENTAL

MONITORING AND CONTROL

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IV.2.1. COMPARISON OF THE CHARACTERISTICS OF SURFACE

WATER FOR PRODUCTION OF DRINKING WATER IN

FRANCE, ITALY, ROMANIA, SWEDEN AND SPAIN

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IV.2.2. CHEMICAL INDICATORS TO EVALUATE THE QUALITY OF

SURFACE WATER

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IV.2.3. MONITORING PROGRAM FOR DRINKING WATER IN

FRANCE

41

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IV.2.4. EMISSION LIMIT OF URBAN EFFLUENT OF WASTE WATER

PLANT

41

6IV.2.4.1. General Conformity Regulations 41

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IV.2.4.2. Tolerance Regulations for COD, BOD5 and MES Parameters 41

6IV.2.5. AIR POLLUTION 41

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IV.3. STANDARDIZATION FOR THE MOST IMPORTANT

ENVIRONMENTAL POLLUTANTS

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Chapter V

QUALITY ASSURANCE AND MANAGEMENT OF LABORATORY

ACTIVITY IN THE FIELD OF ENVIRONMENTAL MONITORING

AND CONTROL INCLUDING SONIC AND ELECTROMAGNETIC

POLLUTION 45

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V.1. INTRODUCTION 45

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V.2. THE CONCEPT OF QUALITY MANAGEMENT, QUALITY

ASSURANCE AND QUALITY CONTROL

45

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V.2.1. WHAT IS QUALITY? 45

2V.2.2. QUALITY MANAGEMENT 45

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V.2.3. QUALITY ASSURANCE 45

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V.2.4. QUALITY CONTROL 45

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V.3. LABORATORY QUALITY MANAGEMENT SYSTEM 457


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V.3.1. ELEMENTS OF THE QUALITY MANAGEMENT SYSTEM 45

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V.3.1.1. Quality Policy 45

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V.3.1.2. Quality Objectives 45

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V.3.1.3. Quality Manual 45

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V.3.1.4. Procedures 45

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V.3.1.5. Records 460

V.4. QUALITY MANAGEMENT SYSTEM IN ENVIRONMENTAL

MONITORING AND CONTROL LABORATORIES INCLUDING SONIC

AND ELECTROMAGNETIC POLLUTION

46

1V.4.1. MANAGEMENT REQUIREMENTS 46

3

V.4.1.1. Organization 46

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V.4.1.2. Quality System 46

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V.4.1.3. Document Control 46

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V.4.1.4. Review of Requests, Tenders and Contracts 46

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V.4.1.5. Subcontracting of Tests 46

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V.4.1.6. Purchasing Services and Supplies 46

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V.4.1.7. Services to the Client 46

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V.4.1.8. Complaints 46

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V.4.1.9. Control of Nonconforming Testing Work 468

V.4.1.10. Corrective Action 46

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V.4.1.11. Preventive Action 46

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V.4.1.12. Control of Records 47

0V.4.1.13. Internal Audit 47


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V.4.1.14. Management Reviews 47

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V.4.2. TECHNICAL REQUIREMENTS 47

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V.4.2.1. Personnel and Training 47

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V.4.2.2. Accommodation and Environmental Conditions 47

3

V.4.2.3. Test Methods and Method Validation 47

5V.4.2.4. Equipment 48

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V.4.2.5. Measurement Traceability 48

6V.4.2.6. Sampling 48

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V.4.2.7. Handling of Test Items 48

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V.4.2.8. Assuring the Quality of Test Results 49

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V.4.2.9. Reporting the Results 49

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foreword chapter i organic and inorganic environmental

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