foster. 1992. dancing bodies.pdf

7/21/2019 Foster. 1992. Dancing bodies.pdf

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Bodie~

Susan Leigh Foster

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l eam int riguing detai ls about the s ign if ic anc e

01

sundry anatomi cal parts and how they have been

subj ectcd to study - and, by extensi on, incorpo-

r at eu into the l ar ge r work ings

01

power.

What I m iss in both approaches - the synec-

dochic substitution

01

t he body f or a the ore ti ca l

topos or its metonymic replacement by a set

01

measurement s - i s a more meat-and-bones

approach to the body based on an analysis

01

d is cours es o r p ra ct ic es tha t instru t it. Roland

Bart hes rerers t o it i n t hi s way when he describes

Bunraku puppet perrormances or t he involve-

ment

01

his own body in t he physical organiza-

tion

01

his desk and chair, his dail y rout ines and

habits 01 wri ti ng .' Mic hel Foucau lt de linea te s a s·

pects 01 t he inst ru ct abl e body when he desc ribes

the d iscipl inary procedures, the I ines , h ie ra rchies

and spati al organi zat ions t hat bodi es are asked

to maint ai n as part 01 the disciplinary Iineaments

01 culture.2

The se two examples h ar dly su ffi ce , t hough ,

when one considers what might be done toward

stud) 'ing nwthods 01 cu til 'at ing the body - II hole

d is cipl in es through which i t i s molded, s hap l'< l,

transform ed and, in essence, created. Such dis·

c ip lines inc lude a li sports and ph) 's ical-cultu re

I Jursuits ; r egulat ions governing pos ture , e tiquette

and comportment , and \vhat i s d ubiousl )' tit lcd

nonverbal communicati on ; habit s i n t il(' work-

p la ce or p la ce

01

worship; conduct in the per-

rorming arts; pat te rns

01

standing. Ivin. :'.sitting.

If y ou a re a sked to d esc ribe an objec t, y ou answe r

tha t i t isa body with a sur face , impenetrable,

shaped, coloured, and movable . But subtrac t a li

t he se a dject iv es f rom your deôn it io n and wha t i s

lef t o f tha t imaginary being you call a body?

- Den is D id ero t, Let te rs on the Dea f a nd Dumb

As a dance r working with, in and through the

body, I experi ence it as aJ?9d)'-of-ideas. I be-

Ii eve it is, as Diderot observed, the sum aI' ali t he

adjectives that can be applied to it. I know the

body only t hrough i ts.response to th~ds

anJ

technigiíesusedt~-~~Tti;;te

t..

Wli ê'ri 1 i -ead recent cri ti cal wri ting about the

body, Iam, on the one hand, delighted at this

new interest in it, and on the other, dismayed by

the tendency to treat it as a symbol ror desire ar

sexuali ty, for a ut opi a, ror that which i s u ni que

to woman or for the clusive nature

01

the tex to

These writings seldom address the body I know;

inst ead, t hey move quickl y past arms, Iegs, t orso

and head on their way to a theoretical agenda

tha t r equires something unknowable

01

unknown

as an init ial premi se. The bou)' remains myst eri-

ous and ephemeral , a convenient recept acl e for

thei r n ew theo ret ic al p os it io ns.

A lt ern at ive l) ', t hes e wri ti ng s sc ru tini ze and

analyze t he bod)', but only as a product

01

the

v ar io us di scours es tha t mea su re i t. I- Je re i t e xi st s

dS t he re fcr en t r or g en re s

01

ca lc ul at io n tha t con-

cern the h is torian 01 science 01 s exu al it y: we

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the instructions gÍ\'Cn, Yctsuddl'llh-. illl'Xplic'.l-

hl)', it diverges from expcctatiom, fl·\T.lls llc'\\

dimensions and mutel)' declares its unwilling.

ness ar inabi li ty to execute commands. Brief

1110mentsof mastery of the bod)' '' 01' of fceling

a t one wi th the bod)'' ' occur , producing a kind

of ecstas)' that motivates the danceI' to continue,

elear sensations 01' impravement ar progress _

the result of a rnomenta r) ' matching of one 's

knowledge and awareness of the bod~' with a de.

veloping physical capacity - also pravide encour.

agement. The prevailing experience, ho\\'e er,

isone of loss, of fai ling to regulate a miragel ike

substance, Dancers constantl)' apprehend the

dis crepanc) ' between what the) ' want to do and

what the)' can do. Even after attaining official

membersh ip in the profess ion, one never has

confidence in the bod) s reliabilit)', The struggle

continues to develop and main tain the body in

response to new choreographic projects and the

devastating evidence of aging,

Training th~çI ~_a.t :~_.~v2-I~~ies: o~~-

ce~\:e.d._~nd_ a~lg ble;he other, acsth~tic~DyJi~~

The dancer's perceived bod)' derives pril11arily

fram sensor)' informalion that isvisual, aural,

haptic, 01factor) ' and, prrhaps most important •

kinaesthetic. Dancers see large portions oftheir

o\\ 'n bouies, a vis ta that changes as the) ' mO\T,

The)' hear the sounds produced b)' locomotion,

h)' one holi) ' part contact ing another, hy lhe

hreath and hy joints and Illuscles creolking, pop-

ping and grinding asthe) ' nex, extend and rotate,

The)' feel the body's contact with the 'ground,

with objects ar persons and with parts ofi tsclf

and the)' sense its ternperature anu s,, eat.Thc)'

smell sweat anu breath, Thc)' sensc kinacsthl'tic

indications of the tension 01'relaxation, tollltncss

01' laxness , and degree ofexertion for ever) '

rnllscle, the action of any joint and, conscqll(·ntly,

the proximity of one bone to another, the rel .1-

tionship 01'an)' polrt of the bod)' to gral'il)' and

the entire hod~ s C(luilibriunl. 1\n)'01'this infor.

mation ahollt the percei\'cd bod)' Illol)'he incor·

porated into til(' dolnce'r'sideal hodv, whel'e il

Doncing Bcdies

eat ing, walking, asw0llas ali pract ices that con-

tribute to the development ofwhat MareeI Mauss

has eal led techniques of the body, -lSuch prac-

t iees , Foucault has demonstrated, are part of the

fabric ofculture i tselr. They invest, mark, t rain

and tor ture the body; they force i t t o car ry out

tasks . to perform ceremonies. and to emit s igns , 4

The dail)' praçti,c,~Jmti21?ation of a body in

any of _~~~~c:..':I~'plinesmakes of it a body-of.

i tleas . .Each discinl ine refers to i t using select

mct ;; p~orÚb.~_~bIT.t roR~~ t l~~e i tove r.

These tropes may be drawn from anatomical

discourse 01'the science of kinesiology; 01'they

may liken the body to a machine , an animal 01'

any other worldly object 01'evento They may

be art iculated asverbal descriptions of the

body and its act ions , 01'asphysical act ions that

show i t how to behave. Whethe r worded 01'

enac ted, these tropes change i ts meaning by

re-presenting i t,

In \Vhat fol lows, I shall attempt to describe

one s~~~ ~?_~tof-ideas, that of the theatrical

danceI', r have imagined that I am address ing

SÕr;:;-O;lCWIIO has secn but never participated

in thcatrical dance. My cO~lm~ 1 ~i~1li. .ltOtwo

sections: the first focu~e2-?~. h~Jorm. 1tion of

da,íCi,íg -io,lllycon~cious 2~s:,-.~~1.~_~~:~nd

situates this Ijoiljri-cõi;~iousness in a cultural

alld aesthetk i110n;~~t.·B~tÍl arc'firmiy rooted

iJia \Veslern frameIVork for considering lhe

purpose and value ofdance; they cannot avoid,

even asthe) ' t I' )' to provide a perspective on,

Western assumptiuns about the bod)' , the self

and the express ive act .

The Perceived and Ideal

Dancing Bodies

Typicall)'. a danceI' spends an)'where from two

to six 110ursper da) ', s ix to se\ 'en da) 's per wcek

for eight to ten ) 'ears creat ing a dancing body

During the course of this tra\'ai , lhe hod)'

seems

('I)nstantl)' to c1ude one's cfTorts to direct it. The

danceI' pursues a certain technique for reform-

in ~til(' hnch-.and til(' hndv S('('I11<o ('onform to

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combines with fantasizeel visual 01'kinaesthetic

. images of a boely,images of other elancers' boel-

ies anelcinematic 01'vieleo images of elancing

boelies. The dancer's ideal body may specify size,

shape anel proport ion of it s parts as wel l as ex-

pertise at executing specific movements. Both

boelies, the perceived and the ideal, consist of

the skeletal, muscular and nervous systems and

any fat t issue of the biological body. The lungs,

stomach, sense organs, circulatory systems exist

only minimally; other organs and the endocrine

system not at all ~' .

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Both hodies are co~s~~~~? ir ts .ª; ç4,~ each

influences the development of the 'other. Both

result from the process 01'taking dance classes,

aswell aswatching elance and talking about it.

Cumulatively, these activities help the danceI' to

develop skills at attending to, duplicating, repeat-

ing and remembering bodily movement.

A

third

kind ofbody, the demonstrative body, m~dia~~

the~~~i~~i~ti~;'~i'

sk~}s

b~ .~~~;g

cori'ecfór-í'ilcõrl'ect movement. Where the ideal

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bodyel\:iC1estFi~A~l1.:.e.l:.witnts penection, the

dem011~;tf~Ú~~~~dy did~tT;~-iíy'e~npha~Izesor

even exaggerates actions necessary to improve

dancing: it isolates moments in a movement

sequence 01'parts ofthe boely in order to pre-

sent an analysis 01'the ideal.

T~~

~~monstratiy'~,

body elisplaysitself in the body 01'the teacher,

anel ;~7netimes in one's own image in the mirror

anelin the bodies 01'other stuelents in the class

aneltheir mirrar images. For example, when

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look at another student in the class, I see heI' 01'

his body not as that ofa friend 01'an acquain-

tance, but asthe bodily instantiation of desired

01'undesired, correct 01'incorrect, values.

Several systematic programs of instruction,

knoWi1ãS dãncêtechí1iquês~'ff-ex'isrfõfStüõ.ying

the perc~iy~4

po:dy,:() g~~n.i,~J Tg:~.rr~~:m~~~~~

it presentsand correlating it with demonstrative

anel

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deal'bodi~s. Ea~h'tech~iq~e '~~itiv~tés oüd-

ily strength, ile'xibility and alignment, the shapes

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' ,out i t ..Most tec 1ll ig': l~.ffer both a body topog- .

?'aphy,a ~iTlgork~y .<\re<\~.()~.<?~~~) l~.~.~ell;'

as principIes governing the,.proper relations of

tfíeseã;eãs~Tn da~;te~I~nique ~lasses, this

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tõpography isput in motion by performing

sequences of movement usually designated by ,' '.

th<:.de~~. '_tI-,~.t\'y <:, ?~4y_~he teacher . .v

Unlike the private classes offered in the tech-

nique of playing a musical instrument, dance

classes are usually attended by fifteen to fifty

students at a time. They occur daily, rather than

weekly 01'monthly, and they rarely present for

study and performance an entire dance compo-

sit ion. Pht 'ases 01'sections of dances may be

taught, but the issues of interpretation, develop-

ment, coherence 01'style of performance are

more often aeldressed in rehearsal for a specific

work rather than

in

technique class. Further-

more, dancers are not expected to pract ice

extensively on their own. Their training iscom-

munal and highly regimented, but it isalso con-

text specific. Asstudents learn to duplicate the

correctly demonstrative body and to avoid the

mistakes of the incorrect body, they present

(anelare presented with) endless new variations

on right and wrong. The demands ofboth the

perceived and the ideal bodies are thus redefined

by each teacher with each group of students.

E~<;.hd~ lf~c 1l1l3.ue relie~~extensive

nOl}l~ : ÇJ.~l~I~,.§9Jl'letimesiteral and s~;1;et1mes

r;~. ~E~O ~S.<?~.~~s.ig;~~T~iey';~~a; oftr~~-b~dy

and their relations:

A

danceI' may be asked to .

tot~te th;'h~~'d-;fth;f~TI1~; i~the hip socket,

l ift the floating ribs 01' increàse the space be-

tween the skuIl and top cervical vertebra ; altero

natively, to become a baIloon expanding with

air 01' a puppet. Techniques might visualize

the body asa se t ofabstract lines running close

to the bones, asa se t ofpoints 01'regions ofthe

surface and interior, asa set of forces that l ift,

descend, expand 01'condense specified areas of

the body. Dancers puIl, tuck, extend, l ift, soften

and kllgllwn

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of the

ho<ly

th ro llgho ll t t :h~~ .

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Bad hahits (only recognizablc as such 01H'l'the)'

already exist) indicate probl('ms that recjuire

special attention. lI' the metaphoric system in

use proves inefTective in eliminating bad habits

or in preventing or curing injury, the daneer may

discard it in favor 01'al ternative systems, The

dancer must decipher each new interpret ive

framework, however, using asreference the body

01'metaphors built up thraugh prior training.

Asdancers l abor to meet the s tandards for

the ideal body - dete rmined sometimes by

themselves, at others bya choreographer, style

or tradition - they inevitably encounter areas '

ofbodily resistance or incapacity, These deficits

are exaggerated by the intensity 01'training, and

they produce highly distorted, often obsessin~

images 01'the perceived body. The training regi-

men reveals the perceived body to be horribly

deficient in the size and proport ion 01'i ts parts .

rts areas 01'inflexibility and lack 01'strength or

endurance can take on grotesque dimensions .

Its inabili ty to imitate shapes, to hear rhythms

or to relax or tense appropr ia te ly become an

aberrant inadequacy,

Working to correct bad habits, to modify

the body's aberrat ions and to increase its capa·

bil it ies, the dancer frequently incurs pain and

learns Cluicklyto distinguish bet\Veen several

kinds: constructive pain that \ \' il ll rad togrcatcr

strength or flexibility; destructi\'C pain caused

bythe incorrect posit ioning or use 01' a part 01'

the body; chronic pain, the cumulativc result 01'

bad habit ; pain resulting from too Illuch tension,

too lit tle s trength, acti\ 'i ties other than dance,

overambition, inattentiveness and so on, Some

pains remain consistent and reliabll' , and the

dancer carries them arollnd asconstant features

ol'bodily topography. Others, intl'rmittent and

unpredictable, cause the dancer to chasl ' aftn

them in search 01'a diagnosis that could prevl 'n t

their recurrl'nce.

Asboth the percei\ 't 'd and the ideal hodies

develop, the)' increasingl)' occup)' lhe dancer's

consciousness. OVl'r time, dancers inLTeasillgiy

LJUIIClflg bv,J18~

curves or anglrs that body parts can f()rrn, and to

place these in a particular shape at agiven time.

They learn to delineate rhythmic structures, to

regulate the flo\\'01'effort fram one part to another,

to sculpt, t race and imprint these parts in space,

Both the exercises themselves and any direc-

t ives offered bythe teacher are usually highly

repetit ive. Drill ing isnecessary because the aim

is nothing less than creating the body. With repe-

t it ion , the images used to describe the body and

its actions

become

the body. Metaphors that are

inapplicable or incomprehensible when first

presen ted take on a concrete rea li ty over t ime,

through their persistent association with a given

movement . For example, i t may a t f ir st s eem

impossible to lift the leg forward using the back

thigh muscles , but continued attempts to execute

the movement wi th thi s image inmind sub tly

reorganize muscular involvement so asto pro-

duce the c lear percept ion tha t p reci se ly thi s is

happening.

Over months and years 01'study,.the t ~ng

P.~o~~.ssepe:ateA y,I:~confjgures ilie b~dy: it iden-

t if ies and names aspec ts or part s tha t were pre-

viously unrecognized, and it restructures the

,hole in terms 01'dynamic actions that relate

the variolls parts , Neither the perceived body

nor the ideal body remains constant throughout

this process: definit ions ol'both are altered and

refined. The mastery 01'one area 01' the body's

topography enables the dancer to comprehend

new images and to reconsider familiar ones from

anel\ ' perspective. Once one can l ift the leg

from underneath, one can appreciate anel\'

how to avoid Ieaning into the hip 01' the sup-

porting Ieg.

Metaphors open out into related metaphors ,

leading the dancer further into agiven system for

conceptualizing the bod)' - The daily routines 01'

training consolidate metaphoric knowleclge and

thereby produce bodily habits, some good and

some bad, Good habits form the basis for the

nf'wly perceived body, and the)' alio\\' the student

to attend to assimilating additional information.

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monitor their alignment , the quali ty of their

movemen t and their bodily pain - not on ly in

the dance studio but in quotiui an s itua tions as

well. They may 01'may not apply technical prin-

cipies learneu in the dance class to dai ly chores

and routines, but they certainly attend more

ful ly to these act ivit ies. They also retain kinaes-

thetic information from past performances 01'

these act ivit ies so asto begin to acquire a his tor-

ical sense of their own bodily movements .

Most dance classes emphasize seeing a move-

ment anu then performing it, whicl~ further

heightens the uancer's kinaesthetic awareness of

others. Dancers, ~n_oJ_eban b..,- sewho do . l0t

uance, s trongly sense what other person~' bodily

movements feellike. Walking uown the street,

they regis teI' the characteris tic posture anu gai t

of passers-by; in conversat ion, they sense the

s louch, s train and gesticulations of othcrs. This

capacity for kinaesthetic empathy, however, '-'

rarely indú'des erotic f~lings. ThemetaphQrs

used to t ra in - th~ d~~ing body seldom, i feve r,

refer to t~~ sexual body:-TheTr~~l e;:;ty~f

mirrors in I~arning t~..< ~f1~~rC n.? :~~~,~m of

narcissistic ~f1 ~~~ mentwith the body, but this

is usmll1y mitigat:.~ bJ ~~_i~j~ D'.~o?~~Son,

and criticize, bódily inadequacies. The muscu-

loskeletal empathy de~~i~ped by dancing usually

involves an appraisal of the other 's and one's

own perceived bodies. The sexual bodies, per-

haps adjacent to, and informed by, the dancing

bodies, remain clearly separate .

A dancer's~~sness of the body

thus ranfeslletween heI' 01'~i~p«:~~~~~~ body

- with ali its páins'áJ;dcli~t;;rtions -:a 1d i';;ages,

both fantasizeu and real, ofother b.odies. Dancers

alternate between, 01'sometimes fuse together,

images from ali these bodies as they objecti fy,

monitor, scan, regard, attend to and keep track

ofbouily motion throughout the day.The m,-:ta-

phors learned during instruction..:..<:~~:_~s~oth

markersand 'Dteq~r~t~rs_:Qf,ª~y~I()p'il1g~~dily

~) consciousl1l·ss. They ~ls(Unt~grate the tr~\ning

\, 01'the 'oely'\~~i-thesthctic, social and Illoral .he-

licfs ab.Ql t.dance. The. repertoire of metaph9rs

learned in c1assfUI~ctionsnot only to uefine the

dancer' s body but also to establish the epistemo-

logical foundation for performing dance.

The Body of Dance Techniques

I havetried to describe the development ofuanc-

ing bodily consciousness in a way that would ap-

ply to most programs 01' instruct ion. Each dance

te~hni9ue, however, constructs a specialized and

specific body, one that represents a given chore-

o&~apher's 01'trauitio~':.~.:~th.e i(;visi?n of d~~lce.

Each techniqué 'c reat es a body that i sunique in

how it looks and what i t can do. Generally, t he

s tyle and ski lls i t imparts can be transferred only

partial ly to another technique; thus, bal let

dancers cannot assume the bearing 01'perform

the vocabulary ofmovements found in contact

improvisation, and vice versa. TJ:~illing~ot only

const ruct s a body but a lso helps to fash ion an

exp;:~ssive self that, in i ts relat ion with the bouy,

performs the dance. Aesthet ic express ion can

resul t when a se lf uses the body asa vehic le for

communicating i ts thoughts and feelings, 01'

when the self merges with the body and art icu-

lates i ts own physical s ituation. Body and selfcan

also coexist , enunciating their own concerns and

commenting on each other 's . Many other rela-

t ions are also possible, each producing a specific

aes thet ic impact on danceI' , dance and viewer.

ln urder to i\ lustrat e the dif fe rent forms tha t

exp .:~~i9. . ,~ot :f~lt an~~e~icteCl:-é;~tak~-;-(

liave compiled brief descriptions af fiv~t~enti-

êth~c-é~:~ry. techrlÍq~e~ tllat, fiirmúlat~~dig nct

bodíes ~I1d~~lves.Th<::~~~escriptions, which

emphasize the differenc:~s among the tech~lques,

deí-Tv~'fr~mchoreographers' and critics' writings

a\:íoutthe techniques, aswell as from obse~va-

tio~J..J~.~\,~~~arel 01'have 1Jl~~~ ~s.~~t. : ~9tin

cla~~:~~r fr~m comprehê~'sive, they present only

a fe\Vtl':Y fea tures ofeach technique ino;ue~ to

suggl':s. p(>s.siblerelationships between body and

se lf lhal resull f rom insl ruct ing lhe hody in a

given dance techniquc.

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O an ci ng B od ie s

Bailei Technique. T\le dominJnt and most

fJllliliar 01' JII theatricJI dJnce techniqlles isbJI-

Iet . 01' the fivebodies to be considered here, i t is

the onl)' one with requirements for the dancer's

physique, Success in this technique depends in

pJrt on thin, long limbs capable

01'

displJying the

formJI geomctric feJturcs

01'

the trJdition. The

ideal body - l ight , quick , p reci se , st rong - des-

ignJtes the linear shapes, the rhythm 01' phrases,

even the pantomimed gestures, .111with Iyrical

effortlessness, Success also requires the promis-

ing s tudent to make anearly and dedica ted

commitment to intensive training. The per-

ceived body, never sufficiently thin or well pro-

portioned, must mold itself repeatedly into the

abstract forms presented in c1assand then on

stJge. The dancer's self exists to facil itate the

crJftlike acquisition 01' skills: it ser\'es the chore-

ographer and, ult imately, the tradition byorder-

ing the bod )' to prac ti ce and then to perform

ideaIs 01' movement.

Classes, organized into severallevels

01'

com-

petence, measure the student 's progress through

a stJndJrdized set 01' physical skills. Aswith the

levcls

01'

classes , the exercises in a given elass

progrcss from simple to more complex. Dancers

begin a standard dJily sequence \Vithone Jrm

stJbilizing the body byholding J barre. They per-

form mo\ 'ements, announced (in French) bythe

teacher, originating in, and returning to, bJsic

posit ions - f ir st on one s ide Jnd then, s \Vi tching

J rms J t the harre , on the other, The movements

work the Icgs(Jlways inJ turned-out posit ion)

Jnd, to J Ies se r extent , the arms to create var ia -

tions Jnd clllbellishments on CirClllJr Jnd trian-

gu la r designs , The torso provides a t Jut and

llsually erect center conneeting the fOllrappend-

ages Jnd the heJd. Approximately one half 01' a

c1JSSsession tJkes place at the barre, Stlldents

then mon' to the center 01' the room for longer,

nlOrt' intric.1tc cOlllhinations Jl ,'arying tcmpos,

Cbss l'nds \V'it h S('flu('nn's 01' IcJps Jnd Iurns in

\\ hich dJneers tr,1ITIJCross the room diJgonJII)',

two 01' thrp(,' Jt a timp, Dpsrriptinn, 01' mn\'P-

Ill l'nts Jnd corrcctions Jre phrased soJSlo Jsk

pJrts 01' the body to eonform to abstrJct sh' '1Jes;

the)' place the pelvis

01'

head in specific locatiolls,

or extend the limbs along imaginar) ' l ines in

space. Additional cri teria based on the prccision

01'

timing, c1arity

01'

shape Jnd lightness

01'

qual.

ity ali meJsure the studcnt's performJllce,

The teacher i llustrates the correct JpproJch

byperforming a small excerpt from the phrase

- seldom, i fever, anen tire sequence. The idcJI

body glimpsed in performances

01'

the prelllin

dancers thus remains dis tinct froll l the demon-

strat ive body thJt models proper practice, Froll l

the teacher's unchallenged Juthorit)', students

assimilMe the system 01' vJlues Jnd internJlize

the impu lse to eva lua te and rank thei r own and

others' performances. Competition, Jlthough

quiet , i s f ie rce - in part becJuse stambrds for

perfection are so c1earlydefined. The aesthetic

San Francisco Baile .

Garry Sinick

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San Francisco Ballel,

Garry Sinick

1 1l 1. 'l ll s . JI HI U Jl ll Tl ll ll l: -. d i, ,: 1 1J ll d: -. • • ..1 ~ lJ .I :- . l u d :- 't >.

parls 01'the lod)' to conform to ah,tr~l't ,h~pl'S;

lhe)' placc lhe pl' '' 'i ' 01'he~d in 'pl'l 'ilk IOl'~lion',

01'extcnd the limhs ~Iong illlagin~r)' lines in

space. Additional crite 'ia h~setl on the prccisioll

01'timing, clarit)' 01'shape and lightness 01'(llI~l-

ity ali measure the student's perfonnance,

The teacher illustrates the correct appro~l'h

byperforming a small excerpt from the phr~se

- seldom, ifever, an entire seC]uence,The ide~1

body glimpsed in performances 01'the premieI'

elancers thus remains elistinct frOIllthe demon-

strat ive body that models proper practice, from

the teacher's unchallenged authorit)', sludcnts

assimilate the system 01'values and internali7.e

the impulse to evaluate anelrank their own ~nd

others' performances. Competition, allhollgh

guiet , i s f ie rce - inp~r t because s tandards for

perfection are so clearl)' defined. The aesthetic

BaileI Technique.

Thc

domil1~111~l1d mosl

f~mili~r 01'~IIthe~tric~1 d~nce techniC]lIes is b~l-

Ict . 01' thc fi\ 'c hodics to be cOllSidered here, i t is

the onl)' one with reCjllirements for the dancer's

ph)'siCjllc,SlIccess in this techl1igue depends il1

p~rt on thil1, IOl1gimbs capable 01'displa)'ing the

form~1geometric features 01'the traditiol1. The

ideal botly - l ight , g ll ick, precise, s trol1g - des-

ignates the linear shapes, the rhythm 01'phrases,

evel1the p~ntomimed gestures, ali with Iyrical

effortlessl1ess, Success also reguires the promis-

ing studel1t to make al1early and dedicated

commitment to intensive training The per-

ceived body, never sufficiently thin 01'well 1'1'0-

portioned, must mold itself repeatedly into the

abstract forms presented in c1assand then 011

stage. The dancer's self exists to facil itate the

crartlike acguisition 01'skills: it serves the chore-

ographer and, ultimately, the tradition byorder-

i l1gthe body to practice and then to perform

ideaIs 01'movement.

Classes, orgal1ized into severallevels 01'com-

petence, measure the student's progress through

a standardized set 01'physical skills, Aswith the

Ievcls 01'classes, the exercises in a given c1~ss

progress from simpieto more complex. Dancers

bcgil1 a stand~rd daily seCjllel1Cewith one ~rm

stabilizing the bod)' byholelil1ga harre. The)' per-

fonn mo\'ements, annoul1ceel (il1French) by the

teacher, originatil1g in, anel returning to, basic

posit ions - first on one side and thel1 , s \\ 'i tching

arms ~tlhe barre, on the other. The movements

work lhe legs (always in a turneel-out position)

and, to a lesse rextent, lhe anns to create vari a-

tions and embellishments on circular anel trian-

gulat ' designs, The torso provides a taut anel

usuall)' erecl center connecting the four append-

ages and the heael, Approximatel)' one half 01'a

c1asssession takes place at the b~rre, Students

thel1 move lo the center 01'the room for longer,

more intricate combinations at var)'ing tempos,

Class ends \Vith seguences 01'leaps anel turns in

which dancers travei across the room eliagonally,

1\\'001' lhree at a time, Descriptions 01'move-

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Isadora Dunean, Rubyaiyat of Ornar Khayyam, 1899.

Jaeob Sehloss

great nineteenth-century classical composers.

Dancers .lIso act out simple imaginary scenarios

guided by the music 's meter anelharmonic de-

ve]opment. Since music isconsiderecl to be the

truest expression of the human soul, dance,

which replicates its compositional structure,

can likewise indicate the soul's ephemeral but

fervent states ofbeing When students are asked

to retreat , shiclding themselves from an evil

force moving toward them, or to fali to the

ear th , l ie qu iet ly and then r is e to g reet the sun ,

they are participating, body anelsoul, in primor-

dial human situations.

Students imitate the unpretentious intent

and full-bodied commitment of the teacher,

who frequently dances alongside them. The

actual shape ofthe limbs is less important than

the e1egreeof involvemenl in the dance, evident

in the face, the <lualityof movemcnt and lhe

graceful connections among arcas of the body,

These criteria li) ' succcss discouragc critical

Duncan Technique

Reacting in part against the

artificial and hierarchical organization of ballet,

Isadora Duncan and several other early t \Venti-

eth-century choreographers and performers

pioneered a radically ne\Vdance aesthetic and

a concomitant approach to training the body.

Claiming for lhe body an intrinsi~ freedom and

meril , Duncan transported those liJr ,hol1lshe

danced into an evanescent realm of feeling-filled

forms . Her work has been reconst ructed by a

number ofcompanies that currently perform and

teach regularly throughout the United States.

I thas a lso been preserved in the p ract ices of

dance camps that offer summer study, primarily

to women, in interpret ive dancing

For Duncan and those following in her tradi-

tion, the dancing body manifests an original natu-

ralness. Unadorned by the contrived distortions

of movement that modern society incurs, the ideal

body inheres in a prima] experience of integration

both within one's self and within society. Its har-

monious passages for the limbs and graceful phras-

ing emanate from the protean ductility ofthe

respiring central torso. It ishere, in the region of

the solar plexus, that sou]and body meet and con-

verse. The ideal body resides within every body

but deforms atan early age in response to social

pressures, Byrequiring dance study of ali young

children, it isthought, society wil make itself

over, for dance isa revolutionary force that evokes

noble and pure motives in ali its participants,

In order to cul tivate the na tural body and to

allow it to relinquish affected habits, Duncan's

approach advocates the study of basic human

movements such as walking, running, skipping,

Iying do\Vn,standing, turning and jumping - ali

performed wilh agraceful , relaxed fullness, ini-

l iatcd bypatterns of breath, These basic l1love-

ments form se<jucnccs practiccd to music of

rationale based on the pursuit of classica] beauty

offers dancers no alternative conceptions of

dance: inabili ty to succeed at ballet implies fai l-

ure at ali dance. S



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evaluation of one's own

01'

others' bodies (slIch

a pronounced distance between perceived and

ideal bodies could only result in pretentious

performance). Instead, through repetit ion in a

coml11unal setting, movement and l11usicwork

their elevating, liberating charm. The ideal body,

then, one that has achieved simplicity in its move-

l11entand harmony \Vith the self, isslles from a

nurturing collective of bodies.

Graham Technique.

For Martha Graham, the

dancing body must possess the strength, flexi-

bility and endurance necessary to provide the '

expressive self \Vith a fully responsive instru-

ment. The goal ofdance, to represent in arche-

typal form the deep con fl ic ts o f the human

psyche, can be realized only through a rigorous

training programo Aswith Duncan, the body

functions asa perfect index of the self's feelings.

The self' s abili ty to express those feelings,

though, l ike the body's abili ty to manifest them,

shares none of DlIncan' s exuberance - the sel f

is too dark and repressed, the act of expression

too tor tured for movement to be l ight and free-

flowing. The ideal body, then, even as it mani-

fests an agile responsiveness, also shows in the

strained quality and definition of its muscula-

ture the ordeal ofexpression .

Graham's technique coalesced out ofthe

vocabulary she developed in heI' earliest dances .

The basic set of exercises, which became routine

bythe 1950s, dominated the American univer-

s ity dance cuniculum for many years, and it

continues to provide a coherent and viable aIter-

native to ballet train ing in dance schools around

the world. The f ir st half of a c lass - as much

time as the ballet student spends at the bane -

consists ofcxercises performed in a sit ting 01'

Iying positionj students then practice sequences

standing and, i'inally, traveling across the floor.

The exercises privilege movements originating

in the torso and radiating Ollt\Vithrcstrained

tcns ion to the per iphery of the body. The s low

progression from sitting to standing to traveling,

~~



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CunninBham Technique.

Ivlerce Cunningham,

a I ll cl ll bc r 01' l he thi rd gc nc ra lion 01'Al11e ri can

rnod ern dance rs, I ef t Mar tb a Gra ba ll l' s cOl ll l' an )'

in lhe lale 1940s lo de\'elop bis OIH] approach lo

choreogr aphy and t ecll ll ique .

Cunningha l1 l' s l11elhod presents lhe physica l-

i lv 01'mul ti pl e bod ic s ins cr ib ing c ol ll l' lcx s l' ,l ti al

and temporall 'att crns. Il is concepli on of tll l'

d an cing bod; ' ruse s body and s el fb y i ll ll ll cr sing

t he sel r in lhe practi cal pursuit 01' enhancing tl 1( '

b ody' s a rl ic ul an . '1 '1 1( 'se lr d oc s nCl tu se' t he bo(h·

1 ,)1' i ls O\vn eXI'I \ 's si \' (' I 'u rl '0ses as in Graha ln or

Duncan; r at l, cr , i t de di cal es i ts el f, a s in I Ja il et ,

t o lhe n ar tl ik c l as k 01' I l 'p ar ing a nd 1 '1 \ '' ''n ti ng

lllon 'l1lcn t. Unlike balle t, hOI\T\' (' J' , a rad ic ,l lh ·

nonhicrarcl ,i a l defin it io l1 OfCOllIH' I( ' (T . ll le l

distillcti\'l ' I':\llIe pn'l'aik Cl1l1l1il1ghalll\ al' l' roaclr

c ekhral cs I1ni 'l e 1' I, ) 'i 'l es , ' l' ,i rk ilH' ss a ll d t i\ ('

t1nal1t ic il 'a ted. This is, inl 'a rl , t ire 0IH'II-el1ded

nH'S~;)gl' hi~ (1.111(TS l OIl\ CY.

Lxcrciscs li' t IH' I<'clrn i( l l ' cbss I 'a r;- fro ll1

Thc pr in cipa ll ll ct aphC lr c xp lo re d in lhc sc

excrciscs, that orcont racti on and r leasc, 1'1'0-

I1lCltCSa conncction bct\\ 'ecnphys ical and psy-

chological functioning. Stude11ts introsl'ecli\'el)'

delve into the interior body as the} contract and

r el at e internal to external space t hr ough var iuus

p athway s 01' r cl eas e. Unl ik e Duncan 's c la ss es, i n

whi ch the student i s c ast i nto imagi ned si tua-

t io ns , t he cOl1lmen ts made in Grah am 's c la sse s

refer only ind iree tly to ps) 'c1lOlogical experience:

they al lu de to the se lf 's cond it io n by contextua l-

i zi ng physical corr ecti ons wit hin t he l ar ger and

arduous project 01' becomi ng an art ist. Just as

t he chor eogr apher rnust suhmi t to conslant self -

i nt er rogati on concerni ng lhe vali dit y 01' the

dance's message, 50 the danccr scruli ni zes sel r

as \ \'el l as body in a scar ch r or t il (' causes 01' t he

body' s unrespons i\ ,eness . The dancer' s perce i\ 'ed

bady, abays lacking either in integration or

ar ti cu lat io n, mus t st ru gg lc to h eco l1l e l110re lha n

it is - a q uest that, in turn, strengthens and

sensi tizes the self.7

Ba rb ara Mo rg an

Duet from

Amer;can Document. 1939

and the t ensilc SUClTssi ons rr om cenl ral t o

periphcral hody, al Ti rm both l he possi bili ty and

lhe di rl ic ul t; · orbod ily expres sion . Excrci se s,

repealed \\ 'i lh sl ight vari at ions compmcd by the

t eachcr eaeh da)', cause lhe hody to spi ral ar ound

a spinal cor e, extendi ng oul and tl 1< 'n pull ing

back into d)'na.nic p,, ,i tions. TIl l' I , dy, gaka-

ni zed int o acti on as l 1l uch h) ' i ts ol\'n I '0tent ial

l 'IH' rg \ a s by t ll l' di ss on an t l ex lulTS or th c l1lus i-

c al a c(ol ll pan il ll en t, a rr in' s o n t il (' dO\ \' nlH' at ,

hu t t l1( 'n s urges a lmos t inn11ediat cly in a I )t '\ \'

di rc ct iC ln . A lthough thc p rc ci se , c tr ic 1 '( '( I il '( '-

n l( 'n ts ror thcse min ia ture cvc les Clrat trac tiCln

and l \' it hd ra \\ '. ll g il 'l ' l he c la ss a n almo st m il il ar )'

a l' l' (' ara11Ce, lcnsi lc e last ic it ;· p redCll ll inatcs O\' (' r

1

i. 'L1all'attcrn in til(' olTral1 mO\'('nH'nt.

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mass. Contact improvisation gained popularity

rapidly in the United States uuring the [970s

and early 1980s asan art is tic and social move-

ment. [ts technique elasses were complemented

b)' freguent informal practice sessions known as

jams, which allowed dancers to learn from,

perl(lI'Ill f()I',and socialize Wilh, onc anolhl'l'. lts

I)'ri( ll,llhklicislll h.1Shcen inl'<lrpor.lled inlo lhe

movement style 01'man)' dance companies in the

United States and . lIso in Europe, where it o lTers

one

01'

the few alternatives to ballet training.

Unlike an)' 01' the other techniques discussed

here, contact improvisation sets parameters for

how to move but does not designate a set vocabu-

lary 01' movements for students to learn. Stuclents

explore throllgh improvisation the movement

territory established by the stylistic and techni-

cal rules 01'the formo Classes inelucle practice at

simple skills 01' weight transfer as well as oppor-

tunit ies to use them through improvisation with

others. Exercises present ways to clrain weight

out 01'one area of the body, to collect i t in

another anclto transfer weight across any 01'the

body's joints. Certain Iifts 01' rolls are practiced

again and againj other exercises direct stuclents

to experiment for several minutes at a t ime with

methocls of regulating and channeling the body's

weight on thei r own 01' with a partner. As in

Duncan's approach, the body is believed to have

its own intel ligence - though one encumbered

by its art ificial and ungainly habits. Dancers can

be advised on how to

1'011,

jllmp into another's

arms 01' l and from a grea t he ight , but they are

. lIso encouraged to Iis ten to the body, to be

sensitive to its weight and inelinations and to

allow new possibilities

01'

movement to unfolcl

spontaneollsly hy attencling to the shifting net-

work 01'ongoing interactions .

The teacher's guidance, l ike the students'

participation, ishased on an assessment

01'

the

needs 01' the momento Rather than specifying a

series of preconcci cd forms, both tcacher and

students n1llst determinc what mO '('ment is ap-

prol'ri,IIC for 11)('1:1 0111'

I a

,1:i\'I'nlinH·. Inlhis

Contact lmprovisation Tec:hnique.

[fthe Cun-

ningham body isa jointed one, the body culti-

vateu in contact improvisation is weighted and

momentous. This technique, developed collabo-

ratively in the early 1970s by Steve Paxton, Nancy

Stark Smith, Lisa Nelson and others, explores the

body's rclat ions to gravit) ' and to other bodies

which resll lt from ils ahili ly lo flow asa ph)'s ical

day to day as they systematically explore the

body's segments and their possible range 01'

movement. They present spinal curves, arches .

and twists, leg Iifts, knee bends, brushes 01'the

foo t - a li us ing quot idian names for part s 01'

the body and their actions. Sequences

01'

these

moves, complex in duration, meter and rhythm,

form subt .- rd.ltions \\'ilh lhc SlllTolllHlingSP,ll l'.

Students focus on accomplishing elear bodily

enunciations 01' these spatiotemporal relations.

The danceI' isasked to enhance bodily accom-

plishment by remaining alert an(J'concentrated,

to be quiá on his 01' heI' feet. Where ballet's

ideal body privileges certain joint actions over

others, Cunningham's ideal body is imbued

equally throughout with animated alertness.

The teacher presents movement sequences

asproblems to be solved. Students are asked to

focus on and to demonstra te, through their

art iculacy, the choreography inherent in the

movement sequences. The height 01' a jump 01'

extended leg matters less than the elear presen-

tation

01'

complex directives - quick changes

01'

weight 01' focus, polyrhythmic patterns in differ-

ent body parts , carefully patterned paths 01'

movement across the floor. The accompanist

reinforces the emphasis on composition by

experimenting with different tonal and timbral

frameworks, even for the repetition 01' a given

exerci se. Such a strong and contrasting musical

presence affirms the autonomy 01'dance and

music as expressive media. Students must attend

to the two distinct forms simultaneously and to

their unpredictable relationships, rather than to

fuse one with the

other.8



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Nancy Stark Smith and Alan Ptashek,

Conlacl I mpr ov is al io n, 1 97 9.

E ri ch F ra nz

dcmoc rat ic , u np rc dict abl e and h ighly phy si cal

sit uation, the dancer 's sel f hccomcs iml llerscd i n

lhe body, as il does f( )r Cunningham. The body,

hO \\TI 'l 'r , i s n ol inv es te d \ \' it h an ongoing iel en-

t il y: i ts e le l' ini ti on i s c on st an tly rcn cgot ia le d in

lhe ch anging contex t 01 't he imp rnvi sed danc e.

Ideal ly, i ls slrength should be sulfi cient to bear

the \ \'e ig ht 01 ' anothc r; b ll t e l' l' n more i ll lpo rl an t,

it must manil'est an ability to go with the now9

fl ot h contact i lll pr ovisati on and Duncan tech-

n ique ca st t he t ea ch er in the rol e 01 ' fa ci li ta to r,

and hoth ask sl lldents t o apprel'iate and encol lr-

ag e one anothe r. Eac h 01' t he se t ec hn i<plcs el ll -

brace s al lp ar ti cipan ts in the c1 as s, \ \' ha te l' er t hei r

.'1'

r 1 (' \' (' 1 r ' '' ,,)(' rt ise, as nH'llllH'rs r a ('Olll-

Il lunil y ofel ancers. I n hall el , hy contr asl, t he

h ie ra rchy 01'Valll l'Scv iden t in the ' \TIs 01'c1?ssl 's

and compani cs, in l he chorcography i lsclf and

in i ts vi ewers' r es pons es a li i nc it e c ompet it ion

among stud en ts , l 'ca ch er s, as the y int ro du ce

the tradi tion's standar ds for success aml rank

the studcnts' pcr formance agai nst t hem, em-

body the a utho ri ty 01 't he t rad it ion 's a hs tr act

ideaIs. Graham's t echnique, on t he other hand,

pl aces dancer s in competili on wi th each ot her

bu t a lso w ith lhems elve s. C ri t er ia for su cce ss

revo lv e around the danc cr 's ab il it y to pe rform

ful ly Grah am 's voc abulary 01'movemen t, b ll t t he

dancer is also askcd lo fuse i nner I lloti vation

wit h physical form. The l eacher encourages t he

st udent to measure this psychological and physi -

cal participa tion through cOlllments tha t q llcs tion

onc 's commitment to d iscipl ine. Cunningham's

t echniqu e, w ith i ts empha si s on compos it ion ,

en courag es da nc er s to int cres t l hemsel l'e s in mak-

ing dance as well as i n performi ng. Stll dent s take

fr om c1ass what el 'er i nsighl s may he relnant to

thei r own c aree rs as choreographer s and danccr s,

The st ruc tu re 01' aUlho ri ly d e\ 'elopl 'd in l 'ac h

cl ass hel ps to connect the danci ng hod) ' to its al'S-

t ll l' tic pro ject . Balle t' s p resc ribed pairings 01'pos i-

t io ns a nd s te ps , and i ts e ll lp ha si s on o ll tl \'a re ll y

r ot atcd legs and arms, constr ucts a f kxihlc, elc-

gan t, I if ted body tha t d isplays t ll l' c la ss ical linear

and ar ri al for l1 1s t hal ar e the Idl lll ar ks 01' that

l rad it ion , The teac hc r' s conl 'i se di rl 'l 't il 'l 's pl ac e

the s tud ent w ithin lhat t ra di ti on. D llnc an 's l I' alks

a nd s kips , d il ler ent f rol ll t he ( ll lO lidi an inlhei r

rh) 'thm and qua li ty , e l11hod)' an ideal 01'nalural-

I1( 'S5. ' lheir g racc fu l, g ro llnded litheness sel 'ks

to r ender t he hocl y tr anspar ent lo the IU111inous

incl ina lion s 01 ' lhe sou . 'l he l cac hn 's e nthu si -

aS11Ianel conl' ic tion hei lo incorpora ll ' t il (' s lu -

de nt into the d an cing cO ll lmuni l) '- The rest raine d

successin' 1110\TIllents 01'Grahal11's contract ion

and relcasc huild s in l' \\ ') ', t l' ns ile, e I) 'n ,' ll lic oely

tha l s}mholi7,CS a sell' ful l o f turhu lent fee lings

a nd the s trugg lc inl1( 'r l'n t i ne~pre~sing thos e

f(Tli ng~, Th tea{'hc r' s int iI ll l ion of th n lu(l ll~

3



lt

i

~

,

training ahead warns students of their need for

commitment as i t summons them to the dance.

Cunningham's matter-of-fact inventory of the

body's structural capabilities produces a lanky,

intdligent, alert bod)' that elo(luently declaill1s

its own physicality. Cunningham teachers tend

to approach their students asjunior colleagues,

instructing them while prcserving their auton-

omy as potential artists. Contact improvisation's

athletic, I leet body realizes itself through the act

ofcontact with others. I ts teachers must consis-

tently empowcr students with the a~ili ty to im-

provise an innovative and sensitive response to

the collective gathering

01'

dancers.

Much more could be said abou t each 01' these

technigues - how each elaborates a set o f r cla-

tions among parts 01' the body, and among danc-

ing bodies, and how each de\ < 'lopsthe body

within a sonoral and architectural environment.

Ballet dancers, for example, have insisted on

practicing before a mirro r s i~ce the midd le of

the eighteenth century, whereas Duncan pre-

ferred teaching outdoors on a carefully groomed

lawn. Through choices such as these, reiterated

daily in distinctive routines, each technigue

introduces students to the set ofmetaphors out

01' which their own perceived and ideal bodies

come to be constructed. I t a]so instructs them

in the rhetorical relations that bind body to self

and to community.

Trisha Brown, Wa er Motor, 1978.

Babette Mangol e

: ;:i ~

Ir--i~J

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P'P-':'~'T7:M

The Hired Body

Prior to the last decade, each 01' these technigues

\Vasconsidered to be unigue. Not only did each

mark the body 50 deeply that a danceI' could not

adequatd) ' pcrform another techniquL', ut each

aesthetic project was conceived asmutually ex-

clusil'e

01',

ifnot hosti le to, the others. Recently,

ho\Vever, choreographic expcrimentation with

eclectic vocabularies and with new interdiscipli-

nary gel1l'es of performance has circumvented

the distincti l'eness of these bodies. Anew cadre

01' dance makers, called independent choreog-

raphers, has emerged; their aesthetic vision can

be traced to the exper imental choreography of

the early

19605

and

19705,

a per iod when chore-

ographic investigation challenged boundaries

between dance and day-to-day movemcnt and

claill1ed any and ali hUll1anmovement as poten-

tial dance. Because these choreographers' work

neither grows out of; nor i s supported by, any of

the academies ofdance, classical 01' modern, their

success depends largely on their own entrepre-

neurial effor ts to promote their work. New insti-

tutions of arts management and administration

have grown to meet the needs of producing their

work. Issues of fashion and fundabili ty have in-

creasingly inlluenced their aesthetic development.

These choreographers have not developed new

dance technigues to support their choreographic

goals, but instead encourage dancers to train in

several existing technigues without adopting the

aesthetic vision of any.They reguire a new kind

ofbody, competent atmany styles. The new mul-

titalented body resulting from this training melds

together features from ali the technigues dis-

cussed above: it possesses the strength and Ilexi-

bil ity found in ballet necessary to lif t the leg high

in ali directions; i t can perform any mOl'ement

neutrally and pragmatically, as in Cunningham's

technigue; it has mastered the athleticism of

contact improvisation, enabling a danceI' to fali

and tumble, and to suppor t another's weight ; i t

art iculates the torso asa Graham danceI' does;

i t has the agili ty

01'

Duncan's dancers.

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This hody exists alongside others that remain

more deeply involve() in, and consequently more

expert at, the techniques I haveoutl ined. It does

not display its skills as a collage 01'discrete styles

but , rather, homogenizes ali s ty les and vocabu-

laries beneath a sleek, impenetrable surface.

Uncommitted to any specific aesthetic vis ion,

it is a body for hire: it trains in order to make a

living at dancing

The hired body has been shaped partly bycon-

temporary practices 01'physical education whose

goals for such activ it ies assports , aerobics and

individual exercise programs - jogging, swim-

ming, weight lifting and so on - have been set

bythe scientization 01' the body's needs. Likethe

ideal body promoted by these activities, this hired

hody should achieve a certain heart rate, a general

leveI 01'strength and Ilexibility and a muscular

tonus. The cri teria for evaluating its train ing

share physical education's specialized and scien-

tific orientation. They use the language ofbiol-

ogy and kinesiology to appraise the strength,

flexibility and endurance 01'the body's muscle

groups. Through this scientitk language 01'the

body, the hody's character isreduced to princi-

pIes 01'physics: it can he enlarged here, c1asticized

there. This bod)', apureI)' ph)'sical object, can be

made O\'er into whatcver look one dcsires . Like

one's l ifes t) 'le, i t can be constructed to suit

one's desires.

01' equal influence on the hired bod)' is the

video dancing body, which isas familiar to

danrercize and MTVenthusiasts as to thcatrical

dance choreographers, per <)fmcrs and viewers.

The video dancing body isorten constru('\ed

rroll1the edited tapes 01'dance 1l10\,(~ll1entilmed

rroll1difTcrent anglcs and distances. Its 1l10tion

can bc slo\\'ed, sll1eared 01'replicated so that it

performs hreathtaking feats, and )'et it projects

none 01'the tensile qllalities 01'mO\Tmcnt, the

hody's sitllation in space 01'the charisma 01'a

live perrormance. Nonethel('ss, it orrers to per-

rO'l1\erS,choreugraphers and scholars the irre-

:;istible promise 01'a pennanent record 01'the

dance, ,hich can he vic 'ed and H'vie\\ 'cd iIHJer-

ini tel) '. This reconl, hclpfll l asa too}in the cho-

reographic process, has become increasingly

mandatory asa promotional device required b)'

ali dance producers and funding agencies asan

unproblematic simulacrull1 01'live dance.

Although the video body bears little resell1-

blance to any 01'the bodies perceived in the dance

class, it shares with the hired body certain ideaIs.

Both feature a rubbery Ilexibili ty coated with

impervious glossiness, and both are equally re-

moved from the aesthetic vision that implements

them. Training to construct i t primari ly takes

place standing behind the camera and sit ting in

the editing room. The techniques it manifests ,

along with the aesthetic orientation it supports,

be10ng properly to the medium 01'video, not

to dance asa perrorming art . Tra ining to con-

s truc t the h ired body occu rs in rooms ful l 01'

bodybuilding machines 01'in dance classes whose

overall aesthetic orientation may hold lit tle

appeal. 5tHl, both video and hired bodies appear

as the products 01'an elTicient and unbiased

training program, assumed to be neutral and

completeI)' adaptahle; as a result, thC')'mask the

process through \vhich dance technique con-

structs the bod)'.

01' course, there isnothing ne' ahout the

assertion 01'anormative or original bod)' , or an

efficaciolls 'a)' to instruct the hod)'. Dunran

and thC'other earl)' ll1o(krnists, ror cxample,

obscured their approach to constrl lcting the

bod)' h)' insisting 011the natllralness 01'their

training. Their natural hod)', ho\\'ever, contra-

vel1cd prevailil1g ~esthetil' ideaIs and I'l'csel1(('d

a profoundly different alternativc, \\'hC'reasthe

multipurpose hircd hod)' suhsull1es and sl1looths

over differenccs. The 11l0dernist approach to

dance making, evcn as it promoted the hody's

movement asmaterial suhstance to bc \Vorked

into art , assumed an irrcvocahlc connection to

a seI '.The hired hody, hllilt at a great distal1l'C'

rrom the self, recluces it to a pragll1atic 1l1C'r-

chant 01'movemcnt profTni ng \\'h~t('\·c lnnk

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appcals at the momento It not only denies the

existencc of a true, decp self, but also proscribcs

a relat ional self whose desire lo empathize pre-

dOlllinatcs ovcr its need for display. The hired

body likcwise threatens to obscurc the opportu-

nily, opened to us over this century , to appre-

hend lhe body as lIlultiple, prolcan and capable,

Iiterally, ofbeing made into many ditTerent

expressive bodies.

NOTES

I. See, for example, RolanJ Barthes,

The Empire

cifSigns,

Irans. Richanl HowarJ (New York: IliIJ anJ

Wang. 1978); and Barrhes by Barrhes. Irans. Riehard

Ho,, ard (New Yurk: Hill anJ Wang, 1977). Barthes,

ho,, e' ·er, also uses lhe hody asa symhol for desire aud

lhe 1Illconsdotls. I Jm indc. hkd to Cynth ia NO\,;lCk

ano to Kim 13entOIl fur their ínsightful COlllllll nls 011

Ihis paper.

Trisha

Brown,

M an Wa lk in g D ow n S id e o f B ui /d in g 1 97 0.

Carol Gooden

2. Michel Foucault,

Discipline alld Punish: The Bireh

C I(h~ friso 1 tr.\l1s.

Abl1 Shl rid.lll (Nl \\

\ ork: P.\I1thnlll,

1978).

3. lIis cssay isinduded inlhis \'Olumc, pp. ~54-477

-l'IlS.

4. Foueaull, Discipline alld Punish, p . 25.

5. D seriplions 01 lhe hallel d,1Sse.ln hc lUnd in

Merrill Ashleyand Larry Kaplan, Dallcillg.fi 8,,1,, chi e

(Ne,, York:OUllon, 1984); Cynlhia Lyle,

O<1l1cen O,, C-

in[J (New York: Orake, 1977); anJ Joseph Maw, Dallce Is

a Contact. Sport (New York:Salurday Revie\\' Prcss, 1974).

6. For more Jelailed aeeounls

01

Ounean's appmaeh

t o dance t echn ic lue s cc I rma DUl lcan , DUllCUll DUllccr

(Middlelo\\'n, Conn.: Wesleyan Universily Press. 1966);

The Techllique ciflsadora DUllcan (Brooklyn, N.Y.: Danee

Iloriwns, 1970); and IsaJora Ounean,

The

:Irr

' flhe

D nce (Ncw York:Thealre Arts. 1928).

7. l;rahalll's philosophy 01 dancl' kdllli'IUl' isSUIll-

marizeo in her art idc, uThe Amcri can

D.1IKI.::,

in Ml r1e

Arlllilage a/1()Virginia Sle\Vart, eJs.,

Modem Dance

(Ne\V

York: Weyhc, 1935), pp. 101-106; idem, ADancer's

World (Irans<:ripl aI'the filmA Ouncas H'orld) Ounce

Observer

(Jan. 1958), p . 5 ;and inAlice Helpern , The

Evollllion of Martha Grahalll's Technique, Ph.D.

Disserlalion, Ne\VYork Universily, 1981.

8.

Cunningham describes his approach lo dance

lechnique in his arlide The Funclion aI'a Techniqlle

for Dance, in Waller Sorell, ed.,

Th e Danc e Hu s Mar ~

Faces (New York:WorlJ PlIblishing, 1951), pp. 250-55;

and, in conversalion \VilhJacqueline Lesschaeve, Tile

Dancer and the Dance (Ne\VYork: Boyars, 1985).

9. For a comprehensive anJ insighlful analysis 01

the devclopment

01

conlacl illlprovisalion, see Cynlhia

Novack, Sharin8 the Dance: An Ethno[Jraph)' cifContacl

Improvisarion (Milwallkee: University ofWiseonsin Press,

1990); anJ Contact Quarter r, a jOllrnal fealllring arlides

on contact improvisatiol1.

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