foundation university journal of psychologyfujp.fui.edu.pk/revolume2/fui journal of...
TRANSCRIPT
Volume 1 No. 2 August, 2017 ISSN: 2519-710X
Foundation University
Journal of Psychology
Foundation University Journal of Psychology http://fujp.fui.edu.pk [email protected]
Online No. : 2520-4343
FUJP Foundation University Journal of Psychology
Vol. 1, No. 2. August, 2017
ISSN: 2519 - 710X
Online No. : 2520-4343
PATRON IN CHIEF CONSULTING EDITORS
Lieutenant General Khalid Nawaz Khan, HI(M), Sitara-e-
Esaar (Retd)
President, Foundation University Islamabad
PATRON
Major General Khadim Hussain, HI(M) (Retd)
Rector, Foundation University Islamabad
EDITORIAL ADVISORY BOARD
Professor Dr. Brig Akhtar Nawaz Malik, (Retd)
Director, Foundation University Rawalpindi Campus
Professor Dr. Raja Nasim Akhtar
Dean, Faculty of Arts & Social Sciences,
Foundation University Rawalpindi Campus
Dr. Shagufta Akhtar
Director ORIC, Foundation University Rawalpindi Campus
EDITORIAL COMITTEE
Chief Editor
Dr. Brig Tanvir Akhtar, SI(M) (Retd)
HOD, Department of Psychology,
Foundation University Rawalpindi
Campus
Editors
Dr. Iffat Rohail
Assistant Professor, Foundation
University Rawalpindi Campus
Dr. Sadaf Ahsan
Assistant Professor, Foundation
University Rawalpindi Campus
Associate Editors
Mr. Muhammad Aqeel Lecturer, Foundation University Rawalpindi Campus
Ms. Soulat Khan
Lecturer, Foundation University Rawalpindi Campus
Ms. Sadaf Zaheer
Lecturer, Foundation University Rawalpindi Campus
Dr. Anila Kamal Professor, National Institute of
Psychology, Quaid-i-Azam University,
Islamabad , Pakistan
Dr. Asir Ajmal Professor & Director at Lahore School of
Management, University of Lahore,
Pakistan
Dr. Jahanzeb Khan Professor, Department of Psychology,
University of Peshawar,
Pakistan
Dr. M. Anis-ul-Haq
Professor, National Institute of
Psychology, Quaid-i-Azam University,
Islamabad, Pakistan
Dr. Rubina Hanif Associate Professor, National Institute of
Psychology, Quaid-i-Azam
University, Islamabad, Pakistan
Dr. Muhammad Tahir Khalily
Professor, Department of Psychology,
International Islamic University,
Islamabad, Pakistan
Dr. Jamil A. Malik
Assistant Professor, National Institute of Psychology, Quaid-i-Azam University, Islamabad, Pakistan
Dr. Sahra Shahid Professor, Head of Department of Gender
and development studies, Lahore women
University, Lahore, Pakistan
Dr. Asghar Ali Shah Assistant Professor, Department of
Psychology, International Islamic
University, Islamabad, Pakistan
Dr. Aneela Maqsood Assistant Professor, Department of
Behavioral Sciences, Fatima Jinnah
Women University, Rawalpindi, Pakistan
Dr. Humaira Jami Assistant Professor, National Institute of
Psychology, Quaid-i-Azam University,
Islamabad, Pakistan
Dr. Irum Naqvi Assistant Professor, National Institute of
Psychology, Quaid-i-Azam University,
Islamabad, Pakistan
Dr. Sobia Masood
Assistant Professor, National Institute of
Psychology, Quaid-i-Azam University,
Islamabad, Pakistan
Dr. Diane Bray Head of Department of Psychology,
University of Roehampton,
London, UK
Dr.Thomas Holtgraves Professor of Psychological Science,
Ball State University,
USA
Dr.Theodore. A, Hoch
Associate Professor, College of Education and Human Development, George Mason University, USA
Barbara Kaminski
The Chicago School of Professional
Psychology
West Virginia University, USA
Dr. Syed Ashiq Ali Shah
Professor, Department of Psychology
Kwantlen Polytechnic University,
Canada
Dr. Inge Seiffge -Krenke
Professor,
University of Mainz Staudinger,
Germany
Dr. Ghazala Rehman Professor
Head of Psychology WPHCG,
Redhill, Surrey, UK
Dr. Gita Maharaja Professor, Duquesne University,
Point Park University,
Pittsburgh, PA, USA
Dr. Archish Maharaja
Professor, Director Management
Program & School of Business, Point
Park University, Pittsburgh, PA, USA
Prof. Dr. Vildan Professor, Department of Family
Medicine, Dokuz Eylul University, Faculty
of Medicine, Turkey
Dr. Panch Ramalingam Pondicherry University,
Puducherry, India
Ushri Banerjee (Chatterjee)
Assistant Professor, Department of
Applied Psychology, University of
Calcutta, Kolkata, India
Tatiana Quarti Irigaray Professor, Pontifical Catholic University of
Rio Grande do Sul, Brazil
Dr. Kamile Bahar Aydin Assistant Professor, Facuty of Human and
Society Sciences Yıldırım Beyazıt, University,
Ankara, Turkey
Online issue available at: http://fujp.fui.edu.pk, Email (for electronic submission of articles): [email protected]
01
19
Table of Contents
Mediating Role of Career Thoughts for the Effect of Career Exploration on Career Decision MakingSyeda Rubab Aftab & Jamil A. Malik
Verbal Cognitive Abilities and Emotional and Behavioral Problems of Secondary School ChildrenTasnim Rehna & Rubina Hanif
35 Identification of Emotional and Social Difficulties amongPakistani AdolescentsKhadija Hussain, Iffat Rohail & Sara Ghazal
52 Effect of Self-Compassion on the Marital Adjustmentof Pakistani AdultsSonia Bibi, Dr. Sobia Masood, Mustanir Ahmad & Sana Bukhari
II
67 The Moderating Role of Pregnancy Status among CopingStrategies, Depression, Anxiety and Stress acrossPakistani Married WomenSunita Peter, Jaffar Abbas, Muhammad Aqeel, Tanvir Akhtar & Khowla Farooq
Editor’s Note/From Editorial Desk
Foundation University’s mission is to nurture creativity and promote
research to foster personal and professional development of its students.
Issuance of the Foundation University Journal of Psychology (FUJP) is a
step forward towards this direction. The journal accepts and publishes
articles, papers and reviews of high quality.
Due to its interdisciplinary nature, Psychology is related to various other
fields of study including Sociology, Anthropology, Education, Gender
Issues, Organizational Behaviour, Life Sciences and Psychiatry etc.
Therefore, all contributions related to these fields of study are considered.
As an effective mean of knowledge sharing, FUJP encourages articles in
theoretical perspectives, grounded theories, innovative measurement tools
and procedures.
We are looking forward to an enthusiastic response and active participation
of not only students and teachers of Foundation University, but also of all
the sister institutions to make this initiative a success.
III
FOUNDATION UNIVERSITY JOURNAL OF PSYCHOLOGY, 2017, VOL. 1, NO. 2, 1-18
Mediating Role of Career Thoughts for the Effect of
Career Exploration on Career Decision Making
Syeda Rubab Aftab & Jamil A. Malik
Quaid-i-Azam University, Islamabad –
Pakistan
The study examined mediating role of career thoughts for the effect
of career exploration on career decision making in adolescents.
Furthermore the mediation was also assessed in reverse direction to
cross verify. Sample comprised of 392 adolescents (53.3% male) age
ranged 18-25 year mean+ SD (21.15 + 1.62). Two assumptions were
made; first, career thought mediates between career exploration and
decision making and second career exploration mediates between
career thought and decision making. Multiple linear regression
analysis presented mediating effect of decision making confusion
between reaction exploration and career uncertainty (β=-0.34,
p<.001, ΔR2=.07) as well between reaction exploration and career
decision making (β= -.40, p<.001, ΔR2=.06). On the other hand,
exploration belief (β=-0.24, p<.001, ΔR2=.12) mediated the effect of
decision making confusion on career certainty. Further, reaction
exploration mediated the effect of decision making confusion on
career certainty and decision making (β=-0.21, p<.001; β=-0.28,
p<.001, ΔR2=.07). Exploration appears to have a major role in career
decision making process in adolescence. Career thoughts though
effect the relation between career exploration and career decision
making in some aspects.
Keyword. Career thoughts, exploration, and career decision making.
1. National Institute of Psychology, Quaid-i-Azam University Islamabad – Pakistan
2. Assistant Professor, National Institute of Psychology, Quaid-i-Azam University
Islamabad – Pakistan
Correspondence concerning this article should be addressed to Jamil A. Malik,National Institute of Psychology, Quaid-i-Azam University Islamabad, Pakistan.
Email: [email protected].
1
Understanding Career Decision Making
2
Introduction
Adolescents are critical in the career decision-making process,
as this is when they usually begin to plan, explore and make decisions
about further education or employment (Rogers, Mary, Creed, Peter,
Glendon, & Ian, 2008; Vondracek & Kawasaki, 1995; Savickas, 1997).
Career certainty is defined as an individual’s decidedness about their
career choice, and perceived comfort with their choice (Hartung, 1995).
Cooper, Argyris, and Channon (1998), define career decision-making as
a decision or choice about which line of work has to pursue. Choosing a
career line or making a career to the changing work environment
requires capability to make a rational decision about one’s own career. It
is clearly stated that in this era, to make a career decision at one point in
time is not possible, rather it’s a process that involves various decisions,
small or large, that comes together to define one of a personalized
direction of career development (Emmerling & Cherniss, 2003).
A key feature of the process of decision making is exploring
various career options and professional fields. Adolescence is a phase of
career exploration where people begin to assemble work-related
information in order to consider what career can be possible for them
(Bullock-Yowell, Katz, Reardon, & Peterson, 2012). Process of career
exploration can be a stressful as it can provoke challenging situations
and concerns about oneself and future. Young adults keenly discover
their interests and skills for testing their abilities against available
opportunities (Bullock-Yowell et al., 2012; Hartung, 1995). As an
increase in career exploration behaviors predicted a decrease in career
indecision ( Park, Woo, Park, Kyea, &Yang, 2016).
Career Exploration refers to “the collection and analysis of
information regarding career related issues, making individuals become
more aware of themselves and the world of work, formulate career goals
and decisions, and develop strategies necessary to accomplish significant
goals” (Griffin & Hesketh, 2006). Exploration process involves diverse
activities used to promote career development in which an individual
involve to collect and increase knowledge about self and environment,
Understanding Career Decision Making
3
and in the end achieve career related outcomes (Atkinson & Murrell,
1988; Blustein, 1992; Taveira & Moreno, 2003; Jami, & Kamal, 2017;
Kalsoom, Masood & Jami, 2017; Ahmed, Ahmed, Aqeel, Akhtar, &
Salim, 2017; Cisheng, Jamala, Aqeel , Shah , Ahmed, & Gul, 2017;
Khan, Amanat, Aqeel, Sulehri, Amanat, Sana, & Amin, 2017).
Stumpf et al. (1983) proposed an interactive model of vocational
exploration, emphasizing three distinct aspects of exploration:
exploration beliefs (e.g., instrumentality and preference); exploration
process (e.g., where and how); and reactions to exploration (e.g., affect
and stress). Stumpf et al. (1983) stated that there are number of
behaviors that can be classified as exploratory, but it is essential to
classified provisionally career related behaviors. This model proposed
that the process of exploration includes four ways: (a) “where one
explores” (b) “how one explores” (c) “how much one explores” and (d)
“what one explores”. Barak, Camey, and Archibald (1975) stated that
getting into process of exploration requires one to analyze the obtained
information whether it’s sufficient or not. Exploration process is likely
to change subsequently with the level of satisfaction one might feel
about the information that has been acquired. Where one can explore,
can be alter, how one explores may not become systematically
organized, the degree of exploration can reduce, and the focus can
(Sampson, Peterson, Lenz, Reardon, & Saunders, 1996). According to
Wanous (1977) exploration is a conscious process which means that, at
any given time, individuals are acting on the basis of set of beliefs and
perceptions, apart from whether they are realistic or sounds rationally.
So it is fundamental to think about the individual's expectations
regarding career opportunities (Stumpf et al., 1983).
Cognitive factors influencing career choice has gain interest of
researchers since past couple of decades. It is speculated that negative
thoughts have an effect on career certainty. Any deficit in the process of
career development adversely affects one's experience about making a
career. Knowledge and beliefs about selves, and career options all
influence one’s ability to make rational decisions about career. If
individual think negatively on the decision about their career, then they
might not be sure for career planning (Sampson, Reardon, Peterson, &
Understanding Career Decision Making
4
Lenz, 2004). Thoughts regarding career can have larger impact on the
career related behavior while engaging in career development (Sampson
et al., 1996). Kleiman et al. (2004) hypothesized that rationale decisions
during the process of career decision making adversely affects by
dysfunctional thoughts. The construct of negative thoughts are
associated with lower sense of rationality (Lustig & Strauser, 2002).
Career indecision has also established a significant relationship to poor
career beliefs (Enright, 1996), and negative career thoughts (Saunders,
Peterson, Sampson, & Reardon, 2000).
Career thoughts play an important role in career reconnoiter and
commitment, decision making thoughts about career are person's
thinking about assumptions, attitudes, behaviors, beliefs, feelings, plans
and/or strategies related to career problem solving and decision making
(Sampson et al., 1996). Due to dysfunctional thoughts one is unable to
engage in exploratory behavior associated with career problem solving
and decision making. Sometimes these thoughts becomes obstacle for a
person by effecting the ability to solve career related problems, using
inadequately obtained information while in a process of career decision
making, and remain unsuccessful in deciding a career. Such difficulties
can have an effect on the abilities to go further, thereby increasing the
career uncertainty (Bullock-Yowell et al., 2012).
Empirical literature is scarce particularly on influence of career
exploration process behaviors on level of career certainty (Esrer, 2008).
Literature suggested that career thoughts and career exploration has a
major function in career process of career decision making.
Additionally, to extent of our knowledge no published research have
paid attention on the relationship between career thoughts and career
exploration. Many career theorists recommended that processing of
information influenced by attitudes, values and cognitions (Kinnier &
Krumboltz, 1986; Sampson et al., 2004), and therefore it is assumed that
career thoughts may have a mediating role between career exploration
and career certainty (Bullock-Yowell et al., 2012). Therefore, the present
study has made two assumptions to examine the relationship of career
thoughts and career exploration with career decision making.
Understanding Career Decision Making
5
The first assumption was career thought mediating between
career explorations and career decision making and the second
assumption was career exploration mediating between career thought
and career decision making. In order to see either career thought or
career explorations are the factors that cause the gap between their
existing state of indecision and a desired state of decidedness.
Method
Sample and Procedure
The sample of the study comprised of 392 students from
different public (n = 210) and private (n = 183) sector universities. The
sample included both male (n= 209) and female (n = 183) who fall in
age range of 17 years to 25 years (M = 21.15, SD = +1.62). Participants
were briefed about the nature of the study and they were also assured
that the information provided by them would be kept confidential and
will be used only for the research purpose. The informed consent of
participants was taken before administration of instruments. The
questionnaire booklets were administered in the classroom setting.
Instruction were written on questionnaire booklets as well as participants
were given verbal instructions. Though there was no time restriction, on
average it took 50 minutes for participants to respond on all instruments.
Along with demographic sheet, the questionnaire booklet comprised of
following instruments.
Career Decision Making Scale (CDS). The Career
Decision Scale developed by Osipow et al. (1976) is used to measure
career certainty and career indecision. The scale consist a total of 19
items measuring two dimensions of career decision making i.e., career
certainty and career uncertainty. For 18 items of the scale, responses of
participants are collected on a 4 point likert-scale i.e., (1) “least like me”
to (4) “most like me”. Two items measuring career certainty component
(score ranges 2 to 8) and for 16 items measuring career uncertainty
component (score ranges 16 to 64), high score suggesting higher level of
the respective component. Cronbach’s alpha coefficient obtained for the
Understanding Career Decision Making
6
present sample were .71 for career certainty and .78 for career
uncertainty.
Career Exploration Survey (CES). Career exploration
survey (Stumpf, Colarelli, & Hartman, 1983) measures career
exploratory behavior on 3 dimensions. First dimension “exploration
process” consists of seven types of indicators (i.e., environment
exploration, self exploration, number of occupations considered,
intended-systematic exploration, frequency, and amount of information)
measured by 21 items on a 5 point Likert scale. The second dimension
“exploration belief” is measured with six types of indicators (i.e.,
employment outlook, certainty of career explorational outcome, external
search instrumentality, internal search instrumentality, method
instrumentality, and importance of obtaining preferred position)
measured by 24 items on a 5 point Likert scale. Finally, the third
dimension “reaction exploration” consists of three types of indicator
(i.e., satisfaction with information, explorational stress, and decisional
stress) measured by 13 items on a 5-7 point Likert scale. Cronbach alpha
computed for present study sample were .76, .64 and .81 for Exploration
Process, Reaction Exploration, and Exploration Belief respectively.
Career Thought Inventory (CTI). The inventory
developed by Sampson et al.(1998) includes 48 self-report statements.
The CTI measures negative thoughts that impede career decision-making
using a four-point Likert scale ranging from (0) “Strongly Disagree” to
(3) “Strongly Agree”. The CTI has four components: Decision-Making
Confusion (14 statements; score ranges 0 to 42), Commitment Anxiety
(10 statements; score ranges 0 to 30), External Conflict (5 statements;
score ranges 0 to 15) and Nature of Dysfunctional Thoughts (19
statements; score ranges 0 to 57). Higher scores indicate negative career
thinking. Cronbach’s alpha coefficient obtained for the present sample
was .90 for Decision Making Confusion, .82 for Commitment Anxiety,
.72 for External Conflicts, and .88 for Nature of Dysfunctional
Thoughts.
Understanding Career Decision Making
7
Results The study examined the relationship between career exploration
and career decision making and the mediating role of career thoughts. To
measure these constructs Career Decision Scale (CDS), Career
Exploration Scale (CES), and Career Thoughts Inventory (CTI) were
used. Cronbach Alpha was computed in order to estimate the reliability
of these measures for the present sample. Table 1 shows that the alpha
coefficient all scales and subscales are within recommended range
suggesting that measures are reliable for the present sample.
Furthermore, descriptive analysis (Table 1) showed that data was
normally distributed.
Table 1
Descriptive statistics & Alpha reliability of the study variables (N=392)
Scales Variables
No
of
Items
Alpha M SD Skew
Career Thought Inventory
Decision Making Confusion 14 .90 19.26 8.97 0.39
Commitment Anxiety 10 .82 16.06 5.93 0.44
External Conflicts 5 .72 8.24 3.27 0.13
Dysfunctional Thoughts 19 .88 30.98 10.57 0.57
Career Exploration Survey
Exploration Process 21 .76 66.12 14.61 0.04
Reaction Exploration 13 .64 43.32 8.86 -0.25
Exploration Belief 24 .81 73.49 14.91 -0.32
Career Decision Scale
Career Certainty 2 .71 4.46 1.27 0.63
Career Uncertainty 16 .78 38.76 9.37 0.09
Understanding Career Decision Making
8
Bivariate correlation was computed to explore the relationship
between the variables of the study. Table 2 revealed that the components
of CES and CTI significantly and positively correlated with each other
(r-range= .60 to .64 & .70 to .90; p<.05) respectively. However the
components of CDM show a different pattern. Career certainty (CC) has
significant positive correlation with Decision Making (DM) and negative
correlation with Career Uncertainty (CU) whereas career uncertainty has
negative correlation with Decision Making (DM). Table 4 also shows
that the component reaction exploration of CES is positively correlated
with all components of CTI. External conflict is positively correlated
with exploration process and decision making confusion is negatively
correlated with exploration belief. The results also revealed that all
components of CES are positively correlated with career certainty except
reaction exploration; however all components are positively correlated
with career uncertainty. Moreover, only reaction exploration is
positively correlated with over all decision making (DM).
Figure 1: Career Thoughts mediating between Career Exploration and Career
Decision Making
Understanding Career Decision Making
9
Multiple regression analysis revealed the mediating effect of
career thoughts for the relationship between career exploration and
career decision making. Table 3 showed that the effect of reaction
exploration on career certainty is not mediated by decision making
confusion. Table 3 also showed that the effect of Reaction Exploration
on career uncertainty is partially mediated by decision making confusion
(β=0.34, p<.001) explaining 7% of variance in career uncertainty. The
significant value of Sobel test (3.35, p<.001) provided further evidence.
Futhermore, the Table 3 revealed that the effect of reaction exploration
on decision making is partially mediated by decision making confusion
(β= -.40, p<0.001) explaining 6% of variance in decision making. The
Sobel test (3.66; p<0.001) provides evidence that decision making
confusion is partially mediating the relationship.
Contrary to that, Table 4 also revealed that the effect of
Reaction Exploration on Decision Making is partially mediated by
Decision Making Confusion (β= -.40, p<0.001) explaining 6% of
variance in Decision Making. Furthermore, the Sobel test (3.66;
p<0.001) provides evidence that Decision Making Confusion is partially
mediating the relationship.
Figure 2: Career Exploration mediating between Career Decision
Making Self-efficacy and Career Decision
Tabel 2
Correlation Coefficient of Career Decision Making Self-efficacy, Career Thoughts, Career Exploration
and Career Decision making and their Subscales (N=392)
S.no Variable 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10
1 Decision making confusion - .89** .83** .91** .07 .60** -.20 -.16 .70** -.63**
2 Commitment anxiety - .84** .93** .20 .60** -.11 -.07 .58** -.50**
3 External Conflicts - .90** .26* .60** -.01 .02 .61** -.45**
4 Dysfunctional thoughts - .13 .60** -.11 -.14 .60** -.55**
5 Exploration Process - .18 .60** .50** .20 .21
6 Reaction Exploration - .06 .02 .52** -.40**
7 Exploration Belief - .44**
.09 .24
8 Career Certainty - .03 .66**
9 Career Uncertainty - -.73**
10 Decision Making -
** Correlation is significant at the 0.01 level (2-tailed); *. Correlation is significant at the 0.05 level (2-tailed).
Table 3
Components of Career Thoughts Mediating the relationship between components of Career Exploration and
Career Decision Making (N=392)
Predictors Mediators
Dependent Variables
Career Certainty Career Uncertainty Decision Making
Model 1 B Model 2 B Model 1 B Model 2 B Model 1 B Model 2 B
(Constant) 4.11 4.16 20.1 18.94 2.81 2.73
Reaction Exploration -0.03** -0.03** 0.43** 0.34** -0.06** -0.05**
Exploration Belief 0.02** 0.02** NS - NS -
Decision Making Confusion -0.01 0.35** -0.07**
Commitment Anxiety -0.11 0.03
Dysfunctional Thoughts 0.01 0.02
R2 0.1 0.1 0.17 0.24 0.12 0.17
F 21.69** 14.56** 77.42** 30.35** 52.63** 20.46**
ΔR2 0 0.07 0.06
ΔF 0.38 12.4 8.7
** p<.01; NS (Non Significant Predictor, Violation of Mediation Rules 1 (Barron & Kenny, 1986), No mediation
was performed)
Table 4
Components of Career Exploration mediating the relationship between Career Thoughts and Career
Decision Making (N=392)
Predictors Mediators
Dependent Variables
Career Certainty Decision Making
Model 1 B Model 2 B Model 1 B Model 2 B
(Constant) 4.34 3.96 0.72 2.66
Decision making confusion -0.05** -0.04* -0.09** -0.08**
Commitment anxiety 0.02 0.03 0.02 0.03
External Conflicts 0.08 0.05 0.06 0.04
Dysfunctional thoughts 0 0 0 0.01
Reaction Exploration -0.03** -0.05**
Exploration Belief 0.02**
0.05 0.12 0.11 0.18
F 5.41** 8.98** 11.43** 16.65**
0.07 0.07
ΔF 15.32** 33.67**
** p<.01; NS (Non Significant Predictor, Violation of Mediation Rules 1 (Barron & Kenny, 1986), No mediation
was performed)
R2
ΔR2
Understanding Career Decision Making
13
The second assumption was career exploration is mediating
between career thought and career decision making (figure 2). Table 3
showed that, the effect of Decision Making Confusion on Career
Certainty is partially mediated by Reaction Exploration (β= -0.21,
p<.001) and Exploration Belief (β= 0.24, p<.001) explaining 12%
variance in Career Certainty. The Sobel Test also revealed the
significant mediation by Decision Making Confusion (Reaction
Exploration: 3.39; p<.001, & Exploration Belief: 2.04; p< .01).
Further Table 4 showed that the effect of Decision Making
Confusion on Decision Making partially mediated by Reaction
Exploration (β= -0.28, p<.001) explaining 18% variance in Decision
Making. The significant value of Sobel test (4.32; p<.001) further
provides evidence that Reaction exploration is mediating the
relationship. Figure below explaining the significant mediation by
components of Career Exploration between Career Thoughts and Career
Decision Making.
Discussion
The first assumption was CT mediating between CE and CDM.
Since recent research have been well documented that the relationship
between exploratory behavior and career decision making may be
mediated by career thoughts (Bullock-Yowell et al., 2012). Sampson et
al. (1998) demonstrated that individuals having inability to sustain
career making process are unable to explore their skills and strengths as
well as the information about different occupations. As a result deficit
occurs in the process of decision making. In the first assumption, the
results revealed that the effect of reaction exploration on career
uncertainty and decision making is mediated by decision making
confusion. This indicates that while having a greater degree of inability
to sustain career process for making a career choice, students find that
available information is not sufficient or particular information is still
needed for making a potential career. Hence increase in uncertainty level
decreases decision making process. Further results showed career
Understanding Career Decision Making
14
thoughts do not mediate between career exploration and career certainty.
The study of Blustien (1988) documented that exploration predicts
career certainty. Hence it is very much according to the findings of
Blustien’s (1988) study suggesting the direct relation between career
exploration and career certainty.
The second assumption was career exploration mediating
between CT and CDM. Results showed that exploration belief partially
mediated between DMC and CC, which means that decision making
confusion decreases if students have high expectation of attaining their
career, as a result career certainty level increases. Reaction exploration
partially mediated between the DMC and CC, this indicates that if
students are not satisfied with the available information then the students
are unable to initiate a process of deciding a career as a result level of
career certainty decreases. In addition, reaction exploration partially
mediated between decision making confusion and decision making. This
relationship indicates, a greater degree of confusion affects the decision
making among students, especially when students feel stress regarding
the information that has been acquired was either not sufficient or
worthless for making a career choice.
or the first assumption, reaction exploration was predicting only
two components of CDM (career uncertainty, CUC; and decision
making, DM). In second assumption, DMC is also predicting two
components of career decision making (career certainty, CC; and
decision making, DM). The first assumption has been explaining 24%
variance in career uncertainty and 10% in decision making. However, in
second asumption 12% variance has been explained in career certainty,
and only 18 % in decision making respectively. First assumption is
comparatively predicting better results in the first assumption. Further,
the results revealed that in both assumptions, exploration process and all
components of career thoughts (except decision making confusion) have
non-significant role in outcomes of career decision making.
Understanding Career Decision Making
15
Although the results revealed important findings but conclusions
drained from the present study are tentative because of some limitations
of current study that needs to be recognized. First, the sample was
homogeneous in age, educational background, and socioeconomic status.
Most participants were belonging to middle class, and between the ages
of 20 years to 22 years. Second, the association establishes among the
variables in this study do not account for all of the variance in career
decision making. Future researches may explore other antecedents and
mediators of career decision making across variant populations.
However the results of present study leading to understand that
why many students do not make their career choices even after selecting
their major. It might be the reason that they are unable to engage in
exploratory behavior associated with career problem-solving and
decision-making, specifically identifying an appropriate major with
respect to their self-interest. Overall, the study provided considerable
empirical support for the contribution of both factors to the career
decision making process for students. Further studies must see other
factors such as emotional distress, a lack of confidence in ability to
perform certain tasks, lack of experience in varied life roles, lack of self-
insight, negative expectations associated with a particular pursuit, fear of
failure and conflicts with important people that adds complexity to the
career decision-making process.
The present results have an important practical implication in
vocational psychology. The findings of the present study may be of
interest to counselors, teachers, or researchers for planning interventions
that promote exploratory behavior for attaining positive career
outcomes.
Understanding Career Decision Making
16
References
Ahmed, B., Ahmed, A., Aqeel, M., Akhtar, T., & Salim, S. (2017).
Impact of tinnitus perception on psychological distress in male
and female tinnitus patients. Foundation University Journal of
Psychology, 1(1), 1-26.
Atkinson, G. J., & Murrell, P. H. (1988). Kolb's experiential learning
theory: a meta-model for career exploration. Journal of
Counseling and Development, 66, 374-377.
Baron, R. M., & Kenny, D. A. (1986). The moderator–mediator variable
distinction in social psychological research: Conceptual,
strategic, and statistical considerations. Journal of Personality
and Social Psychology, 51(6), 1173-1182.
Blustein, D. L. (1992). Applying current theory and research in career
exploration to practice. The Career Development Quarterly, 41,
174-184.
Bullock-Yowell, E., Katz, S. P., Reardon, R. C., & Peterson, G. W.
(2012). The roles of negative career thinking and career
problem-solving self-efficacy in career exploratory behavior.
Journal of Professional Counselor: Research and Practice
Digest, 2(2), 11.
Cisheng, W., Jamala,B., Aqeel ,M., Shah ,S,M., Ahmed, A.,
& Gul, M.
(2017). The moderating role of spiritual intelligence on the
relationship between emotional intelligence and identity
development in adolescents. Foundation University Journal of
Psychology, 1(1), 77-107.
Emmerling, R. J., & Cherniss, C. (2003). Emotional Intelligence and the
Career Choice Process. Career Assessment, 11(12), 153-167.
Enright, M.S. (1996). The relationship between disability status, career
beliefs, and career indecision. Rehabilitation Counseling
Bulletin, 40(2). 134-153.
Esrer, T. L. (2008). Influence of career exploration process behaviors on
agriculture students' level of career certainty. Journal of
Agriculture Education, 49(3), 23-33.
doi:10.5032/jae.2008.03023
Understanding Career Decision Making
17
Griffin, B., & Hesketh, B. (2006). Adaptable behaviours for successful
work and career adjustment. Vocational Behavior, 55(2), 65-73.
Hartung, P. J. (1995). Assessing career certainty and choice status. ERIC
Digest.
Kinnier, R., & Krumboltz, J. (1986). Procedures for successful career
counselling. In N. Gysbers (Ed.), Designing careers (pp. 307-
335). San Francisco: CA: Jossey-Bass.
Kalsoom, S., Masood,S., & Jami, H. (2017). Psychological well-being
and perceived familial social support for patients with hepatitis c:
a challenge for health practitioners. Foundation University
Journal of Psychology, 1(1), 27-47.
Khan, A., Amanat,A., Aqeel, M., Sulehri, A, N., Amanat,A,. Sana, E.,
& Amin, H. (2017). The mediating role of job stress between
social support and development of stress, anxiety and depression
in educators and health professionals. Foundation University
Journal of Psychology, 1(1), 48-62.
Lustig, D. C., & Strauser, D. R. (2002). The relationship between sense
of coherence and career thoughts. Journal of Career
Development Quarterly, 51, 2-11.
Park, K., Woo, S., Park, k., Kyea, J., Yang, E. (2016). The Mediation
Effects of Career Exploration on the Relationship Between Trait
Anxiety and Career Indecision. Journal of Career Development.
doi: 10.1177/0894845316662346
Sampson, J. P., Peterson, G., Lenz, J., Reardon, R., & Saunders, D.
(1996). Career Thoughts Inventory: Professional Manual.
Odessa: FL: PAR, Inc.
Sampson, J. P., Reardon, R. C., Peterson, G. W., & Lenz, J. G. (2004).
Career counseling & services: A cognitive information
processing approach. Belmont: CA: Brooks/Cole.
Saunders, D.E., Peterson, G.W., Sampson, .P. & Reardon, R.C. (2000).
The contribution of depression and dysfunctional career thinking
to career indecision. Journal of Vocational Behavior, 56, 288-
298.
Understanding Career Decision Making
18
Jami, H., & Kamal, A(2017). Myths about hijras (male-to-female
transgender of hijra community)? role of gender and commonly held belief about them. Foundation University Journal of Psychology, 1(1), 63-76.
Savickas, M. L. (1997). Career adaptability: an integrative construct for
life-span, life-space theory. The Career Development Quarterly,
45, 247-259.
Stumpf, S. A., Colarelli, S. M., & Hartman, K. (1983). Development of
the Career Exploration Survey (CES). Journal of Vocational
Behavior, 22, 191-226.
Taveira, M. D. C., & Moreno, M. L. R. (2003). Guidance theory and
practice: The status of career exploration. British Journal of
Guidance & Counseling, 31(2), 189-207.
Vondracek, F. W., & Kawasaki, T. (1995). Toward a comprehensive
framework for adult career development theory and intervention.
In W. B. Walsh & S. H. Osipow (Eds.), Handbook of vocational
psychology: Theory, research, and practice (2nd ed., pp. 111- 141). Hillsdale: NJ: Erlbaum.
View publication statsView publication stats
FOUNDATION UNIVERSITY JOURNAL OF PSYCHOLOGY, 2017, VOL. 1, NO. 2, 19-34
19
Verbal Cognitive Abilities and Emotional and Behavioral
Problems of Secondary School Children Tasnim Rehna & Rubina Hanif
Quaid-i-Azam University, Islamabad – Pakistan
The present study was aimed at examining the role of verbal cognitive
abilities in predicting emotional and behavioral problems among
secondary school children. Sajjad Urdu Verbal Intelligence Test
(Hussain, 2001) and School Children Problems Scale (Saleem &
Mehmood, 2011) were administered on a sample of 300 (151 girls &
149 boys) secondary school children; aged 11-16 years (M =14.83, SD
= 1.16) taken from model schools of Islamabad. Finding revealed that
low level of verbal cognitive abilities showed greater levels of
emotional and behavioral problems; particularly anxiousness,
academic problems, and aggression were significantly higher among
the students. All four types of verbal abilities (i.e., Word-Meaning,
Verbal-Reasoning, Numerical-Abilities, and General-Knowledge)
jointly accounted for up to 59% of variance in predicting emotional
and behavioral problems. Gender differences were also significant
indicating that girls demonstrated significantly greater degree of
emotional problems (p<.001) than those of boys whereas boys elicited
higher level of aggressive tendencies (p<.001) and all four types of
verbal cognitive abilities (p<.001, .01) as compared to girls. No
significant gender differences emerged on academic problems. Results
have been discussed in the light of literature and cultural contexts.
Keywords. Verbal Cognitive Ability, Emotional and behavioral Problems, School Children
_______________________________________________________________
1.National Institute of Psychology, Quaid-i-Azam University Islamabad – Pakistan
2. Associate Professor, National Institute of Psychology, Quaid-i-Azam University Islamabad – Pakistan
Correspondence concerning this article should be addressed to Dr. Rubina Hanif, Department of
Psychology, Rawalpindi Campus. Pakistan. Email: [email protected].
Verbal Cognitive Abilities and Emotional and Behavioral Problems of Secondary
School Children
20
Cognitive or intellectual skills have been theorized and explicated under
various perspectives; however little attention has been paid to
understand their function in adolescent psychopathology. At the same
time, literature of developmental psychopathology has always put a
question mark on the variability of reactions to life events that why some
children are more resilient, better withstand to life adversities, and turn
into more healthy and adjusted people than those who become
emotionally disturbed (Luthar & Zigler 1991; Masten, 2001).Explaining
such queries, studies have documented a link between intelligence and
emotional and behavioral problems (Corapci, Smith, & Lozoff, 2006;
Flouri, Mavroveli, & Tzavidis, 2012; Koenen, Nugent, & Amstadter,
2008) among school children. These problems include school truancy,
academic failure, aggressive behaviors, and drug abuse affecting the
individual as well as lasting detrimental impacts on the society as a
whole (Lane, Carter, Pierson, & Glaeser, 2006; Trout, Nordness, Pierce,
& Epstein, 2003). Such researches manifest that children with lower
intellectual abilities tend to have greater number of behavioral
difficulties including both internalizing and externalizing problems as
compared to those with higher intelligence scores (Rutter, 1971;
Halonen, Aunola, Ahonen, & Nurmi, 2006; Lynam, Moffitt, &
Stouthamer-Loeber, 1993; Miles & Stipek, 2006; Jami & Kamal, 2017;
Kalsoom, Masood, & Jami, 2017)
With regard to particular domains of intellectual abilities,
students having emotional and behavioral problems have consistently
shown poor performance in numerical ability, vocabulary, verbal
reasoning, reading comprehension and written expression (Anderson &
Sommerfelt, 2001; Lane, et al., 2006; Nelson, Benner, Lane, & Smith,
2004). Similar findings were reported by Mattison, Hooper and
Glassberg (2002) who studied a sample of secondary school children.
Their findings revealed that about 60% of the students with emotional
and behavioral problems showed verbal deficits particularly in reading,
writing, and mathematical abilities.
Verbal Cognitive Abilities and Emotional and Behavioral Problems of Secondary
School Children
21
Earlier studies (i.e., Farrington & Hawkins, 1991; Moffitt, 1990;
Schonfeld, Shaffer, O'Connor, & Portnoy, 1988; Warr-Leeper, Wright,
& Mack, 1994; White, Moffitt, & Silva, 1989) have also established a
linear relationship between cognitive deficits and problem behaviors.
These studies found that poor reasoning skills in early adolescence may
lead to conduct behaviors in later years. Stipek and Mac Iver (1989)
further explained this cognitive mechanism by concluding that the
inability of a child to perform well on an intelligence test develops the
feelings of inefficiency and lower self-efficacy which resultantly may
lead to feelings of rejection, withdrawn and depression. Evans, Rubin,
and Asendorpf (1993) also found a negative association between shyness
and verbal intelligence particularly vocabulary and verbal fluency in
language assessment test.
Congruent with these findings, some studies have been
conducted in a vice versa directions such as some researchers have
identified the factors that may serve a positive function in the face of life
pressure as well as emotional and behavioral problems. These factors
may include intrapersonal qualities (higher level of cognitive
functioning), family characteristics, as well as ecological factors
(Greenberg, 2006; Luthar, Cicchetti, & Becker, 2000; Maddi, 2005;
Masten, 2001; Werner, 2000). At the intrapersonal level, intellectual
competence (i.e., verbal and nonverbal cognitive skills) serves a key role
in cushioning the negative impact of life adversities and subsequent
problem behaviors among children and adolescents (Pine & Freedman,
2009).
Cognitive abilities, either verbal or nonverbal, may play a crucial
role in buffering the effect of life pressures as these are the skills to
process information and solving problem. These abilities are directly
linked to how a threat is assessed and processed, resources are accessed
or healthier environments or relationships are sought (Masten et al.,
1999) to cope with stress and better adjustment in life. Despite being that
important, cognitive abilities have continuously been ignored in the
Verbal Cognitive Abilities and Emotional and Behavioral Problems of Secondary
School Children
22
research of adolescent psychopathology particularly in the context of
Pakistan. Owing to the lack of research, the education system has been
outdated and inconsistent with the societal needs. Moreover, learning
and teaching methods are not synchronized with developmental demands
and psychosocial needs of the children. No or little attention is paid on
emotional or behavioral problems of the students or to train them solve
their problems using their intrapersonal as well as interpersonal
resources. The present study is therefore an effort to explore the role of
cognitive resources (verbal cognitive abilities) in explaining emotional
and behavioral problems of secondary school children.
Method
Sample
A sample of 300 secondary school children (of whom 151 were girls
and 149 were boys), with age ranged from 12 to 16 years (M =14.83, SD =
1.16), was collected from the model schools of Islamabad. Data was obtained
from 7th, 8th, 9th, and 10th grades students of the secondary schools of Islamabad
through a convenient sampling technique. Of the total sample, 67% belonged
to joint family system.
Instruments
Following instruments were used for the following study:
Sajjad Verbal Intelligence Test Urdu (SVITU). Sajjad Verbal
Intelligence Test Urdu (SVITU) was used to measure the verbal cognitive
ability of adolescents. The test was developed, validated, and standardized by
Hussain (2001). The test comprises 128 multiple choice items with four
subscales (vocabulary = 42 items, numerical ability = 36 items, verbal
reasoning = 20 items, and general knowledge = 30 items). All the items are
designed on the basis on general recommended textbooks of school children.
True answer is given a score on ‘1’and false answer is given a score of ‘0.’
Total scores range between 0-128. The original study (Hussain, 2001) has
reported good concurrent and construct validity and highly acceptable
reliabilities i. e., KR-20 = .92, test-retest = .86 and split-half = .86 for SVITU.
School Children’s Problems Scale (SCPS). SCPS, developed by
Saleem and Mehmood (2011) was used in the present study to measure
emotional and behavioral problems of secondary school children. SCPS is a
Verbal Cognitive Abilities and Emotional and Behavioral Problems of Secondary
School Children
23
self-rating measure comprisingof 44 items on a four-point rating scale ranging
from 1= not at all to 4 = extremely common. SCPS was found to be a reliable
(test-retest reliability = 0.79 and split half reliability = 0.89) and a valid scale
with acceptable psychometric properties (Saleem & Mehmood, 2011).
Procedure
Students were approached after seeking a formal approval of data
collection from Federal Directorate of Education and concerned authorities of
school. Informed consent was also obtained from the subjects and they were
assured of their ethical research rights. They were given the full right to quit
their participation at any stage and withdraw from research. Participants were
also assured of their right of privacy and confidentiality and were assured that
their information will be kept quite confidential and will be used for
particularly this research only. After taking the data necessary statistical
analyses were computed for the results.
Results Table 1 shows inter-scale correlations, alpha coefficients, and
descriptive statistics for the study variables. As illustrated by the values of the
table, significant negative relationship (p < .001) was observed between
different types of verbal cognitive abilities and school children’s emotional and
behavioral problems. Furthermore, the table depicts good alpha coefficients for
all the study scales indicating that the scales were internally consistent and
reliable to use in the study. Values of skewness and kurtosis in Table 1
demonstrate a normal distribution of the data as the values lie in acceptable
range (George & Mallery, 2010).
Verbal Cognitive Abilities and Emotional and Behavioral Problems of Secondary School Children
24
Table 1
Reliability estimates and descriptive statistics of Sajjad Verbal Intelligence Test Urdu and its subscales and School
Children Problem Scale (N=300)
Variables 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12
1. WM - .89** .82** .72** .94** -.61** -.45** -.60** -.56** -.53** -.66** -.71**
2. VR - - .86** .80** .94** -.65** -.58** -.68** -.58** -.57** -.69** -.75**
3. NA - - - .81** .94** -.73** -.46** -.72** -.65** -.65** -.69** -.77**
4. GK - - - - .88** -.68** -.56** -.73** -.63** -.70** -.74** -.79**
5. VA - - - - - -.71** -.59** -.73** -.65** -.65** -.74** -.81**
6. ANX - - - - - - -.89** .81** .67** .58** .34** .61**
7. AGG - - - - - - - -.76** -.60** -.47** .22** -.49**
8. SW - - - - - - - - .65** .52** .27** .58**
9. SC - - - - - - - - - .62** .53** .81**
10. REJ - - - - - - - - - - .63** .85**
Verbal Cognitive Abilities and Emotional and Behavioral Problems of Secondary School Children
25
11. AP - - - - - - - - - - - .75**
12. SCPS - - - - - - - - - - - -
α .89 .74 .85 .76 .95 .92 .92 .88 .85 .74 .78 .80
M(SD) 22.52
(9.03)
10.29
(4.11)
21.58
(7.01)
17.56
(5.17)
71.95
(23.5)
30.41
(10.1)
114.46
(25.8)
44.95
(12.3)
34.42
(10.5)
33.69
(8.53)
37.08
(8.68)
37.28
(8.96)
Skewness .04 -.06 .13 .05 .15 -.024 -.34 -.58 -.003 .08 -.30 -.05
Kurtosis -1.4 -.89 -1.4 -1.05 -1.49 -1.26 -.87 -.79 -1.12 -.82 -.63 -.86
Note: WM=Word Meanings, VR=Verbal Reasoning, NA=Numerical Ability, GK=General Knowledge, VA=Verbal Ability Total,
ANX=Anxiety, AGG=Aggression, SW=Social Withdrawal, SC=Somatic Complaints, FR=Feelings of Rejection, AP=Academic
Problems.
Verbal Cognitive Abilities and Emotional and Behavioral Problems of Secondary School Children
26
Table 2
Multiple Regression Analysis on Emotional and Behavioral Problems by Verbal Cognitive Abilities (N=300)
**p<.01, *p<.05
Note: V-A= Verbal Ability Scale, WM= Word Meanings, VR=Verbal Reasoning, NA=Numerical Ability, GK=General Knowledge,
ANX=Anxiety, AGG=Aggression, SW=Social Withdrawal, SC=Somatic Complaints, FR=Feelings of Rejection, AP=Academic Problems
Anxiousness Aggression Social Withdrawal
95% CI 95% CI 95% CI
V-A B SE B β LL UL B SE B β LL UL B SE B β LL UL
WM -.04 .18 -.037 -.32 .41 -.33 .17 -.42* .67 .004 -.10 .09 -.16 -.08 .28
VR -.03 .47 -.01 -.95 .90 -.49 .43 -.28 -1.34 .37 -.26 .23 -.20 -.72 .19
NA -.86 .23 -.56** -1.32 -.40 -.80 .21 -.78** .37 1.22 -.29 .11 -.37* -.51 -.06
GK -.52 .26 -.25* -1.04 -.002 -.03 .24 -.02 -.51 .44 -.42 .13 -.39** -.67 -.16
R = .75, R²= .56, ΔR²= .54 (F = 30.40**) R = .39, R²= 16, ΔR²=.12 (F=4.36**) R = .77, R²= 59, ΔR²=.58 (F=34.76**)
Somatic Complaints Rejection Academic Problems
WM -.03 .06 -.07 -.15 .10 -.02 .09 -.03 -.16 .19 -.15 .11 -.20* -.38 .08
VR -.05 .16 -.06 -.26 .37 -.13 .22 -.11 -.30 .57 -.11 .29 -.07 -.69 .46
NA -.18 .08 -.39* -.34 -.03 -.22 .11 -.31* -.43 .000 -.07 .14 -.07 -.36 .22
GK -.20 .09 -.32* -.38 -.03 -.52 .12 -.56** -.77 -.28 -.67 .16 -.49** -.99 -.35
R = .68, R²= .46, ΔR²= .44 (F = 20.06**) R=.72, R²= 52, ΔR²=.49 (F=25.18**) R = .77, R²=.59, ΔR²=.58 (F=34.43**)
Verbal Cognitive Abilities and Emotional and Behavioral Problems of Secondary
School Children
27
Multiple regression analysis was computed (Table 2) to study
the impacts of verbal cognitive abilities on each of the emotional and
behavioral problems of school children. Findings indicate that verbal
cognitive abilities jointly accounted for 54% of variance in the
anxiousness 12 % in aggression, 59% in social withdrawal, 44% in
somatic complaints, 49% in feelings of rejection and 58 % of variance
in academic problems among secondary school children. Findings
further showed numerical ability and general knowledge were the
stronger negative predictors of problem behaviors among school
children. Results also show that the ability of verbal reasoning did not
account for significant variance (p > .05) in any of the adolescents’
problems. Overall findings indicate that all the verbal abilities showed
negative associations with each of the emotional and behavioral
problems of adolescents suggesting that poor verbal cognitive skills
may lead to the development of emotional or behavioral problems
among secondary school children.
Verbal Cognitive Abilities and Emotional and Behavioral Problems of Secondary
School Children
28
Table 3
Gender Differences on Emotional and Behavioral Problems and Verbal
Cognitive Abilities (N=300)
Boys
(n = 149)
Girls
(n = 151)
95%CI
LL UL
Variables M SD M SD t df p Cohen’s
d
ANX 23.21 6.35 43.05 7.59 -24.42 301 .000 -21.45 -18.25 2.83
AGG 30.27 3.16 17.66 5.36 24.37 301 .000 11.59 13.63 2.86
SW 15.04 3.78 25.14 3.62 -23.71 301 .000 -10.94 -9.26 2.73
SC 11.41 2.04 14.05 2.21 -10.74 301 .000 -3.12 -2.16 1.24
FR 14.71 3.45 17.74 3.43 -7.74 301 .000 -3.79 -2.26 .88
AP 28.73 2.98 28.98 4.48 -.57 301 .57 -1.13 .62 .06
WM 25.45 8.06 19.71 9.03 3.34 301 .001 2.34 9.14 .67
VR 12.16 3.82 8.49 3.54 4.98 301 .000 .73 2.21 .99
NA 25.84 6.35 17.49 4.88 7.38 301 .000 1.13 6.10 1.47
GK 20.06 4.50 15.16 4.63 5.36 301 .000 .91 3.09 1.07
Note: ANX=Anxiety, AGG=Aggression, SW=Social Withdrawal, SC=Somatic
Complaints, FR=Feelings of Rejection, AP=Academic Problems, WM=Word
Meanings, VR=Verbal Reasoning, NA=Numerical Ability, GK=General Knowledge
t-test analysis was computed to examine gender differences (Table 3)
on verbal abilities and emotional and behavioral problems. Results in
the table reveal that girls scored significantly higher (p<.001) on
anxiousness, social withdrawal, somatic complaints and feelings of
rejection while boys demonstrated significantly greater level of
aggressive behaviors (p<.001) and verbal cognitive abilities (p<.001;
p<.01). However no significant differences emerged on academic
problems.
Verbal Cognitive Abilities and Emotional and Behavioral Problems of Secondary
School Children
29
Discussion
The present study examined the association between verbal
cognitive abilities and emotional and behavioral problems among
secondary school children. Results showed a strong negative
correlation between verbal competence and problem behaviors
indicating that verbal abilities negatively predicted emotional and
behavioral problems among school children. Particularly lower level of
numerical ability and general knowledge were the stronger predictor of
problem behaviors. These findings are congruent with the previous
researches (i.e., Corapci et al., 2006; Halonenet al., 2006; Miles &
Stipek, 2006; Morgan, Farkas, Tufis, & Sperling, 2008; Trzesniewski,
Moffitt, Caspi, Taylor & Maughan, 2006) reported a negative
association between verbal intelligence and emotional and behavioral
difficulties documenting that lower level of verbal cognitive ability put
children at greater risk for developing problems behaviors particularly
internalizing behavioral problems. Similar findings were reported by
(Hodges & Plow, 1990; Sato et al., 2016; Ahmed, Ahmed, Aqeel,
Akhtar, & Salim, 2017; Cisheng, Jamala, Aqeel , Shah , Ahmed,
&
Gul, 2017; Khan, Amanat, Aqeel, Sulehri, Amanat, Sana, & Amin,
2017) who reported more verbal deficits in children with anxiety than
non-anxious children. The present study also found that boys scored
significantly higher in all types of verbal abilities as compared to girls.
These findings get support from Colom, Contreras, Arend, García-Leal
and Santacreu (2004) who studied gender differences on verbal and
spatial ability tests. Their findings revealed that male students
performed significantly better than female students on both spatial
ability and verbal intelligence including mathematical ability,
vocabulary and general knowledge. Regarding emotional problem
behaviors, the present study found that female subjects with verbal
deficits showed higher level of anxiety, social withdrawal, feelings of
rejection and somatic complaints than boys whereas boys scored
significantly higher on aggression. Previous researches have also
supported this notion revealing that girls are prone to develop more
emotional problems i.e., anxiety, depression and withdrawn while boys
Verbal Cognitive Abilities and Emotional and Behavioral Problems of Secondary
School Children
30
tend to have greater number of behavioral problems e.g., aggression,
conduct and antisocial behavior (Bongers, Koot, & Verhulst, 2003;
Mesman, Bongers, &Koot, 2001; Singh & Sharma, 2012; Suresh,
Ayyappan, Nandini, & Ismail, 2015). Culture also provides
justification for such differences as in cultures like Pakistan girls are
trained and expected to show more patience, controlled behaviors and
are desired to be less expressive whereas boys having greater exposure
of the external environment tend to be more expressive and show
outward behaviors.
Overall study concluded a negative pattern of association
between verbal cognitive abilities and school children’s emotional and
behavioral problem. The study found that lower level of verbal
intellectual skills may result in problem behaviors.
Limitations, Suggestions, and Implications
No research is without limitations so as is the current study.
First of all the present research followed a cross-sectional design. In
future, longitudinal design would help understand the trajectories of
psychopathology such as identifying the true nature of cognitive skills
as risk or protective factors in the path of psychopathology. Secondly,
present study rested upon self-report measure/ single informant
approach whereas a multi-informant approach would give an in-depth
exploration of the problems and would also help minimizing
respondent biases which may hamper the generalize ability of the study
findings. Another limitation is that current study focused on a
unidirectional relationship between cognitive verbal skills and
problems whereas a reciprocal relationship will be more informative to
identify and gain a detailed insight of the causal relationship between
the two constructs.
Despite carrying aforementioned limitations, the study
significantly contributed in the indigenous literature of educational
psychology. Moreover, the study holds implications for teachers,
school psychologists and related policy maker to pay special attention
to the intellectual abilities and growth of school children in order to
provide proper counseling to intellectually deficits children so that
Verbal Cognitive Abilities and Emotional and Behavioral Problems of Secondary
School Children
31
their emotional and behavioral problems can be addressed and
managed at the appropriate stage.
References
Ahmed, B., Ahmed, A., Aqeel, M., Akhtar, T., & Salim, S. (2017). Impact
of tinnitus perception on psychological distress in male and female
tinnitus patients. Foundation University Journal of Psychology, 1(1),
1-26.
Andersson, H. W., & Sommerfelt, K. (2001).The relationship between
cognitive abilities and maternal ratings of externalizing behaviors in
preschool children. Scandinavian Journal of Psychology, 42(5), 437-
444.
Bongers, I. L., Koot, H. M., Van der Ende, J., &Verhulst, F. C. (2003). The
normative development of child and adolescent problem
behavior. Journal of Abnormal Psychology, 112(2), 179-192.
Colom, R., Contreras, M. J., Arend, I., Leal, O. G., &Santacreu, J. (2004).Sex
differences in verbal reasoning are mediated by sex differences in
spatial ability. The Psychological Record, 54(3), 365.
Corapci, F., Smith, J., & Lozoff, B. (2006).The role of verbal competence and
multiple risk on the internalizing behavior problems of Costa Rican
youth. Annals of the New York Academy of Sciences, 1094(1), 278-
281.
Cisheng, W., Jamala,B., Aqeel ,M., Shah ,S,M., Ahmed, A., & Gul, M.
(2017). The moderating role of spiritual intelligence on the
relationship between emotional intelligence and identity development
in adolescents. Foundation University Journal of Psychology, 1(1),
77-107.
Evans, M. A., Rubin, K. H., & Asendorpf, J. B. (1993).Communicative
competence as a dimension of shyness. Social withdrawal, inhibition,
and shyness in childhood, 189-212.
Farrington, D. P., & Hawkins, J. (1991). Predicting participation, early onset
and later persistence in officially recorded offending. Criminal
Behaviour and Mental Health, 1(1), 1-33.
Flouri, E., Mavroveli, S., & Tzavidis, N. (2012).Cognitive ability,
neighborhood deprivation, and young children’s emotional and
behavioral problems. Social Psychiatry and Psychiatric
Epidemiology, 47(6), 985-992.
George, D., &Mallery, M. (2010). SPSS for Windows Step by Step: A
Simple Guide and Reference, 17.0 update (10a ed.) Boston: Pearson.
Verbal Cognitive Abilities and Emotional and Behavioral Problems of Secondary
School Children
32
Greenberg, M. T. (2006). Promoting resilience in children and youth:
preventive interventions and their interface with neuroscience.Annals
of the New York Academy of Sciences, 1094,139–150.
Halonen, A., Aunola, K., Ahonen, T., & Nurmi, J. E. (2006). The role of
learning to read in the development of problem behavior: A
cross‐ lagged longitudinal study. British Journal of Educational
Psychology, 76(3), 517-534.
Hussain, S. S. (2001). Development, validation and standardization of a
group verb intelligence test in Urdu for adolescents. Ph.D Thesis,
National Institute of Psychology, Quaid-I Azam University,
Islamabad.
Koenen, K. C., Nugent, N. R., &Amstadter, A. B. (2008).Gene-environment
interaction in posttraumatic stress disorder. European archives of
psychiatry and clinical neuroscience, 258(2), 82-96.
Kalsoom, S., Masood,S., & Jami, H. (2017). Psychological well-being and
perceived familial social support for patients with hepatitis c: a
challenge for health practitioners. Foundation University Journal of
Psychology, 1(1), 27-47.
Khan, A., Amanat,A., Aqeel, M., Sulehri, A, N., Amanat,A,. Sana, E., &
Amin, H. (2017). The mediating role of job stress between social
support and development of stress, anxiety and depression in
educators and health professionals. Foundation University Journal of
Psychology, 1(1), 48-62.
Lane, K. L., Carter, E. W., Pierson, M. R., & Glaeser, B. C.
(2006).Academic, social, and behavioural characteristics of high
school students with emotional disturbances or learning
disabilities.Journal of Emotional and Behavioural Disorders, 14(2),
108-117.
Luthar, S. S., & Zigler, E. (1991). Vulnerability and competence: a review of
research on resilience in childhood. American Journal of
Orthopsychiatry, 61(1), 6-15.
Luthar, S. S., Cicchetti, D., & Becker, B. (2000). The construct of resilience:
A critical evaluation and guidelines for future work. Child
Development, 71(3), 543-562.
Lynam, D., Moffitt, T. E., & Stouthamer-Loeber, M. (1993). Explaining the
relation between IQ and delinquency: Class, race, test motivation,
school failure, or self-control? Journal of Abnormal Psychology,
102(2), 187-196.
Verbal Cognitive Abilities and Emotional and Behavioral Problems of Secondary
School Children
33
Maddi, S. (2005).On hardiness and other pathways to resilience.The American
Psychologist, 60, 261–262.
Masten, A. S. (2001). Ordinary magic: resilience processes in development.
The American Psychologist, 56, 227–238.
Masten, A. S., Hubbard, J. J., Gest, S. D., Tellegen, A., Garmezy, N., &
Ramirez, M. (1999). Competence in the context of adversity:
Pathways to resilience and maladaptation from childhood to late
adolescence. Development and Psychopathology, 11(01), 143-169.
Mattison, R. E., Hooper, S. R., &Glassberg, L. A. (2002). Three-year course
of learning disorders in special education students classified as
behavioral disorder. Journal of the American Academy of Child &
Adolescent Psychiatry, 41, 1454–1461.
Mesman, J., Bongers, I. L., &Koot, H. M. (2001).Preschool developmental
pathways to preadolescent internalizing and externalizing
problems. The Journal of Child Psychology and Psychiatry and Allied
Disciplines, 42(5), 679-689.
Miles, S. B., & Stipek, D. (2006).Contemporaneous and longitudinal
associations between social behavior and literacy achievement in a
sample of low‐ income elementary school children. Child
development, 77(1), 103-117.
Moffitt, T. E. (1990). Juvenile delinquency and attention deficit disorder:
Boys’ developmental trajectories from age 3 to age 15. Child
Development, 61, 893– 910.
Morgan, P. L., Farkas, G., Tufis, P. A., & Sperling, R. A. (2008). Are reading
and behavior problems risk factors for each other? Journal of
Learning Disabilities, 41(5), 417-436.
Jami, H., & Kamal, A(2017). Myths about hijras (male-to-female transgender
of hijra community)? role of gender and commonly held belief about
them. Foundation University Journal of Psychology, 1(1), 63-76.
Nelson, J. R., Benner, G. J., Lane, K. F., Smith, B. W. (2004). Academic
achievement of K-12 students with emotional and behavioral
disorders.Exceptional Children. 71, 59–73.
Pine, D. S. & Freedman, R. (2009).Child psychiatry growin' up.American
Journal of Psychiatry, 166, 4–7.
Rutter, M. (1971).Psychiatry. In. Mental retardation: an annual review J.
Wortis (Ed.). New York: NY
Verbal Cognitive Abilities and Emotional and Behavioral Problems of Secondary
School Children
34
Saleem, S. &Mehmood, Z. (2011).Development of a Scale for Assessing
Emotional and Behavioral Problems of School Children.Pakistan
Journal of Social and Clinical Psychology, 9, 73-78.
Schonfeld, I. S., Shaffer, D., O'Connor, P., & Portnoy, S. (1988). Conduct
disorder and cognitive functioning: Testing three causal hypotheses.
Child Development, 59(4), 993-1007.doi:10.2307/1130266
Singh, Y., & Sharma, R. (2012). Relationship between general intelligence,
emotional intelligence, stress levels and stress reactivity. Annals of
Neurosciences, 19(3).107.
Stipek, D., & Mac Iver, D. (1989).Developmental change in children’s
assessment of intellectual competence.Child Development, 60, 521-
538.
Suresh, P., Ayyappan, A., Nandini, J., & Ismail, T. (2015). Cognitive Deficits
and Behavioral Disorders in Children: A Comprehensive
Multidisciplinary Approach to Management. Annals of Behavioural
Science, 1(6), 1-17.
Trout, A. L., Nordness, P. D., Pierce, C. D., & Epstein, M. H. (2003).
Research on the academic status of children with emotional and
behavioural disorders: A review of the literature from 1961 to 2000.
Journal of Emotional and Behavioural Disorders, 11, 198-210.
Trzesniewski, K. H., Moffitt, T. E., Caspi, A., Taylor, A., & Maughan, B.
(2006).Revisiting the association between reading achievement and
antisocial behavior: New evidence of an environmental explanation
from a twin study. Child Development, 77(1), 72-88.
Warr-Leeper, G., Wright, N., & Mack, A. (1994).Language disabilities of
antisocial boys in residential treatment.Behavior Disorders, 19, 159-
169.
Werner, E. E. (2000). Protective factors and individual resilience. In: J. P.
Shonkoff& S. J. Meisels (Eds). Handbook of early childhood
intervention (pp. 115-132). New York, NY: Cambridge University
Press.
White, J. L., Moffitt, T. E., & Silva, P. A. (1989).A prospective replication of
the protective effects of IQ in subjects at high risk for juvenile
delinquency.Journal of Consulting and Clinical Psychology, 57, 719-
724.
FOUNDATION UNIVERSITY JOURNAL OF PSYCHOLOGY, 2017, VOL. 1, NO. 2, 35-51
35
Identification of Emotional and Social Difficulties among
Pakistani Adolescents
Khadija Hussain, Iffat Rohail & Sara Ghazal
Foundation University, Rawalpindi Campus
This study was conducted to identify the patterns of emotional and
social difficulties among Pakistani adolescents. The Anxiety,
Depression, Anger, Disruptive Behavior, and Self-Concept Inventories
of the Beck Youth Inventories were administered to 300 adolescents
(150 females and 150 males). The age range was between 14–19 years.
Each inventory represented distinct symptom dimensions and the overall
pattern of results indicated that anxiety level in males was higher than
females but females’ disruptive behavior was significantly high. Hence,
there was no significant gender difference in the levels of anger, self
concept and depression. Age had strong impact on all types of
psychological distress. Late adolescents showed more anger, anxiety,
depression and disruptive behavior. Early adolescents had high self
concept as compared to late adolescents. Anxiety was significantly
positively related with depression, anger and disruptive behavior.
Keyword. Emotional, social difficulties, adolescence, anxiety, depression,
anger, disruptive behavior, self concept.
1.Student of MS Clinical Psychology Foundation University, Rawalpindi Campus.
2.Assistant Professor, Department of Psychology, Foundation University Rawalpindi Campus.
3.Teaching and Research Assistant, Department of Psychology, Foundation University Rawalpindi
Campus.
Correspondence concerning this article should be addressed to Dr.Iffat Rohail, Department of
Psychology, Foundation University Rawalpindi Campus. Email: [email protected].
Identification of Emotional and Social Difficulties among Pakistani Adolescents
36
World Health Organization (WHO, 2014) has defined that
adolescence is the period in human growth that occurs after
childhood and before adulthood. It ranges from 10 to 19 years.
After infancy this period is occurred with tremendous growth and
change with respect to mental and physical (WHO, 2014).
Public health surveys and psychological assessments have
considered the psychological distress as a vital indicator for mental
health. Literature has depicted that this concept has been mixed
with depression, anxiety, functional disabilities and behavioral
problems (Drapeau, Marchand, & Beaulieu-Prévost, 2011; Jami &
Kamal, 2017; Kalsoom, Masood & Jami, 2017).
There are many reasons and causes for psychological stress
identified among youth by researchers, (Cluver, Gardner, &
Operario, 2007; Pawlikowska et al., 1994) like moving towards
new place, graduating from college and shifted to university, peer
group changes etc. which cannot be faced and coped by youngsters
or have difficulty adjusting to these situations (Ahmed, Ahmed,
Aqeel, Akhtar, & Salim, 2017; Cisheng, Jamala, Aqeel , Shah ,
Ahmed, & Gul,
2017; Khan, Amanat, Aqeel, Sulehri, Amanat,
Sana, & Amin, 2017).
Emotional and social problems impact strongly on the lives
of young people as they have not reached yet to the maturity level
needed to cope with adversities and also they are so vulnerable to
be distracted hence when the adolescents are victimized then its
effects may be stronger than any other age group because in this
age they lack functional coping strategies to overcome the
distressful situation (Strine et al., 2005). Adolescents usually
commit suicide in case of severe attacks of anxiety and depression
and other psychological disorders (Petersen et al., 1993). This
shows these ailments like anxiety and depression also have deadly
effects on one’s life. Anxiety is linked with substantial financial
problem due to reduced work output and more usage of health care
Identification of Emotional and Social Difficulties among Pakistani Adolescents
37
services, predominantly primary health care (Cummings,
Caporino, & Kendall, 2014).
A vast literature has shown that depressive disorders are
differently prevailing in males and females. At the age of puberty
and reproduction period these differences can easily be observed
(Bebbington, 1996). Some studies have reported that females have
almost twice times chances of getting depressive disorders as
compared to males (Bebbington, 1996; Nolen-Hoeksema, 1987).
Pioneer researches in the field human psychology revealed that
women had more negative emotions than men as suggested in a
nationwide survey conducted by (Field, Gurin, & Veroff, 1960). In
adolescents same case is prevalent even today. It is also evident
from previous researches that men embrace their anger and utilize
it for their benefits but usually women cannot use it as productive.
But some researchers have reported that women have more
interactions with the anger and frustrations situations they become
more skilled to deal with and act accordingly (von Arb et al.,
2009).
Many researchers have depicted in their researches that age
has significant impact on having depression and its intensity. There
are some controversies regarding direction of relationship between
age and depression. As some suggested that depression increases
as age increases (Luppa et al., 2012) but some other reported
opposite results in their studies (Bebbington, 1996; Cipriani et al.,
2009; Jorm, 2000; Rodgers et al., 2000; Wade, Cairney, & Pevalin,
2002). It is observed that age has strong impact on individual’s
emotional life and its stability. Lorr (1989) revealed that young
adults have very high level of competency, physical abilities and
intellectual abilities which need lot of transitional changes as well
(Lorr, 1989). Adolescents are at high risk in getting anxiety and
other psychological problems ( Burke, Burke, Regier, & Rae,
1990). It is also assumed that as the age increases, individual’s
Identification of Emotional and Social Difficulties among Pakistani Adolescents
38
ability of coping with psychological issues will increases and
subsequently decreases the level of anxiety. Some studies also
suggested that social anxiety disorders prevailed in young age or
adolescence (Kessler et al., 2005; Tsang et al., 2008). There are
some indications in literature that older persons reported lower
levels of anger in their routine lives than their younger counterparts
(McConatha, Leone, & Armstrong, 1997; Schieman, 1999).
Theoretically it has been observed in scientific researches
that male child is treated differently as compared to female child.
Females usually have different socialization patterns and social
restriction than males which ultimately creates differences. This
difference will lead towards more disruptive behavior in males
than females (Abikoff et al., 2002). Literature has shown that as
age increases students become mature and their attitude towards
classroom conflicts and other such activities which are considered
as disruptive behavior are reduced. It means age has positive
impact on the reduction of this negative behavior. Here are some
researches which depict that age has positive impact on the
disruptive behavior of students (Kochanska, Brock, Chen, Aksan,
& Anderson, 2014; Tremblay et al., 1992). A study concluded that
boys performed better almost two times in groups as compared to
girls (Thomas, Ricciardelli, & Williams, 2000). A large scale
German study results showed that there is no relationship between
age with self concept and self esteem. Impact of age is invariant
for different grades and gender (Arens & Hasselhorn, 2013). In the
light of above review a need was felt to see how Pakistani youth
show these emotional and social problems.
Findings of a study showed that females have more
tendency of having serious psychological distress as compared to
men. This relationship exists in all ages. In early ages its intensity
is low and then increases with age. This study has shown that age
Identification of Emotional and Social Difficulties among Pakistani Adolescents
39
and gender has strong impactt on psychological distress and its
types (Matud et al., 2014).
Objectives of this study are threefold: Firstly to identify the
pattern of emotional and social problems prevailing in Pakistani
Youth. Secondly to study the age and gender differences in
adolescents with regard to Anxiety, Depression, Anger, Disruptive
Behavior, and Self-Concept, thirdly to see a pattern of correlation
among these variables.
Method
Sample
The target population of this study was comprised of
Pakistani adolescents studied in different colleges of Rawalpindi
and Islamabad. Sample of the study consisted of 300 adolescent
(150 girls and 150 boys). Their age ranged between 14 and 19
years. Age range was further divided into two groups’ early
adolescents (14-16 years) and late adolescents (17-19 years). They
were selected through convenient sampling technique.
Instrument
Beck Youth Inventories (BYI). Second edition of the Beck
youth inventories was developed by Beck, Beck, Jolly, and Steer in
2005. Items are scaled from 0 (Never) to 3 (Always). It consists of
five subscales, twenty-item in each subscale of 100 items in five
subscales. Each of the five inventories contains 20 statements each
about thoughts, Feelings or behaviors associated with emotional
and social impairment in children and adolescents. The scales are
written at a second grade reading level. The five scales include:
1. Beck Depression Inventory for Youth (BDI-Y). This
inventory is designed to identify symptoms of depression in
children and adolescents including negative thoughts about
Identification of Emotional and Social Difficulties among Pakistani Adolescents
40
self or life, and future; feelings of sadness; and
physiological indications of depression.
2. Beck Anxiety Inventory for Youth (BAI-Y). The items in this
inventory reflect adolescent’s fears, worrying, and
physiological symptoms associated with anxiety.
3. Beck Anger Inventory for Youth (BANI-Y). The items in this
inventory include perceptions of mistreatment, negative
thoughts about others, feelings of anger and physiological
arousal.
4. Beck Disruptive Behavior Inventory for Youth (BDBI-Y).
Behaviors and attitudes associated with Conduct Disorder
and oppositional defiant behavior are included.
5. Beck Self-Concept Inventory for Youth (BSCI-Y). The items
in this inventory explore self-perceptions such as
competency, potency and positive self-worth.
Procedure
The study was conducted on the sample of 300 students
from different school and colleges of Rawalpindi and Islamabad.
The research protocols were administered individually on students
in their designated classrooms. Consent was taken from the
students before filling the questionnaires.
Identification of Emotional and Social Difficulties among Pakistani Adolescents
41
Results
Table 1
Correlation between Self concept Inventory, Depression Inventory,
Anxiety Inventory, Anger Inventory, Disruptive behavior Inventory
(N=300)
Variables 1 2 3 4 5
1. BSCI - -.293** -.56** -.47** -.47**
2. BAI - .48** .49** .41**
3. BDI - 81** .75**
4. BANI - .78**
5. BDBI -
**p<.01
Note. BSCI= Bec Self-Concept Inventory; BDI = Beck Depression
Inventory;BAI= Beck Anxiety Inventory; BANI=Beck Anger Inventory for
Youth; BDBI=Beck Disruptive Behavior Inventory for Youth.
Table 1 is presenting the nature of correlation between Self
concept, Depression, Anxiety, Anger and Disruptive behavior. It is
evident that self concept is inversely related with other negative
dimensions of psychological distress. Similarly Anxiety had significant
positive relationship with depression. Anxiety had significant positive
relationship with anger. It also had significant positive relationship with
disruptive behavior and anger. Anger and disruptive behavior is also
positively related with each other.
Identification of Emotional and Social Difficulties among Pakistani Adolescents
42
Table 2
Differences in Depression, Anxiety, Anger, Self concept and Disruptive
behavior among adolescents male and female (N=300)
Boys (n =150) Girls ( n = 150) 95%CL
Variables M SD M SD t(298) p LL UL
BDI 59.30 11.70 58.11 11.15 .90(298) .36 -1.40,3.79
BAI 64.11 7.86 59.49 9.09 4.71(298) .00 2.69,6.55
BANI 56.45 9.88 57.14 9.94 -.61(298) .55 -2.95,1.56
BSCI 46.62 8.89 48.83 10.19 -1.1(298) .27 -3.39,.96
BDBI 64.19 17.18 70.33 16.97 -3.1(298) .00 -10, -2.5
Note. BSCI= Bec Self-Concept Inventory; BDI = Beck Depression
Inventory;BAI= Beck Anxiety Inventory; BANI=Beck Anger Inventory for
Youth; BDBI=Beck Disruptive Behavior Inventory for Youth *p<.05, **p<.01
Table 2 indicates gender differences was found in two
areas, for example on BAI t(298)= 4.71, p < .001 and BDBI
t(298)= -3.1, p < .001 with males having higher scores on anxiety
than females and females scored higher on disruptive behavior as
compared to males.
Identification of Emotional and Social Difficulties among Pakistani Adolescents
43
Table 3
Differences in Depression, Anxiety, Anger, Self concept and Disruptive
behavior among Early and Late adolescent (N=300)
Early adolescents
(n=158)
Late adolescents
(n=142)
95%CL
Variables M SD M SD t(df) p LL UL
BDI 52.97 9.73 65.08 9.67 -10.8 .00 -14.3,-9.9
BAI 59.13 9.0 64.7 7.54 -5.8 .00 -7.5,-3.7
BANI 51.8 8.63 62.3 8.25 -.10.6 .00 -12.3, -8.4
BSCI 51.5 8.80 44.5 9.06 -6.8 .00 4.97,9.03
BDBI 59.4 15.3 76.13 15.09 -9.5 .00 20.2, -13.3
Note. BSCI= Bec Self-Concept Inventory; BDI = Beck Depression Inventory;
BAI= Beck Anxiety Inventory; BANI=Beck Anger Inventory for Youth;
BDBI=Beck Disruptive Behavior Inventory for Youth.
Table 3 indicates that age differences were found in all
areas, early adolescents showed less depression, anxiety, anger and
disruptive behavior as compared to old adolescents whereas, early
adolescents showed more positive self concept than old
adolescents.
Identification of Emotional and Social Difficulties among Pakistani Adolescents
44
Discussion
Contrary to previous researches, this study indicated some
interesting results. As evident from literature there is no
relationship between age and self concept or self esteem (Arens &
Hasselhorn, 2013) our results, however, suggested that positivity
of self concept decreased with age (Table 2). Pakistani adolescents
usually perceive their selves from the eyes of others, their social
self is more important and hence as they are maturing in age they
become more critical about themselves and less self assured. The
demands from the environment enhances as parents usually want
them now to take the responsibility; while peer group demands for
more independent roles confirming the social norms of the group.
Further they start to be more conscious about their outlook. These
stressors may create social distress, as well as a fear of negative
evaluation. (Craske, 2003). They show negative emotions like
anxiety and depression.
The results of this study showed that age has strong impact
on anxiety and depression (Table 2). Previous studies are in line
with this notion that in Pakistan the age range of 15 to 17 is an age
which puts a lot of pressure on boys, as their roles in the society
start converting from dependent to more independent one. They are
expected to be as dependent and submissive as they were before
and at the same time also get the pressure from peer group for
more independent and autonomous role (Ahmad & Zakia, 2013).
The stressors of physical and emotional changes along with the
stress of role demands to a growing child put the pressure of social
evaluation and expectations, which may result in vulnerability to
social anxiety. Recent studies also maintained that late adolescents
group has high scores and level of depression, anxiety. As some
studies suggested that depression increases as age increases (Luppa
et al., 2012). Co morbidity between anxiety and depressive
disorders in adolescents is also present (Merikangas et al., 2011).
Identification of Emotional and Social Difficulties among Pakistani Adolescents
45
The results of this study also showed that age has a strong
relationship with disruptive behavior and anger (Table 2). Previous
literature has shown that as age increases students become mature
and their attitude towards classroom conflicts and other such
activities which are considered as disruptive behavior are reduced.
Some researches which depict that age has positive impact on the
disruptive behavior of students (Kochanska, Brock, Chen, Aksan,
& Anderson, 2014; Kuperman et al., 2014; Tremblay et al., 1992).
However, older children are more likely to use aggression to react
to threats to their self-esteem. Depression, anger and self concept
were not significantly different in males and females (Scott et al.,
2010). As children age, their reactions to insults, putdowns, and
other threats to their self-concept become more important triggers
of aggressive behavior (U.S. Department of Justice, 2000).
Moreover it is suggested that males score higher in anxiety
than females (Table 1). In literature different findings are observed
about the disruptive behavior in males or females. Few researches
have suggested that women have almost twice the risk of having
anxiety disorders than men if they both do same thing. Like
women have more element of social phobia, hormonal problems
phobia and some other types of anxiety disorders are also common
in women. Whereas some studies opined that male child is treated
differently as compared to girl babies and hence females usually
have different socialization patterns and social restriction than
males which ultimately creates differences. This difference will
lead towards more disruptive behavior in males than females
(Abikoff et al., 2002).
Further results showed that females scored higher on
disruptive behavior than males (Table 1) which reflects that
Pakistani females express their emotions outwardly and vent off
more as compared to their male counterparts. Previous researches
findings showed that girls begin to express more externalizing
Identification of Emotional and Social Difficulties among Pakistani Adolescents
46
emotions than boys in adolescence may reflect a trend for girls to
be more expressive than boys of emotions overall as they reach
adolescence. It may also reflect a recent change in gender roles for
adolescent girls. For example, Brown (1999) has argued that anger
and other externalizing emotion expressions have become more
common among adolescent girls in recent years.
The results also showed that anxiety is positively related
with depression, anger and disruptive behavior (Table 3). Previous
researches have suggested that adolescents suffer from depression
leading to feeling of loneliness and sad. Studies have also indicated
that adolescents with depression also experience symptoms such as
hopelessness, self blame, suicidal thoughts, low self esteem, anger
and irritable behavior (Elgard & Arlett, 2002). Moreover, previous
studies indicated that depression and anxiety are correlated
(Kashani & Orvaschel, 1988). This study will be useful in
providing awareness about emotional and social difficulties in
adolescents. Knowledge about gender or age related differences in
self concept, self esteem, anger, anxiety, depression, disruptive
behavior and their relationship might provide valuable knowledge
for designing effective self esteem enhancement and distress
mitigation interventions.
Conclusion
On the basis of study findings it’s concluded that gender is
important variable in playing role in creating variation with respect
to dimensions (anxiety and disruptive behaviors) of psychological
distress. Anxiety level in males is higher than females and
disruptive behavior is higher in females. Age had significance
influence in all the dimensions of psychological distress.
Identification of Emotional and Social Difficulties among Pakistani Adolescents
47
Limitations and suggestions
This study was limited to Pakistani adolescents of
Rawalpindi and Islamabad. Therefore the results of this study may
not be generalized to country level. Time duration was one of the
major limitations of this study. It is suggested to work with larger
sample of adolescents for more generalized findings for future
studies.
References
Abikoff, H. B., Jensen, P. S., Arnold, L. E., Hoza, B., Hechtman, L.,
Pollack, S., & Vitiello, B. (2002). Observed classroom
behavior of children with ADHD: Relationship to gender and
comorbidity. Journal of Abnormal child Psychology, 30(4), 349-
359.
Ahmad, R., & Bano, Z. (2013). Social anxiety in adolescents: Does self
esteem matter. Asian Journal of Social Sciences and
Humanities, 2(2), 91-98.
Arens, A. K., & Hasselhorn, M. (2014). Age and gender differences in
the relation between self- concept facets and self-
esteem. The Journal of Early Adolescence, 34(6), 760-791.
Ahmed, B., Ahmed, A., Aqeel, M., Akhtar, T., & Salim, S. (2017).
Impact of tinnitus perception on psychological distress in male
and female tinnitus patients. Foundation University Journal of
Psychology, 1(1), 1-26.
Brown, B.B. (2004) Adolescents’ relationships with peers. In Handbook
of Adolescent Psychology (2nd edn) (Lerner, R.M. and
Steinberg, L.,eds), pp. 363–394, John Wiley & Sons.
Bebbington, P. (1996). The origins of sex differences in depressive
disorder: bridging the gap. International Review of
Psychiatry, 8(4), 295-332.
Burke, K. C., Burke, J. D., Regier, D. A., & Rae, D. S. (1990). Age at
onset of selected mental disorders in five community
populations. Archives of general psychiatry, 47(6), 511-518.
Identification of Emotional and Social Difficulties among Pakistani Adolescents
48
Cisheng, W., Jamala,B., Aqeel ,M., Shah ,S,M., Ahmed, A., & Gul, M.
(2017). The moderating role of spiritual intelligence on the
relationship between emotional intelligence and identity
development in adolescents. Foundation University Journal of
Psychology, 1(1), 77-107.
Cipriani, A., Furukawa, T. A., Salanti, G., Geddes, J. R., Higgins, J. P.,
Churchill, R., ... & Tansella, M. (2009). Comparative
efficacy and acceptability of 12 new-generation antidepressants:
a multiple-treatments meta-analysis. The Lancet, 373(9665),
746-758.
Cluver, L., Gardner, F., & Operario, D. (2007). Psychological distress
amongst AIDS‐orphaned children in urban South
Africa. Journal of child psychology and psychiatry, 48(8), 755-
763.
Craske, M. G. (2003). Origins of phobias and anxiety disorders: Why
more women than men?. Elsevier.
Cummings, C. M., Caporino, N. E., & Kendall, P. C. (2014).
Comorbidity of anxiety and depression in children and
adolescents: 20 years after. Psychological bulletin, 140(3),
816.
Drapeau, A., Marchand, A., & Beaulieu-Prévost, D. (2011).
Epidemiology of psychological distress. Mental illnesses-
understanding, prediction and control, 134-155.
Elgard JF, Arlett C (2002). Perceived social inadequacy and depressed
mood in adolescents. J. Adolesc., 25: 301-305.
Field, S., Gurin, G., & Veroff, J. (1960). Americans View Their Mental
Health. Ann Arbor: University of Michigan Press.
Jami, H., & Kamal, A(2017). Myths about hijras (male-to-female
transgender of hijra community)? role of gender and commonly
held belief about them. Foundation University Journal of
Psychology, 1(1), 63-76.
Jorm, A. F. (2000). Mental health literacy: Public knowledge and beliefs
about. British Journal of Psychiatry, 177(396), 317-327.
Kashani JH, Orvaschel H (1988). Anxiety disorders in mid adolescence:
A community sample. Am. J. Psychiatr., 144: 931-934.
Identification of Emotional and Social Difficulties among Pakistani Adolescents
49
Kessler, R. C., Berglund, P., Demler, O., Jin, R., Merikangas, K. R., &
Walters, E. E. (2005). Lifetime prevalence and age-of-onset
distributions of DSM-IV disorders in the National Comorbidity
Survey Replication. Archives of general psychiatry, 62(6), 593-
602.
Khan, A., Amanat,A., Aqeel, M., Sulehri, A, N., Amanat,A,. Sana, E.,
& Amin, H. (2017). The mediating role of job stress between
social support and development of stress, anxiety and depression
in educators and health professionals. Foundation University
Journal of Psychology, 1(1), 48-62.
Kalsoom, S., Masood,S., & Jami, H. (2017). Psychological well-being
and perceived familial social support for patients with hepatitis
c: a challenge for health practitioners. Foundation University
Journal of Psychology, 1(1), 27-47.
Kochanska, G., Brock, R. L., Chen, K. H., Aksan, N., & Anderson, S. W.
(2015). Paths from mother-child and father-child
relationships to externalizing behavior problems in children
differing in electrodermal reactivity: Longitudinal study from
infancy to age 10. Journal of Abnormal Child
Psychology, 43(4), 721-734.
Lorr, M. (1989). Models and methods for measurement of mood.
Luppa, M., Sikorski, C., Luck, T., Ehreke, L., Konnopka, A., Wiese, B.,
... & Riedel-Heller, S. G. (2012). Age-and gender-specific
prevalence of depression in latest-life–systemati review and
meta-analysis. Journal of Affective Disorders, 136(3), 212-221.
McConatha, J. T., Leone, F. M., & Armstrong, J. M. (1997). Emotional
control in adulthood. Psychological Reports, 80(2), 499-
507.
Merikangas, K. R., He, J. P., Burstein, M., Swendsen, J., Avenevoli, S.,
Case, B., ... & Olfson, M. (2011). Service utilization for
lifetime mental disorders in US adolescents: results of the
National Comorbidity Survey–Adolescent Supplement (NCS-A).
Journal of the American Academy of Child & Adolescent
Psychiatry, 50(1), 32-45.
Identification of Emotional and Social Difficulties among Pakistani Adolescents
50
Matud, M. P., Bethencourt, J. M., & Ibáñez, I. (2014). Relevance of
gender roles in life satisfaction in adult people. Personality and
Individual Differences, 70, 206-211.
Nolen-Hoeksema, S. (1987). Sex differences in unipolar depression:
evidence and theory. Psychological Bulletin, 101(2), 259.
Pawlikowska, T., Chalder, T., Hirsch, S. R., Wallace, P., Wright, D. J.
M., & Wessely, S. C. (1994). Population based study of
fatigue and psychological distress 308(6931), 763-766.
Patterson, J. M., & McCubbin, H. I. (1987). Adolescent coping style and
behaviors: Conceptualization and measurement. Journal of
Adolescence, 10(2), 163-186.
Rodgers, B., Korten, A. E., Jorm, A. F., Jacomb, P. A., Christensen, H.,
& Henderson, A. S. (2000). Non-linear relationships in
associations of depression and anxiety with alcohol
use. Psychological Medicine, 30(02), 421-432.
Strine, T. W., Kobau, R., Chapman, D. P., Thurman, D. J., Price, P., &
Balluz, L. S. (2005). Psychological distress, comorbidities,
and health behaviors among US adults with seizures: results
from the 2002 National Health Interview Survey. Epilepsia,
46(7), 1133-1139.
Schieman, S. (1999). Age and anger. Journal of Health and Social
Behavior, 273-289.
Thomas, K., Ricciardelli, L. A., & Williams, R. J. (2000). Gender traits
and self-concept as indicators of problem eating and body
dissatisfaction among children. Sex Roles, 43(7-8), 441-
458.
Tremblay, R. E., Masse, B., Perron, D., LeBlanc, M., Schwartzman, A.
E., & Ledingham, J. E. (1992). Early disruptive behavior, poor
school achievement, delinquent behavior, and delinquent
personality: longitudinal analyses. Journal of Consulting and
Clinical Psychology, 60(1), 64.
Tsang, A., Von Korff, M., Lee, S., Alonso, J., Karam, E., Angermeyer,
M. C., ... & Gureje, O. (2008). Common chronic pain
conditions in developed and developing countries: gender and
Identification of Emotional and Social Difficulties among Pakistani Adolescents
51
age differences and comorbidity with depression-anxiety
disorders. The Journal of Pain, 9(10), 883-891.
U.S. Department of Justice, Federal Bureau of Investigation. (2000,
April). Age-specific arrest ratesand race-specific arrest
rates for selected offenses. 1965–1988. Washington, DC: U.S.
Government Printing Office.
von Arb, M., Gompper, B., Meyer, A. H., Stutz, E. Z., Orgül, S.,
Flammer, J., & Kräuchi, K. (2009). Relationship between
gender role, anger expression, thermal discomfort and sleep
onset latency in women. BioPsychoSocial
medicine, 3(1), 11.
Wade, T. J., Cairney, J., & Pevalin, D. J. (2002). Emergence of gender
differences in depression during adolescence: National panel
results from three countries. Journal of the American Academy of
Child & Adolescent Psychiatry, 41(2), 190-198.
World Health Organization. (2014). Health for the world's adolescents: a
second chance in the second decade: summary.
FOUNDATION UNIVERSITY JOURNAL OF PSYCHOLOGY, 2017, VOL. 1, NO. 2, 52-66
52
Effect of Self-Compassion on the Marital Adjustment of
Pakistani Adults
Sonia Bibi, Dr. Sobia Masood,
Quaid-i-Azam University, Islamabad – Pakistan
Mustanir Ahmad
Hazara University, Mansehra – Pakistan
Sana Bukhari
Quaid-i-Azam University, Islamabad – Pakistan
The aim of this study was to explore the relationship between self-compassion
and adjustment among married individuals. Sample comprised of 263 married
individuals (130 women, 133 men), living in Islamabad and Rawalpindi, with an
age range from 20 to 60 years (M = 79.43, SD = 10.36). Purposive and
convenience sampling technique was employed for data collection. Self-
Compassion was measured by using the Urdu version of Self-Compassion Scale
(Imtiaz, 2010), and Dyadic Adjustment was measured using Urdu version of
Dyadic Adjustment Scale (Naseer, 2000). Results of the study showed that there
was a significant positive relationship between self-compassion and marital
adjustment. It was also found that self-kindness, self-judgment, and over-
identification were the significant predictors for marital adjustment. Men and
women did not show any significant differences in self-compassion and marital
adjustment. Duration of marriage was found to be positively related with Self-
Compassion. It was also found that, individuals having masters or above
qualification reported more isolation as compared to individuals with lower
education. Results showed that people with arranged marriages reported more
self-kindness as compared to those with love marriages. The implication of this
study in counseling and domestic settings are discussed.
Keywords. Self-Compassion, Adjustment, Married individuals
1. National Institute of Psychology, Quaid-i-Azam University Islamabad – Pakistan
2. Assistant Professor, National Institute of Psychology, Quaid-i-Azam University Islamabad – Pakistan
3. Hazara University, Mansehra – Pakistan
4. National Institute of Psychology, Quaid-i-Azam University Islamabad – Pakistan
Correspondence concerning this article should be addressed to Dr. Sobia Masood, National Institute of Psychology,
Quaid-i-Azam University Islamabad , Pakistan. Email: [email protected].
Effect of Self-Compassion on the Marital Adjustment of Pakistani Adults
53
Psychology has long been focused on exploring how an
individual’s thoughts and feelings about themselves can affect their
functioning within interpersonal relationships. In this regard, the
construct of self has always received much attention (Neff & Beretvas,
2013). Self-compassion has generated an interest in social scientists in
relation to a range of psychological indicators such as happiness, life
satisfaction, increased well-being, and adaptive psychological
functioning (Neff, Krikpatrick, & Rude, 2007; Hollis-Walker &
Colosmio, 2011). Self-compassion has also been recognized as a coping
strategy, as well as a buffering agent against depression and anxiety
(Raes, 2010). Self-compassion is a construct which works as a coping
mechanism (Leary, Tate, Adams, Allen, & Hancock, 2007). It has been
seen that individuals that are high in self-compassion show more
optimism in their behaviors as compared to others. In addition to that, in
comparison to attachment style and trait self-esteem, self-compassion is
more affiliated with prosocial behavior (Neff & Beretvas, 2013).
Self-compassion is defined as, showing kindness towards one’s
own-self and learning from one’s previous experiences, instead of being
self-critical for one’s failure or suffering from common distress (Neff,
2003). Most of the researchers posit that self-compassion is a more
helpful and sophisticated way of bringing happiness in an individual’s
life. Researches indicate that people who are more compassionate
towards themselves improved their life more fruitfully as compared to
those who were more self-critical, since it is related to stable and long-
lasting emotions of safety and self-respect. It has also been shown that
self-compassionate people handle distressing situations in their lives in a
positive and constructive manner (Leary et al., 2007).
A study also established that individuals who are more self-
compassionate are more likely to cooperate or compromise in
disagreement or controversial circumstances with others, at the same
time as compared to those individuals who are less self-compassionate
they are inclined to be minimize their needs towards others (Yarnell &
Neff, 2013).
Effect of Self-Compassion on the Marital Adjustment of Pakistani Adults
54
Research consistently associates self-compassion with reduced
levels of anxiety and depression. The reason for this association could be
that, self-compassion reduces self-blame in a person, which is one of the
major causes of depression and anxiety (Blatt, 1995).
Since self-compassion is linked to a number of positive
constructs, researches have explored its relationship with marital
adjustment as well. Marital adjustment refers to feelings of pleasure and
cohesion between spouses (Mukerjee & Sinah, 1990). Marital
adjustment is closely related to marital quality, marital satisfaction, and
as well as marital happiness. This construct is one of the most explored
domains in the literature of family research. One cause for the persistent
consideration of this concept might be that marital adjustment is not
merely linked to good individual and relational competence, rather it is
also linked to overall happiness in life. Scientists have paid much
attention to understanding the factors that play a role in the success of a
marriage and which cause its failure.
Self-compassionate people live their life in a more meaningful and
hopeful manner, in which they overcome their life stressors or problems
as a challenge rather than as a problem. It has significant importance at
the individual level and interpersonal or relational level. Self–
compassion comes helps increase and enhance interpersonal
relationships including marital relationships. According to Neff and
Beretvas (2013), those individuals who are more self-compassionate,
depict their spouse as more close and supportive as compared to those
who lack self-compassion. More self-compassionate partners or spouses
tend to be more satisfied in their relationships. The reason for it can be
that, self-compassionate people have more emotional resources which
are made available to their partners, along with care and
support.Unfortunately, the institution of marriage is in jeopardy
throughout the world, and Pakistan has not been immune to it; divorce
rate in Pakistan is at an all-time high (Karim & Janjuah, 2015). Which is
why it is important to investigate the important factors that may
potentially contribute to negativity in marital relationships. In addition to
Effect of Self-Compassion on the Marital Adjustment of Pakistani Adults
55
that it is also absolutely crucial to study the variables that may help
strengthen the bond between spouses. Therefore, in this study, keeping
the scope narrow and precise, the relationship between self-compassion
and marital adjustment is examined, with the supposition that self-
compassion enhances and improves marital relationship. Furthermore,
gender differences across study variables were also explored.
Method
Objectives
This study was designed to fulfill the following objectives:
1. To investigate the relationship between self-compassion and
marital adjustment.
2. To explore the gender differences in self-compassion and marital
adjustment.
Hypotheses
Following are the hypotheses of the present study:
1. There will be a positive relationship between self-compassion and
marital adjustment.
2. Women will score higher on self-compassion as compared to
men.
3. Men will report higher marital adjustment as compared to women.
Sample
A sample of 263 married individuals, 130 women (49.4%) & 133
(50.6%) men; age ranging from 20 to 60 (M = 79.43l, SD = 10.36) was
approached in the cities of Islamabad and Rawalpindi through the use of
purposive convenience sampling technique. The sample was diverse in
terms of education level, with 11.4% of the sample having 10 years of
education, 41.4% having up to 14 years of education, and 46% of the
population having 16 years of education. The sample was also
Effect of Self-Compassion on the Marital Adjustment of Pakistani Adults
56
categorized on the basis of marriage type, including love marriage
(31.2%), arranged marriage (51.7%) and both love and arranged
(17.1%). Lastly, 43.3% of the sample belonged to a joint family system
and 44.5% belonged to nuclear family system.
Instruments
In order to fulfill the objectives of this study the following instruments
were used:
Self-Compassion Scale (SCS). It was originally developed by
Neff (2003) and then later translated into Urdu and adapted by Imtiaz
(2012). The Urdu version of SCS was used in the present study. This
scale contains 25 items with six subscales including Self-kindness (items
no. 5, 12, 18,22 & 25), Self-judgment (items no. 1, 8, 11, 15, & 19),
Common humanity (items no.3, 7 &10), Isolation (items no.4, 13, 17, &
24), Mindfulness (items no. 9, 14, 16, & 21), and Over-identification
(items no. 2, 6, 19, & 23). It is a five-point Likert scale with response
categories ranging from (1) almost never to (5) almost always. Items no.
1, 2, 4, 6, 8, 11, 13, 15, 17, 19, 20, 23, 24 were reverse scored. Previous
studies have shown SCS to have excellent internal consistency. Previous
studies have shown SCS to have an excellent internal consistency (r =
.92) (Neff, 2003).
Dyadic Adjustment Scale (DAS). Dyadic Adjustment Scale
(DAS) is a self-report questionnaire of marital adjustment. It was
originally developed by Spanier (1976) and it was adapted and translated
into Urdu by Naseer (2000). In the present study Urdu version of DAS
was used. This scale is comprised of 27 items with four subscales
including Dyadic Consensus (items no. 1, 3, 5, 6, 7, 8, 9, 10, 11, 12, 13),
Affectional Expression (items no. 2, 4, & 26), Dyadic Satisfaction
(items; 14, 15, 16, 17, 18,19, 20, & 27), and Dyadic Cohesion (items no.;
21, 22, 23, 24, & 25). Item number 1-20, 22, 23, 24 and 25 were
reported on 6-point rating scale ranging from (0) never to (5) always.
Item number 21 was rated on a 4-point rating scale ranging from (0) no
Effect of Self-Compassion on the Marital Adjustment of Pakistani Adults
57
one to (4) everyone. Item number 26 was dichotomous with (1) for yes
and (2) for no. High scores indicated high marital adjustment. In this
scale item 14, 15, 18, 19, & 2, were reversed scored. Naseer (2000)
reported satisfactory reliability of Urdu version of the scale i.e., α =.80.
Research Design
The present research was a co-relational study, employing survey
method for data collection.
Procedure
For the purpose of data collection, participants were approached
and were informed about the purpose of this study in detail. Special
emphasis was given to the potential implications of this study. Since the
study is concerned with marital adjustment, only married individuals
were approached. Participants were also provided with an information
sheet about the topic and purpose of this study. A consent form was then
given to the participants, which they were asked to sign as a written
proof of their voluntary participation. Each questionnaire booklet
contained a demographic sheet as well. Ethical considerations were kept
in mind throughout the data collection procedure. Participants were
assured that they had the to quit the study at any time without any
consequences. They were also told that they were allowed as much as
time as they required and that their responses shall be kept confidential
and anonymous, and the information provided by them will be used
solely for research purposes.
After data collection, all the data was analyzed using SPSS
version 21. Throughout the course of data collection, a total of 300
questionnaires were distributed while only 285 were returned. Out of
these, 22 questionnaires incomplete and thus were excluded from the
study. Therefore, the overall response rate came to 87.66%.
Effect of Self-Compassion on the Marital Adjustment of Pakistani Adults
58
Results
In order to draw any results from the data collected for this study
it was important to first determine whether the instruments, that were
used, had adequate reliability. For this purpose, Cronbach’s Alpha
coefficient was calculated (see Table 1). The results show that all scales
and their subscales display acceptable internal consistencies, considering
very low item count of some subscales.
Following that, the relationship between study variables was
explored (see Table 1), in order to determine the direction and strength
with which study variable were related to each other. Results show that
self-compassion has a significant positive relationship with its all
subscales. Pearson product moment correlation also shows that self-
compassion and dyadic adjustment has a significant positive correlation.
This finding provided support for the hypothesis number 1 of this study.
It can also be seen that self-compassion is significantly positively
related with subscales of dyadic adjustment, including Dyadic
Satisfaction and Dyadic Cohesion while it shows nonsignificant
relationship with Dyadic Consensus and Affectional Expression. Table 1
also shows that Dyadic Adjustment is significantly positively related
with Self-Kindness, Isolation, Mindfulness and Over-Identification
while it shows non-significant relationship with self-judgment and
common humanity.
Effect of Self-Compassion on the Marital Adjustment of Pakistani Adults
59
Table 1
Correlations among Dimensions of Self-Compassion and Dyadic Adjustment (N=263)
Note. SCS = Self-Compassion Scale; SK = Self-kindness; SJ = Self-judgment; CH = Common Humanity; ISO = Isolation; MI = Mindfulness; OI
= Over-Identification; DAS = Dyadic Adjustment Scale; DC = Dyadic Consensus; AE = Affectional Expression; DS = Dyadic Satisfaction; DCO
= Dyadic Cohesion **p<.01 and *p<.05.
Scales Items α 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12
1 SCS 25 .71 - .58** .58** .28** .60** .53** .68* .40** .05 .14 .26** .13*
2 SK 5 .60 - -.26 .38** -.06 .53** .06 .41** .13* .11 .27** .24**
3 SJ 5 .53 - -.25** .57** -.08 .65** .10 .04 .14 .08 .01
4 CH 3 .53 - -.21** .37** -.14* .16 -.42 -.44 .09 .08
5 ISO 4 .60 - -.05 .63** .19** .05 .14 .06 -.02
6 MI 4 .64 - .04 .26** -.94 -.56 .15* .11
7 OI 4 .54 - .30** .09 .17* .22** .02
8 DAS 27 .89 - .87** .27** .82** .57**
9 DC 11 .87 - .21* .46** .32**
10 AE 3 .78 - .28** .16
11 DS 8 .78 - .41**
12 DCO 5 .71 -
Effect of Self-Compassion on the Marital Adjustment of Pakistani Adults
60
Table 2
Multiple Regression Analysis predicting dyadic adjustment from subscales of
Self-Compassion (N = 263)
Note. CI = Class Interval; LL = Lower Limit; UL = Upper Limit; SK = Self-
Kindness; SJ = Self-Judgment; CH = Common Humanity; ISO = Isolation; MI
=Mindfulness; OI = Over-Identification.
***p < .001; *p < .05
Table 2 shows that self-kindness and over identification
significantly positively predict dyadic adjustment. Whereas self-
judgement shows to be a significant negative predictor. Insignificant
results were shown by the subscales of common humanity, isolation
and mindfulness. In the end, it can be seen that 20% variance was
accounted for, in this regression model.
Predictor
B
SE
β
95% CI
LL UL
Constant 42.22 11.67 19.12 65.33
SK 1.68 .48 .32*** .72 2.65
SJ -.61 .54 -.11* -1.69 .47
CH .48 .68 .05 -.87 1.83
ISO .34 .64 .05 -.93 1.61
MI .40 .60 .06 -.78 1.59
OI 1.58 .65 .26*** .27 2.88
R2 .23
ΔR2 .20
Effect of Self-Compassion on the Marital Adjustment of Pakistani Adults
61
Table 3
Mean Differences across Gender on Self-Compassion and Dyadic Adjustment
(N=263)
Scales
Men
(n=133)
Women
(n=130)
95% CI
M SD M SD t p LL UL Cohen’s d
SCS 78.87 10.66 80.01 10.06 .89 .37 -1.37 3.65 0.11
SK 15.91 3.83 15.68 3.57 .51 .60 -1.13 .665 0.08
SJ 15.22 3.33 15.93 3.65 .16 .10 -1.38 1.56 0.20
CH 9.65 2.21 9.18 2.47 1.62 .10 -1.04 .099 0.21
ISO 12.20 3.18 12.98 3.30 1.93 .05 -.012 1.56 0.21
MI 12.65 2.95 12.58 3.09 .19 .85 -.80 .66 0.03
OI 13.29 3.04 13.38 3.07 .24 .80 -.65 .83 0.03
DAS 97.25 20.5 94.46 19.75 .80 .42 -9.67 4.09 0.13
DC 49.34 8.76 46.60 9.12 2.48 .01 -4.91 -.56 0.30
AE .4828 .504 .4872 .503 .051 .96 -.168 .17 0.00
DS 32.40 7.06 30.50 7.19 2.15 .03 -3.62 -.16 0.26
DCO 16.61 5.26 15.59 5.31 1.56 .12 -2.30 .26 0.21
Note. CI = Class Interval; LL = Lower Limit; UL = Upper Limit; SCS=Self-
Compassion Scale; SK=Self-kindness; SJ=Self-judgment; CH=Common Humanity;
ISO=Isolation; MI=Mindfulness; OI=Over-Identification; DAS=Dyadic Adjustment
Scale; DC=Dyadic Consensus; AE=Affectional Expression; DS=Dyadic Satisfaction;
DCO = Dyadic Cohesion.
Table 3 illustrates mean differences in study variables across
gender. It can be seen that there is a significant difference in the means
of Isolation, Dyadic Consensus and Dyadic Satisfaction. Where women
score higher on Isolation and men score higher on Dyadic Cohesion as
well as Dyadic Satisfaction. There were no significant gender
differences across any other study variable.
Effect of Self-Compassion on the Marital Adjustment of Pakistani Adults
62
Discussion
The present study was designed to examine the relationship
between self-compassion and adjustment among married individuals.
The study also looked into the role of gender self-compassion and
marital adjustment. For this purpose, two scales; Self-Compassion
Scale (Imtiaz, 2012), and Dyadic Adjustment Scale (Naseer, 2000)
were used.
The first hypothesis of this study stated that there will be a
positive relationship between self-compassion and marital adjustment,
this hypothesis was tested by using Pearson Product Moment. The
results of the correlation analysis provided support for this hypothesis
(see Table 1). Thus, the present study suggests that practicing self-
compassion may enhance relationships or maintain their interpersonal
adjustment respectively. This result is in accordance with the previous
work done on self-compassion and relationship maintenance (Baker &
Mcnulty, 2001; Jami & Kamal, 2017; Kalsoom, Masood, & Jami,
2017). In that study too, the results indicated positive correlation
between self-compassion and marital adjustment among men and
women. In that study results shows that among women, as compared to
men, were more likely to be naturally more motivated to maintain their
relationships for cultural and or biological reasons.
Multiple regression analysis was carried out using the subscales
of Self-Compassion to see which components of self-compassion
strongly predicted marital adjustment. The results revealed that Self-
Kindness was the strongest positive predictor of marital adjustment.
Previous researches have suggested that marital adjustment is positively
associated with positive affect while it is negatively correlated with
negative affect (Celik & Iskender, 2015; Ahmed, Ahmed, Aqeel,
Akhtar, & Salim, 2017; Cisheng, Jamala, Aqeel , Shah , Ahmed,
&
Gul, 2017; Khan, Amanat, Aqeel, Sulehri, Amanat, Sana, & Amin,
2017).
Effect of Self-Compassion on the Marital Adjustment of Pakistani Adults
63
Second hypothesis of this study stated that women will show
higher self-compassion than men. In order to test it, that independent
sample t-test was computed on study variables across gender. However,
the results did not support this hypothesis, showing no significant
gender differences.
Hypothesis number 3 proposed that men would show more
marital adjustment as compared to women. The findings revealed
significant gender differences on two subscales of marital adjustment,
showing that men scored higher on more Dyadic Consensus and Dyadic
Cohesion; thus, supporting the 3rd
hypothesis of this study. This finding
is in line with previous literature (Gaur & Bhardwaj, 2015; Nema,
2013).
Limitations and Suggestions
Following are the limitations of the present study that future
researchers are encouraged to rectify for more reliable results.
1. The sample was limited to the cities of Rawalpindi and
Islamabad. Therefore, the findings cannot be generalized to the
overall population of Pakistan. Future researchers are suggested
to take sample from all over Pakistan, in order to increase
generalizability.
2. There could be the element of biasness on the part of
respondents as the scales were of self-report nature.
3. This study is based on a purely quantitative research design,
thus in-depth investigation was not possible. Future studies with
these variables are recommended to use a qualitative research
design, like conducting interviews.
Implications of the Study
The finding of the present study can help married individuals
can enhance their lives while becoming better adjusted with their
spouses. People having self-compassion tend to be optimistic thinkers
and learn from their previous mistakes and improve their lives. Self-
Effect of Self-Compassion on the Marital Adjustment of Pakistani Adults
64
compassionate individuals deal with their life stressors more effectively
or in a balanced way as compared to self-critical people. They are more
kind and understanding not only to themselves but also to those around
them. Self-compassionate individuals show less aggressive behaviors
and have fewer conflicts in their marital relationship. Thus, marriage
counselors can help couples work on their self-compassion in order to
enhance their marital adjustments.
Conclusion
Overall the results of present study suggested that self-
compassion plays an important role in interpersonal adjustment and in
relationship buildings, especially marital relationships. It is suggested
from the findings of the present study that men show more marital
adjustment as compared to women. In addition to that it was also seen
that self-compassion was an important contributor in improving and
enhancing interpersonal relationship outcomes. According to Neff and
Beretvas (2013), individuals with more self-compassion express greater
psychological association with their partners, more acceptance,
autonomy and less isolation and conflict. Although, this area of
research requires more investigation, the findings of the present study
can prove to be useful for counselors, who can conduct training
programs to help individuals become more compassionate towards
themselves as well as with others. In this way having a better chance of
leading more productive, and fruitful lives.
References
Ahmed, B., Ahmed, A., Aqeel, M., Akhtar, T., & Salim, S. (2017). Impact of
tinnitus perception on psychological distress in male and female
tinnitus patients. Foundation University Journal of Psychology, 1(1),
1-26.
Baker, L. R., & McNulty, J. K. (2011). Self-compassion and relationship
maintenance: The moderating roles of conscientiousness and
gender. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 100(5), 853.
Blatt, S. J. (1995). The destructiveness of perfectionism: Implications for the
treatment of depression. American Psychologist, 50(12), 1003-1020.
Effect of Self-Compassion on the Marital Adjustment of Pakistani Adults
65
Çelik, E., & İskender, M. (2015). Ambivalent Sexism, Submissive Behaviors,
and Positive and Negative Affect as Predictor of Marital
Adjustment. International Journal of Educational Researchers, 6(3), 1-
14.
Cisheng, W., Jamala,B., Aqeel ,M., Shah ,S,M., Ahmed, A., & Gul, M.
(2017). The moderating role of spiritual intelligence on the relationship
between emotional intelligence and identity development in
adolescents. Foundation University Journal of Psychology, 1(1), 77-
107.
Emmers-Sommer, T. M. (2004). The effect of communication quality and
quantity indicators on intimacy and relational satisfaction. Journal of
Social and Personal Relationships, 21(3), 399-411.
Gaur, P., & Bhardwaj, A. B. (2015). Relationship between empathy,
forgiveness and marital adjustment in couple. The International Journal
of Indian Psychology, 3(1), 145-151.
Hollis-Walker, L., & Colosimo, K. (2011). Mindfulness, self-compassion, and
happiness in non-meditators: A theoretical and empirical examination.
Personality and Individual Differences, 50(2), 222-227.
Imitiaz, S. (2012). Self-compassion, rumination, optimism, and well-being
among elderly adults. (Unpublished M-Phil Thesis). National Institute
of Psychology, Quaid-i-Azam University, Islamabad, Pakistan.
Karim, A. S., & Janjuah, M. Z. (2015). Freewill verses Determinism: A
Psychoanalysis of Divorce Issues in Pakistan. New Horizons, 9(1), 20.
Kalsoom, S., Masood,S., & Jami, H. (2017). Psychological well-being and
perceived familial social support for patients with hepatitis c: a
challenge for health practitioners. Foundation University Journal of
Psychology, 1(1), 27-47.
Khan, A., Amanat,A., Aqeel, M., Sulehri, A, N., Amanat,A,. Sana, E., &
Amin, H. (2017). The mediating role of job stress between social
support and development of stress, anxiety and depression in educators
and health professionals. Foundation University Journal of
Psychology, 1(1), 48-62.
Leary, M. R., Tate, E. B., Adams, C. E., Allen, A. B., & Hancock, J. (2007).
Self-compassion and reactions to unpleasant self-relevant events: The
implications of treating oneself kindly. Journal of Personality and
Social Psychology, 92(5), 887-904.
Effect of Self-Compassion on the Marital Adjustment of Pakistani Adults
66
Mukherjee, M. N., & Sinha, S. P. (1990). On some near-fuzzy continuous
functions between fuzzy topological spaces. Fuzzy Sets and Systems,
34(2), 245-254.
Naseer, S. (2000). Marital adjustment and stress among traditional couples
and dual career couples. (Unpublished M-Phil Thesis). National
Institute of Psychology, Quaid-i-Azam University, Islamabad, Pakistan.
Neff, K. D. (2003). The development and validation of a scale to measure
self-compassion. Self and Identity, 2(3), 223-250.
Neff, K. D., & Beretvas, S. N. (2013). The role of self-compassion in
romantic relationships. Self and Identity, 12(1), 78-98.
Neff, K. D., Kirkpatrick, K. L., & Rude, S. S. (2007). Self-compassion and
adaptive psychological functioning. Journal of research in personality,
41(1), 139-154.
Neff, K. D., & Beretvas, S. N. (2013). The role of self-compassion in
romantic relationships. Self and Identity, 12(1), 78-98.
Nema, S. (2013). Effect of marital adjustment in middle-aged adults.
International Journal of Scientific and Research Publications, 3(9),745-
750.
Jami, H., & Kamal, A(2017). Myths about hijras (male-to-female transgender
of hijra community)? role of gender and commonly held belief about
them. Foundation University Journal of Psychology, 1(1), 63-76.
Raes, F. (2010). Rumination and worry as mediators of the relationship
between self-compassion and depression and anxiety. Personality and
Individual Differences, 48(6), 757-761.
Yarnell, L. M., & Neff, K. D. (2013). Self-compassion, interpersonal conflict
resolutions, and well-being. Self and Identity, 12(2), 146-159.
FOUNDATION UNIVERSITY JOURNAL OF PSYCHOLOGY, 2017, VOL. 1, NO. 2, 67-95
67
The Moderating Role of Pregnancy Status among Coping
Strategies, Depression, Anxiety and Stress across
Pakistani Married Women
Sunita Peter, Foundation University, Rawalpindi Campus
Jaffar Abbas, Shanghai University, Baoshan Campus
Muhammad Aqeel, Tanvir Akhtar & Khowla Farooq
Foundation University, Rawalpindi Campus
Current study designed to investigate the moderating role of pregnancy status
among coping strategies, stress, anxiety and depression across Pakistani
women. Sample consisted of 200 married women (Pregnant, n= 100; Non-
Pregnant, n=100) with age ranged from 20 to 40 years. Purposive sampling
technique was used based on the cross-sectional research design. The married,
pregnant and non-pregnant women were inquired at the gynecology and
obstetrics department of hospitals in Rawalpindi, Islamabad and Taxila,
Pakistan. Two scales were applied to assess depression, anxiety, stress, active
avoidance coping, problem focused coping, emotional support, religious
coping, in married women. This study revealed that Active Avoidance Coping
was significantly predicting to depression (β=.25, p<.05), anxiety (β=.26,
p<0.5), and stress (β=.26, p<.05) in pregnant women. However, Emotion
focused coping was also significantly predicting to stress (β=.23, p<.05) in
pregnant women. In addition, results also revealed that problem focused
coping was significantly predicting to depression (β=.10, p>.05) and anxiety
(β=.29, p<.05) in pregnant women. Our study analysis revealed that pregnancy
status was playing role of moderator among coping strategies, stress, anxiety
and depression across Pakistani women. This study would be helpful for
health and clinical settings to spread awareness for pregnant women, how to
handle psychological problems with their health issues.
Keyword. Pregnancy, coping strategies, depression, anxiety and stress
1. Department of Psychology, Foundation University, Rawalpindi.
2. Ph.d scholar, Shanghai University, Baoshan Campus, Shanghai China
3. Lecturer, Department of Psychology, Foundation University, Rawalpindi Campus.
4. Head of Psychology Department, Foundation University, Rawalpindi Campus.
5. Department of Psychology, Foundation University, Rawalpindi.
Correspondence concerning this article should be addressed to Sunita Peter Department of
Psychology, Foundation University Rawalpindi Campus. Email: [email protected].
The Moderating Role of Pregnancy among Coping Strategies, Depression,
Anxiety and Stress across Pakistani Married Women
68
Pregnancy is a time of joyfulness in a woman’s life
(Hamilton & Lobel, 2008). However, for some women it can be a
time of stressfulness (Hamilton & Lobel, 2008; Peñacoba‐Puente,
Carmona‐Monge, Marín‐Morales, & Naber, 2013). Along with
social stressors, pregnant women experience changes in their
physique, their interpersonal relationships change and they
experience changes in their self-identity; these changes cause
pregnant women distress (Hamilton & Lobel, 2008).
Coping is the effort made by a person at the cognitive and
behavioral level, in order to deal with the situations that cause
stress and have negative consequences (Lazarus & Folkman,
1984). According to the Lazarus model of coping, there are two
factors; Problem Focused and Emotion Focused Coping (Lazarus
& Folkman, 1984). Problem focused Coping is situation centered,
here the person pays more attention to the solution of the problem,
planning around the problem, and gathering information about the
problem whereas, Emotion-focused Coping is more centered
towards the emotions of a person towards the stressful situation
encountered and how a person feels about themselves and others in
the light of the stressful situation (Peñacoba‐Puente et al., 2013).
Another coping strategy is the Religious Coping strategy, it was
found to be the strongest predictor of high levels of optimism and
religiosity (Hamilton & Lobel, 2008; Jami, & Kamal, 2017;
Kalsoom, Masood, & Jami, 2017; Ahmed, Ahmed, Aqeel,
Akhtar, & Salim, 2017; Cisheng, Jamala, Aqeel , Shah , Ahmed,
& Gul, 2017; Khan, Amanat, Aqeel, Sulehri, Amanat, Sana, &
Amin, 2017). In a study Mikulincer and Florian (1999), found that
women who used Avoidant Coping had weak attachments to their
fetuses and also had low mental health, specifically in the first
trimester of their pregnancies.
Numerous prior studies have looked at ways women cope
with stress during pregnancy. The studies already conducted on the
pregnant sample with regards to their coping strategies of choice,
The Moderating Role of Pregnancy among Coping Strategies, Depression,
Anxiety and Stress across Pakistani Married Women
69
include pregnancies with a risk factor that is detrimental to the
health and wellbeing of the mother and the child (Demyttenaere,
Maes, Nijs, Odendael, & Van Assche, 1995; Geerinck‐Vercammen
& Kanhai, 2003; Lowenkron, 1999). Other literature that is
available, includes teenage pregnancies or pregnancies induced
through the in-vitro system of fertilization (Baor & Soskolne,
2010; Kirchner, Muñoz, Forns, Peñarrubia, & Balasch, 2011;
Lukse & Vacc, 1999).
Given the findings of past researches, it is clear that the
Active Avoidant Coping is a dangerous mechanism employed by
pregnant women while the Emotion Focused Coping yield positive
results on account of reducing stress (Rudnicki, Graham,
Habboushe, & Ross, 2001).
Pregnancy brings about a joyful time in a woman’s life, but
it can be stressful for some as well (Hamilton & Lobel, 2008). A
very high number of women experience symptoms of Depression
during their pregnancy (de Tychey et al., 2005) and Stress
(Peñacoba‐Puente et al., 2013).
Pregnant women also experience Anxiety this brings about
Dysfunction in their life activities (Benner, 2000). It is found that
Major Depressive Disorder, is a chronic and recurrent illness (Judd
et al., 1998), in women aged 15 to 44 years of age, in developed
and developing regions, globally (Murray & Lopez, 1997),
previous studies reveal that around 30% women, worldwide,
harbor some level of Depression. (Da Costa et al., 2000; Dayan et
al., 2002; Einarson et al., 2001; Evans, Heron, Francomb, Oke, &
Golding, 2001; Gotlib, Whiffen, Mount, Milne, & Cordy, 1989;
Johanson, Chapman, Murray, Johnson, & Cox, 2000; Kelly, Russo,
& Katon, 2001; O'Hara, 1986), it is very unfortunate that although
a very significant number of pregnant women experience
symptoms of Depression, yet they go unobserved and treated
indifferently (Chokka, 2002). All in all, pregnancy is undoubtedly,
The Moderating Role of Pregnancy among Coping Strategies, Depression,
Anxiety and Stress across Pakistani Married Women
70
a stressful time period in a woman’s life (Peñacoba‐Puente et al.,
2013).
Birth complications like low birth weight of the child, poor
neonatal status, premature birth and intrauterine growth retardation
are all consequences of the emotional distress and symptoms of
Depression and Anxiety experienced by the expecting mother
(Abdel-Gawad, Badr, & Shaban, 2005; Berle et al., 2005; Costa,
Brender, & Larouche, 1998; Da Costa et al., 2000; Dole et al.,
2003; Hansen et al., 2000; Hedegaard, Henriksen, Sabroe, &
Secher, 1993; Pagel, Smilkstein, Regen, & Montano, 1990; Rondo
et al., 2003), although negative or unclear findings have also been
reported (Berle et al., 2005; Brooke, Anderson, Bland, Peacock, &
Stewart, 1989; Hedegaard, Henriksen, Secher, Hatch, & Sabroe,
1996).
Furthermore, it was found that Depression in women was
particularly predominant in at the time of pregnancy and then child
rearing, one such proof is of the women in the United States of
America; 10% of these women meet the diagnostic criteria for
major depressive disorder (Gotlib et al., 1989). There are various
reasons why women who are expecting a child may fall into
Depression, problems in the marital life, an unplanned or unwanted
conception and past history of depression in the family, all become
factors that make pregnant women vulnerable to Depression
(Kitamura, Shima, Sugawara, & Toda, 1993). Treatment for
Depression includes the use of selective serotonin re-uptake
inhibitor and the traditional tricyclic antidepressant drugs, it is seen
that they are highly effective in treatment (Kumar, Marks, Platz, &
Yoshida, 1995; Montgomery, 1995).
It is observed that women, who belong to minority groups,
use the Avoidance Coping most frequently, in response to
Depression (Rudnicki, Graham, Habboushe, & Ross, 2001).
The Moderating Role of Pregnancy among Coping Strategies, Depression,
Anxiety and Stress across Pakistani Married Women
71
According to Orejudo and Frojan, (2005), women who are not
pregnant tend to use the Problem Focused Coping Strategies more,
they seek social support, gather information and positive
reappraisal, and this supports their wellbeing. The coping strategies
that are maladaptive and cause an increase in the levels of
Depression and Anxiety are avoidance and escape, confrontation,
self-blaming, ruminative thoughts, maximization and exaggerated
emotional response (Compas, Connor-Smith, Saltzman, Thomsen,
& Wadsworth, 2001; Garnefski, Legerstee, Kraaij, van den
Kommer, & Teerds, 2002; Pakenham, Smith, & Rattan, 2007;
Penley, Tomaka, & Wiebe, 2002; Skinner, Edge, Altman, &
Sherwood, 2003).
Anxiety is another constituent of the psychological distress
felt by pregnant mothers, it is linked with the behavioral and
emotional problems that the child may develop in the course of
their lives (O'connor, heron, glover, & team, 2002).
Stress is a psychological stressor and coping with Stress
and stressful situations is not a singular concept. One of the more
popular concepts of Stress is that it is a process (Lazarus, 1966;
Lazarus & Folkman, 1984). The concept of Stress as a process
leads to the assumption that some coping strategies are adaptive
and some are maladaptive in the dealing with stress, while, this is
so, it also implies that coping is situational. Individuals tend to be
subjective in their use of Coping Strategies in relevance to the
stressful situation (Lazarus & Folkman, 1984). The assessment and
the research done on Stress and Coping Strategies is strongly
related to the Lazarus mode, however, Lazarus (1999), brought to
attention that there are methodological difficulties in approaching
Stress as a process for all researchers. In the light of this finding,
most researchers focus on the individual coping strategies used by
people when they come across stressful situations rather than,
focusing on the stressor itself.
The Moderating Role of Pregnancy among Coping Strategies, Depression,
Anxiety and Stress across Pakistani Married Women
72
As far as Pregnancy is concerned, most of the research is
done where pregnant women are exposed to the stressors and their
use of coping strategies is analyzed. Past studies show the analysis
of coping strategies in women with high-risk pregnancies
(Demyttenaere et al., 1995; Geerinck‐Vercammen & Kanhai, 2003;
Lowenkron, 1999), teenage pregnancies (Kaye, 2008; Myors,
Johnson, & Langdon, 2001), and in women undergoing in vitro
fertilization (Baor & Soskolne, 2010; Kirchner et al., 2011; Lukse
& Vacc, 1999). In contrast to the situation of an added stressor,
very little is known about the coping strategies used by women
who have normal or minimal stress pregnancies. However, these
previous situations maybe considered for low risk pregnancies as
well because without a doubt, normal or not, pregnancy is a tie of
stressfulness in a woman’s life.
Current study proved to be significant in the fields of
psychology with relation to pregnant women as there is previously
very less research conducted to study the effects of coping
strategies on pregnant women (Peñacoba‐Puente et al., 2013).
Secondly it is important to know whether women with neurotic
tendencies develop the corresponding disorders while pregnant due
to hormonal changes and lack of positive coping strategies.
Furthermore, it is important to study pregnant women and to
determine if their levels of Coping Strategies affect overall mental
health specifically Psychological Distress.
The study is also significant to determine the mental
wellbeing of pregnant women in Pakistan given their treatment by
families and the attitude of health care professionals, which is not
very accommodating for them. This research hopes to change the
attitude of Pakistani’s towards pregnant women.
The Moderating Role of Pregnancy among Coping Strategies, Depression,
Anxiety and Stress across Pakistani Married Women
73
Method
Objectives
1. To study the relationship among coping strategies,
stress, anxiety and depression in pregnant and non
pregnant women.
2. To study the moderating role of pregnancy status
among coping strategies, stress, anxiety and depression
in women.
3. Women who are in their 1st and 2
nd trimester are more
predisposed towards Psychological Distress compared
to those women who are in their 3rd
trimester.
Hypotheses
1. Active avoidance coping has a positive relationship with
stress, anxiety and depression in pregnant and non pregnant
women.
2. Emotional focused coping has a positive relationship with
stress, anxiety and depression in pregnant and non pregnant
women.
3. Problem focused coping has a negative relationship with
stress, anxiety and depression in pregnant and non pregnant
women.
4. Religious Coping has a negative relationship with stress,
anxiety and depression in pregnant and non pregnant
women.
5. Women who are in their 1st and 2
nd trimester are more
predisposed towards Psychological Distress as compared to
those women who are in their 3rd
trimester.
Sample
Purposive sampling technique was used based on cross-
sectional design. Data was collected from Rawalpindi, Taxila and
The Moderating Role of Pregnancy among Coping Strategies, Depression,
Anxiety and Stress across Pakistani Married Women
74
Islamabad hospitals, where 100 pregnant women and 100 non-
pregnant married women of the ages 20-40 years were selected.
Age ranged from 20 to 40 years is best suitable as at this age
women are most likely to be married and pregnant. However over
the age of 40 the chance of medical risks increases (Aasheim,
Waldenström, Rasmussen, Espehaug, & Schytt, 2014) hence the
age limit for the sample is up to 40 years.
Instrument
Brief Cope Scale. It was devised by Carver (1997). It is a
28-item self-report measure of both adaptive and maladaptive
coping skills. The scale yields four subscales; Active Avoidance
Coping (items number: 1, 4, 6, 9, 11, 13, 16, 19, 21, 26),
Emotional Focused Coping (items number: 12, 15, 17, 18, 20, 24,
28), Problem Focused Coping (items number: 2, 5, 7, 10, 14, 23,
25) and Religious Coping (items number: 3, 8, 22, 27). The scale’s
developer does not advise a particular method for second-order
factoring and suggests that researchers develop their own models
for second-order factors based on data from individual research
samples.
Depression, Anxiety and Stress Scale. It developed by
Lovibond and Lovibond (1995) and translated by Zafar and
Khalily, (2014). Which includes three self-report scales designed
to measure the negative emotional states of depression, anxiety and
stress (Lovibond & Lovibond, 1995). Each of the three scales
contains 14 items, divided into subscales of 2-5 items with similar
content. The Depression scale assesses dysphoria, hopelessness,
devaluation of life, self-deprecation, and lack of
interest/involvement, anhedonia, and inertia (items are: 3, 5, 10,
13, 16, 17, 21, 24, 26, 31, 34, 37, 38, and 42). The Anxiety scale
assesses autonomic arousal, skeletal muscle effects, situational
anxiety, and subjective experience of anxious affect (items are: 2,
The Moderating Role of Pregnancy among Coping Strategies, Depression,
Anxiety and Stress across Pakistani Married Women
75
4, 7, 9, 15, 19, 20, 23, 25, 28, 30, 36, 40, and 41). The Stress scale
is sensitive to levels of chronic non-specific arousal. It assesses
difficulty relaxing, nervous arousal, and being easily
upset/agitated, irritable/over-reactive and impatient (items are: 1, 6,
8, 11, 12, 14, 18, 22, 27, 29, 32, 33, 35, and 39). Respondents are
asked to use 4-point severity/frequency scales to rate the extent to
which they have experienced each state over the past week.
Procedure
The participant were inquired at the gynecology and
obstetrics department of hospitals in Rawalpindi, Islamabad and
Taxila, Pakistan. All the subjects approached and briefed about
the purpose of the current study. The informed consent was taken
before the subjects filled the questionnaires and all their queries,
relevant to the scales and intent of research were answered to the
satisfaction of the pregnant women. The study has been endorsed
by the ethical committee of the Foundation University, Rawalpindi
Campus of Institutional/ethical/ Review Board.
Analysis plan
The data was first entered and computed on Statistical
Package for the Social Sciences (SPSS). The reliability of all the
applied scales along with their subscales was also measured on
SPSS. After which correlations between variables were run. To
check the involvement of demographic variables, Analysis of
Variance (ANOVA), was run on SPSS.
To check for the moderating role of Pregnancy among
Coping Strategies and development of Psychological Distress, the
Analysis of Moment Structure (AMOS) software was used. Two
groups were made based on the sample; pregnant and non-pregnant
women and the regression analysis were run according to the
The Moderating Role of Pregnancy among Coping Strategies, Depression,
Anxiety and Stress across Pakistani Married Women
76
hypothesis that needed to be tested. The results are computed in
their respective tables in the following chapter.
Results
Table 1
Correlation matrix between Coping Strategies and Psychological
Distress in pregnant women (N=100).
M SD α 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9
1 BCS 51.1 10.6 .74 - .868** .789** .787** .619** .540** .475** .602** .433**
2.AAC 13.9 4.6 .45 - .527** .538** .484** .483** .430** .522** .396**
3 PFC 15.3 3.3 .49 - .557** .344** .434** .353** .522** .341**
4 EFC 13.9 3.4 .48 - .303** .439** .377** .438** .404**
5 RFC 7.8 2.1 .41 - .272** .288** .356** .129
6DASS 41.3 25.0 .93 - .912** .919** .938**
7 DS 10.6 8.9 .85 - .753** .775**
8 AS 13.3 8.4 .82 - .805**
9 SS 17.5 9.9 .82 -
Note: Correlation results are reported in this table. BCT= Brief Cope Scale, AAC= Active
Avoidance Coping, PFC= Problem Focused Coping, EFC= Emotion Focused Coping, RFC=
Religious Focused Coping, DASS= Depression Anxiety and Stress Scale, DS= Depression Scale,
AS= Anxiety Scale, SS= Stress Scale.
Table 2
Correlation matrix between Coping Strategies and Psychological
Distress in non-pregnant women (N=100).
M SD α 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9
1 BCS 50.92 9.35 .74 - .803** .652** .708** .666** .400** .389** .327** .392**
2 AAC 14.79 4.18 .45 - .257** .414** .481** .443** .428** .374** .425**
3 PFC 14.76 3.30 .49 - .345** .263** .067 .070 .062 .055
4 EFC 13.34 3.05 .48 - .274** .192 .167 .133 .232*
5 RFC 8.02 2.51 .41 - .429** .437** .353** .396**
6 DASS 48.99 24.71 .93 - .932** .913** .925**
7 DS 13.89 9.25 .85 - .769** .807**
8 AS 15.45 8.83 .82 - .762**
9 SS 19.64 8.67 .82 -
Note: Correlation results are reported in this table. BCS= Brief Cope Scale, AAC= Active
Avoidance Coping, PFC= Problem Focused Coping, EFC= Emotion Focused Coping, RFC=
Religious Focused Coping, DASS= Depression Anxiety and Stress Scale, DS= Depression Scale,
AS= Anxiety Scale, SS= Stress Scale
The Moderating Role of Pregnancy among Coping Strategies, Depression,
Anxiety and Stress across Pakistani Married Women
77
The results revealed that Active Avoidance Coping was
positively significant (p<.01) correlated with Psychological
Distress among Pakistani pregnant women. Regarding the
hypothesis 1 which states that “Active Avoidance Coping has a
positive relationship with Psychological Distress in Pakistani
pregnant women” was accepted.
The results revealed that Problem Focused Coping was
positively significant (p<.01) correlated with Psychological
Distress among Pakistani pregnant women. Regarding the
hypothesis 3 which states that “Problem Focused Coping has a
negative relationship with Psychological Distress in Pakistani
pregnant women” was rejected.
The results reveal that Emotional Focused Coping was
positively significant (p<.01) correlated with Psychological
Distress among Pakistani pregnant women. Regarding hypothesis 2
which states that “Emotional Focused Coping has a positive
relationship with Psychological Distress in Pakistani pregnant
women” was accepted.
The results revealed that Religious Coping was partially
significant correlated (p<.01, n.s) with Psychological Distress
among Pakistani pregnant women. Regarding the hypothesis 4
which states that “Religious Coping has a negative relationship
with Psychological Distress in Pakistani pregnant women” was
partially accepted.
The Moderating Role of Pregnancy among Coping Strategies, Depression,
Anxiety and Stress across Pakistani Married Women
78
Table 3
Trimester wise difference on Depression Anxiety and Stress among
pregnant women (N=200).
1st
trimester
2nd
trimester
3rd
trimester
(n=14) (n=28) (n=59)
Variables M SD M SD M SD F p
DS 15.85 13.38 7.21 4.40 11.00 8.65 4.88 .010
AS 15.57 11.17 14.14 7.53 12.28 8.01 1.08 .341
SS 18.57 11.75 17.08 8.83 17.38 10.03 .108 .898
Note: this table shows difference between psychological distress among
pregnant women with respect to their duration of pregnancy. DS=
Depression Scale, AS= Anxiety Scale, SS= Stress Scale
The table 3 indicates one way analysis of variance for
Psychological Distress for pregnant women in their 1st 2
nd and 3
rd
trimester. The results indicate that Depression was highly
significant among pregnant women. However, Anxiety and Stress
remained non-significant throughout the term of pregnancy. Thus
hypothesis 5 which states that “women who are in their 1st and 2
nd
trimester are more predisposed towards Psychological Distress as
compared to those women who are in their 3rd
trimester was
partially accepted.
The Moderating Role of Pregnancy among Coping Strategies, Depression,
Anxiety and Stress across Pakistani Married Women
79
Figure 1. The moderating role of Pregnancy between Coping Strategies
and development of Depression, Anxiety and Stress
Table 4
The moderating role of Pregnancy between Coping Strategies and
development of Depression, Anxiety and Stress (N=100).
Depression Anxiety Stress
B S.E β B S.E β B S.E β
AAC .481 .228 .249** .484 .194 .266*** .568 .254 .265***
EFC .419 .297 .159 .256 .253 .103 .679 .331 .233*
PFC .276 .300 .104 .728 .255 .291*** .320 .334 .108
RFC .333 .411 .082 .361 .350 .094 -.487 .458 -.108
Note. The table shows the moderation between Coping Strategies and Psychological Distress
across pregnant women. AAC= Active Avoidance Coping, PFC= Problem Focused Coping, EFC=
Emotion Focused Coping, RFC= Religious Focused Coping.
This AMOS analysis revealed that Active Avoidance
Coping was significant predictor for Depression (β=.249, p<.05),
Anxiety (β=.266, p<0.5), and Stress (β=.265, p<0.5) among
pregnant women. This study also shows that Emotion Focused
Coping was non-significant predictor for Depression (β=.159,
The Moderating Role of Pregnancy among Coping Strategies, Depression,
Anxiety and Stress across Pakistani Married Women
80
p>0.5) and Anxiety (β=.103, p>0.5) across pregnant women.
However, Emotion Focused Coping was significant predictor for
Stress (β=.233, p<0.5) across pregnant women. In addition the
results also showed that Problem Focused Coping was non-
significant predictor for Depression (β=.104, p>0.5) and Stress
(β=.108, p>0.5) but significant predictor for Anxiety (β=.291,
p<0.5) across pregnant women. Lastly, the study revealed that
Religious Coping was non-significant predictor for Depression
(β=.082, p>0.5), Anxiety (β=.094, p>0.5) and Stress (β=-.108,
p>0.5) across pregnant women. Thus the results suggest that
Pregnancy is a partial mediator between Active Avoidance Coping,
Emotion Focused Coping, Problem Focused Coping, Religious
Coping and Depression, Anxiety and Stress.
Figure 2. The moderating role of status of non-pregnancy between
Coping Strategies and development of Depression, Anxiety and Stress
The Moderating Role of Pregnancy among Coping Strategies, Depression,
Anxiety and Stress across Pakistani Married Women
81
Table 5
The moderating role of status of non-pregnancy between Coping
Strategies and development of Depression, Anxiety and Stress (N=100).
Depression Anxiety Stress
B S.E β B S.E β B S.E β
AAC .673 .232 .304*** .607 .233 .288*** .615 .220 .297***
EFC -.049 .299 -.016 -.084 .300 -.029 .218 .283 -.117
PFC -.243 .263 -.087 -.175 .264 -.065 -.308 .250 .077
RFC 1.170 .368 .318*** .842 .369 .240** .909 .349 .264***
Note. The table shows the moderation between Coping Strategies and Psychological Distress across
non-pregnant women. AAC= Active Avoidance Coping, PFC= Problem Focused Coping, EFC=
Emotion Focused Coping, RFC= Religious Focused Coping.
The results analysis revealed that Active Avoidance Coping
was significant predictor for Depression (β=.304, p<.05), Anxiety
(β=.288, p<0.5), and Stress (β=.297, p<0.5) among non-pregnant
women. This study also shows that Emotion Focused Coping was
non-significant predictor for Depression (β=.016, p>0.5), Anxiety
(β=-.029, p>0.5) and Stress (β=-.117, p>0.5) across non-pregnant
women. In addition the results also showed that Problem Focused
Coping was non-significant predictor for Depression (β=-.087,
p>0.5), Anxiety (β=-.065, p>0.5) and Stress (β=.077, p>0.5) across
non-pregnant women. Lastly, the study revealed that Religious
Coping was significant predictor for Depression (β=.3.18, p<0.5),
Anxiety (β=.024, p<0.5) and Stress (β=.264, p<0.5) across non-
pregnant women. Thus the results suggest that status of non-
pregnancy is a partial moderator between Active Avoidance
Coping, Emotion Focused Coping, Problem Focused Coping,
Religious Coping and Depression, Anxiety and Stress.
The Moderating Role of Pregnancy among Coping Strategies, Depression,
Anxiety and Stress across Pakistani Married Women
82
Discussion
Current study planned to examine among coping strategies,
stress, anxiety and depression in pregnant and non pregnant
women. Moreover, to investigate the moderating role of pregnancy
status among coping strategies, stress, anxiety and depression in
women.
The present study results revealed that Active Avoidance
Coping Strategy was positive associated with depression, anxiety
and stress in pregnant women. Regarding to hypothesis no. 1
which stated that Active avoidance coping has a positive
relationship with stress, anxiety and depression in pregnant and
non pregnant women was supporting in current study. Previous
study findings were similar with current study results. Numerous
prior studies explained that pregnancy or the conception of a child
leads couples towards parenthood, this brings about a change in
their lives, and for mothers the change includes physical and
psychological change together. Consequently, Pregnancy while
being a time of happiness (Hamilton & Lobel, 2008) also is a time
of Psychological Distress (De-Tychey et al., 2005; Hamilton &
Lobel, 2008; Peñacoba‐Puente et al., 2013). Previous study also
indicate that the Active Avoidant Coping Strategy is a maladaptive
coping skill (Borcherding, 2009) and it contributes to
psychological distress in pregnant women (Hamilton & Lobel,
2008).
The second aim of the current study was to investigate
emotional focused coping has a positive relationship with stress,
anxiety and depression in pregnant and non pregnant women.
Hypothesis number 2 is also reported in Table 1 of correlation. The
hypothesis have been approved, hence illuminating that the
increased use of the emotion focused coping is maladaptive
(Borcherding, 2009), and leads towards increased level of
The Moderating Role of Pregnancy among Coping Strategies, Depression,
Anxiety and Stress across Pakistani Married Women
83
Psychological Distress in pregnant women (Mulder et al., 2002).
Hence, it is not a beneficial coping strategy and its use should be
avoided, especially by pregnant women as it will have detrimental
effects on the health of the mother as well her expected child. The
results in table 2, for non pregnant women, indicate that, the use of
emotion focused coping will not cause women to develop
Depression and Anxiety. However, the more the orientation of
women is towards emotions, they will be more stressed.
Regarding to hypothesis no. 1 which stated that problem
focused coping has a negative relationship with stress, anxiety and
depression in pregnant and non pregnant women was supporting in
current study. Problem focused coping is a beneficial and adaptive
coping strategy (Hamilton & Lobel, 2008), the hypothesis 3 aimed
to find the negative relationship between Problem Focused Coping
and Psychological distress however the corresponding results to
these hypothesis, reported in table 1 of correlation are disproved
indicating that the Pakistani sample of pregnant women has an
increase in their Psychological Distress with the use of Problem
Focused Coping. Similar results are reported in Table 2 of
correlation for non pregnant women. The more they use Problem
Focused Coping the more psychologically distressed they are.
The results resemble the word of Lazarus and Folkman
(1984), that explains that Problem Focused Coping is not always
beneficial, often times it is an obstacle to the psychological well-
being. Any coping strategy requires an appropriate context for its
use (Lazarus & Folkman, 1984), if there is a discrepancy among
the situation and the strategy used to cope with it, it will not yield
beneficial results.
One other aim of this study was to examine the negative
relationship between Religious Coping and Psychological distress.
Religious Focused Coping is a positive approach towards dealing
The Moderating Role of Pregnancy among Coping Strategies, Depression,
Anxiety and Stress across Pakistani Married Women
84
with Psychological Distress (Giurgescu, Penckofer, Maurer, &
Bryant, 2006; Hamilton & Lobel, 2008). The table 1 of correlation
and have been partially disapproved. These results again indicate
that Pakistani pregnant women have an impeding progress towards
psychological well-being with their use of the Religious Focused
Coping. The use of Religious Focused Coping by non pregnant
women is also unhelpful in dealing with Psychological Distress, as
indicated by the results of correlation in table number 2. It is not
always necessary for Religious Coping to be beneficial, sometimes
excessive reliance on one’s spiritual resources alone can cause
increased levels of anxiety and ambiguity (Peñacoba‐Puente et al.,
2013).
An additional aim of this study was to see the role of the
demographic variable; duration of pregnancy, on the levels of
Psychological Distress in pregnant women. For this a trimester
wise categorization was made for expecting mothers. The women
in their 1st trimester have their pregnancy between the first and
third months, women in the 2nd
trimester lie between the fourth an
sixth month of pregnancy while the women in their 3rd
trimester
fall in the seventh to ninth month of pregnancy.
It was aimed to see that women in their 1st and 2
nd trimester
are more psychologically distressed; have high levels of
Depression, Anxiety and Stress, as compared to women in their 3rd
semester. Analysis of variance (ANOVA) was run on SPSS to
differentiate between the three groups of pregnant women. The
result of hypothesis number 5 has been reported in table 3 of
ANOVA, it is clear that Depression is highly significant in
pregnant women while Stress and Anxiety remain non-significant.
Thus, hypothesis 5 has been partially accepted. The high levels of
Depression are attributable to the changes a pregnant woman goes
through and the apprehension she feels towards her future and the
The Moderating Role of Pregnancy among Coping Strategies, Depression,
Anxiety and Stress across Pakistani Married Women
85
future of her child (Milgrom et al., 2008; Peñacoba‐Puente et al.,
2013).
Lastly, this study aimed to study the moderating role of
Pregnancy between Coping Strategies and Psychological Distress;
Depression, Anxiety and Stress. Moderation was run on the
Analysis of Moment Structure; (AMOS) software with Pregnancy
as the moderator. The results have been reported in Table 4. It was
found that pregnant women who had employed the Active
Avoidance Coping significantly predicted Psychological Distress.
Their levels of Psychological Distress were high.
Secondly, the results showed that pregnant women who
used Emotion Focused Coping had high levels of Stress and lower
levels of Depression and Anxiety. It was also seen that Problem
Focused Coping was a non-significant predictor of Depression and
Stress, showing that if pregnant women are to use Problem
Focused Coping they will be able to deal with Depression and
Stress, however, it was also seen that Problem Focused Coping
significantly predicted Anxiety. This could be in relevance to
finding the appropriate solution and being apprehensive about its
effectiveness.
Finally, it was seen that Religious Focused Coping is a
non-significant predictor of Psychological Distress in pregnant
women, indicating that pregnant women find relief and peace in
their spiritual resources. Hence, the obtained results have revealed
that Pregnancy is a partial mediator between the four types of
Coping and Psychological Distress. The results add on to the
Lazarus and Folkman (1984), model of coping as it clearly states
that coping is contextual, while some coping strategies like
Problem Focused Coping and Religious Coping might be adaptive
in some situations and become obstacles in other situations similar
is the case with Emotion Focused Coping, however, Active
The Moderating Role of Pregnancy among Coping Strategies, Depression,
Anxiety and Stress across Pakistani Married Women
86
Avoidance Coping remains maladaptive in all situations and is a
negative strategy to use (Borcherding, 2009; Hamilton & Lobel,
2008; Huizink, de Medina, Mulder, Visser, & Buitelaar, 2002;
Peñacoba‐Puente et al., 2013).
The results reported in table 5 are for the moderating role
of the status of non pregnancy on Psychological Distress. It is seen
that the use of Active Avoidance Coping and Religious Focused
Coping has a significant impact on the development of Depression,
Anxiety and Stress, while the use of Emotion Focused Coping and
Problem Focused Coping are an adaptive strategy and they do not
cause the development of Psychological Distress.
Further research should be conducted on pregnant women
regarding their living circumstances and the specific factors that
bring about the psychological distresses. This will be beneficial in
the long term where the root of problems can be targeted and
solutions can be generated.
Implementation
This research proved to be beneficial in the hospital
settings especially in gynecology department as the nurses and the
doctors will be able to understand the emotional and psychological
wellbeing of expecting mother along with their physical wellbeing.
Secondly, the study will help mental health professionals to
understand condition specific mental health issues of pregnant
women and will be able to provide more efficient psycho-
education to their families. In addition this study will prove to be
very helpful for pregnant women as they will be able to
comprehend the emotional changes that occur due to the sole fact
that they have conceived a child. Also, they will be able to choose
more positive coping strategies to overcome their emotional
instability.
The Moderating Role of Pregnancy among Coping Strategies, Depression,
Anxiety and Stress across Pakistani Married Women
87
Moreover, the current study will assist in changing the
mindset of the spouse and other family members of pregnant
women which will consequently enable the providence of a more
comfortable home environment with lesser responsibilities which
automatically contributes to lower levels of Depression, Anxiety
and Stress.
Limitations and Suggestions
The present study was one of the initial attempts to study
the problems of pregnant women in Pakistan, the sample was
collected from the province of Punjab only, and it does not include
the wide ranging sample of the entire country. Moreover, it only
studies the problematic areas of psychological distress, future
studies can employ the investigation of other psychological issues
and problems that Pakistani pregnant women face.
Further research should also be conducted on pregnant
women regarding their living circumstances and the specific
factors that bring about the psychological distresses. This will be
beneficial in the long term where the root of problems can be
targeted and solutions can be generated.
The current study has the sample of adult women who
belong to lower socioeconomic status and were mostly,
uneducated, hence, a point of consideration, for future researches
can be the addition of an educated sample of pregnant women as
well as the inclusion of younger sample of pregnant women in
Pakistan.
Conclusion
It has been identified that pregnancy is although a time of
the anticipation of happy times and the joy of parenthood, it is also
accompanied by Psychological Distress. Different women have
different ways of coping with these problems, some are effective
The Moderating Role of Pregnancy among Coping Strategies, Depression,
Anxiety and Stress across Pakistani Married Women
88
like the Problem Focused Coping while others like the Active
Avoidant Coping is maladaptive. The study has reinforced the
importance of the consideration of the context in which the woman
is living and the use of situation appropriate coping strategies. If
awareness is created upon the matter, familial and social support is
provided and women are given a relaxed atmosphere, there will be
a significant reduction in the psychological distress of pregnant
women and their physical, emotion and psychological well-being
will be insured consequently, ensuring the health and well-being of
their expected offspring.
References
Ahmed, B., Ahmed, A., Aqeel, M., Akhtar, T., & Salim, S. (2017).
Impact of tinnitus perception on psychological distress in male
and female tinnitus patients. Foundation University Journal of
Psychology, 1(1), 1-26.
Aasheim, V., Waldenström, U., Rasmussen, S., Espehaug, B., & Schytt,
E. (2014). Satisfaction with life during pregnancy and early
motherhood in first-time mothers of advanced age: a population-
based longitudinal study. BMC pregnancy and childbirth, 14(1),
1.
Abdel-Gawad, I., Badr, H., & Shaban, M. (2005). Physiological effect of
natural thumic acid during pregnancy on fetuses and maternal
alterations induced by irradiation in rats. Isotope. Rad. Res,
37(3), 749.
Baor, L., & Soskolne, V. (2010). Mothers of IVF and spontaneously
conceived twins: a comparison of prenatal maternal expectations,
coping resources and maternal stress. Human Reproduction,
25(6), 1490-1496.
Benner, P. (2000). The roles of embodiment, emotion and lifeworld for
rationality and agency in nursing practice. Nursing Philosophy,
1(1), 5-19.
Berle, J., Mykletun, A., Daltveit, A., Rasmussen, S., Holsten, F., & Dahl,
A. (2005). Neonatal outcomes in offspring of women with
anxiety and depression during pregnancy. Archives of Women’s
Mental Health, 8(3), 181-189.
The Moderating Role of Pregnancy among Coping Strategies, Depression,
Anxiety and Stress across Pakistani Married Women
89
Borcherding, K. E. (2009). Coping in healthy primigravidae pregnant
women. Journal of Obstetric, Gynecologic, & Neonatal Nursing,
38(4), 453-462.
Broadhead, W. E., Blazer, D. G., George, L. K., & Tse, C. K. (1990).
Depression, disability days, and days lost from work in a
prospective epidemiologic survey. Jama, 264(19), 2524-2528.
Brooke, O. G., Anderson, H. R., Bland, J. M., Peacock, J. L., & Stewart,
C. M. (1989). Effects on birth weight of smoking, alcohol,
caffeine, socioeconomic factors, and psychosocial stress. Bmj,
298(6676), 795-801.
Carver, C. S. (1997). You want to measure coping but your protocol’too
long: Consider the brief cope. International journal of
behavioral medicine, 4(1), 92-100.
Chokka, P. (2002). Postpartum Depression: Part 2. Canadian Journal,
107.
Compas, B. E., Connor-Smith, J. K., Saltzman, H., Thomsen, A. H., &
Wadsworth, M. E. (2001). Coping with stress during childhood
and adolescence: problems, progress, and potential in theory and
research. Psychological bulletin, 127(1), 87.
Costa, D. D., Brender, W., & Larouche, J. (1998). A prospective study of
the impact of psychosocial and lifestyle variables on pregnancy
complications. Journal of Psychosomatic Obstetrics &
Gynecology, 19(1), 28-37.
Cisheng, W., Jamala,B., Aqeel ,M., Shah ,S,M., Ahmed, A., & Gul, M.
(2017). The moderating role of spiritual intelligence on the
relationship between emotional intelligence and identity
development in adolescents. Foundation University Journal of
Psychology, 1(1), 77-107.
Da Costa, D., Larouche, J., Dritsa, M., & Brender, W. (1999). Variations
in stress levels over the course of pregnancy: factors associated
with elevated hassles, state anxiety and pregnancy-specific
stress. Journal of Psychosomatic Research, 47(6), 609-621.
Da Costa, D., Larouche, J., Dritsa, M., & Brender, W. (2000).
Psychosocial correlates of prepartum and postpartum depressed
mood. Journal of Affective Disorders, 59(1), 31-40.
Dayan, J., Creveuil, C., Herlicoviez, M., Herbel, C., Baranger, E.,
Savoye, C., & Thouin, A. (2002). Role of anxiety and depression
The Moderating Role of Pregnancy among Coping Strategies, Depression,
Anxiety and Stress across Pakistani Married Women
90
in the onset of spontaneous preterm labor. American journal of
epidemiology, 155(4), 293-301.
de Tychey, C., Spitz, E., Briançon, S., Lighezzolo, J., Girvan, F., Rosati,
A., . . . Vincent, S. (2005). Pre-and postnatal depression and
coping: a comparative approach. Journal of Affective Disorders,
85(3), 323-326.
Demyttenaere, K., Maes, A., Nijs, P., Odendael, H., & Van Assche, F. A.
(1995). Coping style and preterm labor. Journal of
Psychosomatic Obstetrics & Gynecology, 16(2), 109-115.
Dole, N., Savitz, D. A., Hertz-Picciotto, I., Siega-Riz, A. M., McMahon,
M. J., & Buekens, P. (2003). Maternal stress and preterm birth.
American journal of epidemiology, 157(1), 14-24.
Einarson, A., Fatoye, B., Sarkar, M., Lavigne, S. V., Brochu, J.,
Chambers, C., . . . Schuler, L. (2001). Pregnancy outcome
following gestational exposure to venlafaxine: a multicenter
prospective controlled study. American Journal of Psychiatry.
Evans, J., Heron, J., Francomb, H., Oke, S., & Golding, J. (2001). Cohort
study of depressed mood during pregnancy and after childbirth.
Bmj, 323(7307), 257-260.
Garnefski, N., Legerstee, J., Kraaij, V., van den Kommer, T., & Teerds,
J. (2002). Cognitive coping strategies and symptoms of
depression and anxiety: A comparison between adolescents and
adults. Journal of adolescence, 25(6), 603-611.
Geerinck‐Vercammen, C. R., & Kanhai, H. H. (2003). Coping with
termination of pregnancy for fetal abnormality in a supportive
environment. Prenatal diagnosis, 23(7), 543-548.
Giurgescu, C., Penckofer, S., Maurer, M. C., & Bryant, F. B. (2006).
Impact of uncertainty, social support, and prenatal coping on the
psychological well-being of high-risk pregnant women. Nursing
research, 55(5), 356-365.
Gotlib, I. H., Whiffen, V. E., Mount, J. H., Milne, K., & Cordy, N. I.
(1989). Prevalence rates and demographic characteristics
associated with depression in pregnancy and the postpartum.
Journal of consulting and clinical psychology, 57(2), 269.
Hamilton, J. G., & Lobel, M. (2008). Types, patterns, and predictors of
coping with stress during pregnancy: Examination of the Revised
The Moderating Role of Pregnancy among Coping Strategies, Depression,
Anxiety and Stress across Pakistani Married Women
91
Prenatal Coping Inventory in a diverse sample. Journal of
Psychosomatic Obstetrics & Gynecology, 29(2), 97-104.
Hansen, A. R., Collins, M. H., Genest, D., Heller, D., Schwarz, S.,
Banagon, P., . . . Leviton, A. (2000). Very low birthweight
infant’s placenta and its relation to pregnancy and fetal
characteristics. Pediatric and Developmental Pathology, 3(5),
419-430.
Hedegaard, M., Henriksen, T. B., Sabroe, S., & Secher, N. J. (1993).
Psychological distress in pregnancy and preterm delivery. Bmj,
307(6898), 234-239.
Hedegaard, M., Henriksen, T. B., Secher, N. J., Hatch, M. C., & Sabroe,
S. (1996). Do Stressful Life Events Affect Duration of Gestation
and Risk of Preterm Delivery? Epidemiology, 7(4), 339-345.
Huizink, A. C., de Medina, P. G. R., Mulder, E. J., Visser, G. H., &
Buitelaar, J. K. (2002). Psychological measures of prenatal stress
as predictors of infant temperament. Journal of the American
Academy of Child & Adolescent Psychiatry, 41(9), 1078-1085.
Johanson, R., Chapman, G., Murray, D., Johnson, I., & Cox, J. (2000).
The North Staffordshire Maternity Hospital prospective study of
pregnancy-associated depression. Journal of Psychosomatic
Obstetrics & Gynecology, 21(2), 93-97.
Jami, H., & Kamal, A(2017). Myths about hijras (male-to-female
transgender of hijra community)? role of gender and commonly
held belief about them. Foundation University Journal of
Psychology, 1(1), 63-76.
Judd, L. L., Akiskal, H. S., Maser, J. D., Zeller, P. J., Endicott, J.,
Coryell, W., . . . Mueller, T. I. (1998). A prospective 12-year
study of subsyndromal and syndromal depressive symptoms in
unipolar major depressive disorders. Archives of general
psychiatry, 55(8), 694-700.
The Moderating Role of Pregnancy among Coping Strategies, Depression,
Anxiety and Stress across Pakistani Married Women
92
Kaye, D. K. (2008). Negotiating the transition from adolescence to
motherhood: Coping with prenatal and parenting stress in
teenage mothers in Mulago hospital, Uganda. BMC Public
Health, 8(1), 83. Kalsoom, S., Masood,S., & Jami, H. (2017). Psychological well-being
and perceived familial social support for patients with hepatitis c:
a challenge for health practitioners. Foundation University
Journal of Psychology, 1(1), 27-47.
Khan, A., Amanat,A., Aqeel, M., Sulehri, A, N., Amanat,A,. Sana, E.,
& Amin, H. (2017). The mediating role of job stress between
social support and development of stress, anxiety and depression
in educators and health professionals. Foundation University
Journal of Psychology, 1(1), 48-62.
Kelly, R. H., Russo, J., & Katon, W. (2001). Somatic complaints among
pregnant women cared for in obstetrics: normal pregnancy or
depressive and anxiety symptom amplification revisited?
General Hospital Psychiatry, 23(3), 107-113.
Kirchner, T., Muñoz, D., Forns, M., Peñarrubia, J., & Balasch, J. (2011).
Identifying by means of coping typologies and primary appraisal
the likelihood of positive β-hCG test results in women
undergoing IVF treatment: a preliminary study. Human
Reproduction, der028.
Kitamura, T., Shima, S., Sugawara, M., & Toda, M. (1993).
Psychological and social correlates of the onset of affective
disorders among pregnant women. Psychological medicine,
23(04), 967-975.
Kumar, R., Marks, M., Platz, C., & Yoshida, K. (1995). Clinical survey
of a psychiatric mother and baby unit: characteristics of 100
consecutive admissions. Journal of Affective Disorders, 33(1),
11-22.
Lazarus, R. S. (1966). Psychological stress and the coping process.
Lazarus, R. S., & Folkman, S. (1984). Stress, appraisal, and coping:
Springer publishing company.
Lovibond, P. F., & Lovibond, S. H. (1995). The structure of negative
emotional states: Comparison of the Depression Anxiety Stress
Scales (DASS) with the Beck Depression and Anxiety
Inventories. Behaviour research and therapy, 33(3), 335-343.
The Moderating Role of Pregnancy among Coping Strategies, Depression,
Anxiety and Stress across Pakistani Married Women
93
Lowenkron, A. H. (1999). Coping with the stress of premature labor.
Health Care for Women International, 20(6), 547-561.
Lukse, M. P., & Vacc, N. A. (1999). Grief, depression, and coping in
women undergoing infertility treatment. Obstetrics &
Gynecology, 93(2), 245-251.
Milgrom, J., Gemmill, A. W., Bilszta, J. L., Hayes, B., Barnett, B.,
Brooks, J., . . . Buist, A. (2008). Antenatal risk factors for
postnatal depression: a large prospective study. Journal of
Affective Disorders, 108(1), 147-157.
Montgomery, S. (1995). Safety of mirtazapine: a review. International
Clinical Psychopharmacology, 10, 37-45.
Mulder, E., De Medina, P. R., Huizink, A., Van den Bergh, B., Buitelaar,
J., & Visser, G. (2002). Prenatal maternal stress: effects on
pregnancy and the (unborn) child. Early human development,
70(1), 3-14.
Murray, C. J., & Lopez, A. D. (1997). Alternative projections of
mortality and disability by cause 1990–2020: Global Burden of
Disease Study. The Lancet, 349(9064), 1498-1504.
Myors, K., Johnson, M., & Langdon, R. (2001). Coping styles of
pregnant adolescents. Public Health Nursing, 18(1), 24-32.
Neter, E., Collins, N. L., Lobel, M., & Dunkel-Schetter, C. (1995).
Psychosocial predictors of postpartum depressed mood in
socioeconomically disadvantaged women. Womens Health, 1(1),
51-75.
O'CONNOR, T. G., Heron, J., Glover, V., & Team, A. S. (2002).
Antenatal anxiety predicts child behavioral/emotional problems
independently of postnatal depression. Journal of the American
Academy of Child & Adolescent Psychiatry, 41(12), 1470-1477.
O'Hara, M. W. (1986). Social support, life events, and depression during
pregnancy and the puerperium. Archives of general psychiatry,
43(6), 569-573.
Pagel, M. D., Smilkstein, G., Regen, H., & Montano, D. (1990).
Psychosocial influences on new born outcomes: a controlled
prospective study. Social science & medicine, 30(5), 597-604.
Pakenham, K. I., Smith, A., & Rattan, S. L. (2007). Application of a
stress and coping model to antenatal depressive
The Moderating Role of Pregnancy among Coping Strategies, Depression,
Anxiety and Stress across Pakistani Married Women
94
symptomatology. Psychology, health & medicine, 12(3), 266-
277.
Peñacoba‐Puente, C., Carmona‐Monge, F. J., Marín‐Morales, D., &
Naber, K. (2013). Coping strategies of Spanish pregnant women
and their impact on anxiety and depression. Research in nursing
& health, 36(1), 54-64.
Penley, J. A., Tomaka, J., & Wiebe, J. S. (2002). The association of
coping to physical and psychological health outcomes: A meta-
analytic review. Journal of behavioral medicine, 25(6), 551-603.
Perez, R. G. (1982). Stress and coping as determinants of adaptation to
pregnancy in Hispanic women. ProQuest Information &
Learning.
Rohe, G. H. (1893). LACTATIONAL INSANITY. Read in the Section
of Obstetrics and Diseases of Women, at the Forty-fourth Annual
Meeting of the American Medical Association. Journal of the
American Medical Association, 21(10), 325-327.
Rondo, P., Ferreira, R., Nogueira, F., Ribeiro, M., Lobert, H., & Artes,
R. (2003). Maternal psychological stress and distress as
predictors of low birth weight, prematurity and intrauterine
growth retardation. European journal of clinical nutrition, 57(2),
266-272.
Rudnicki, S. R., Graham, J. L., Habboushe, D. F., & Ross, R. D. (2001).
Social support and avoidant coping: correlates of depressed
mood during pregnancy in minority women. Women & Health,
34(3), 19-34.
Simon, G., Ormel, J., VonKorff, M., & Barlow, W. (1995). Health care
costs associated with depressive and anxiety disorders in primary
care. American Journal of Psychiatry, 152(3), 352-357.
Skinner, E. A., Edge, K., Altman, J., & Sherwood, H. (2003). Searching
for the structure of coping: a review and critique of category
systems for classifying ways of coping. Psychological bulletin,
129(2), 216.
Weissman, M. M., Gammon, G. D., John, K., Merikangas, K. R.,
Warner, V., Prusoff, B. A., & Sholomskas, D. (1987). Children
of depressed parents: increased psychopathology and early onset
The Moderating Role of Pregnancy among Coping Strategies, Depression,
Anxiety and Stress across Pakistani Married Women
95
of major depression. Archives of general psychiatry, 44(10),
847-853.
Wells, K. B., Burnam, M. A., Rogers, W., Hays, R., & Camp, P. (1992).
The course of depression in adult outpatients: results from the
Medical Outcomes Study. Archives of general psychiatry,
49(10), 788-794.
Westbrook, M. T. (1979). Socioeconomic differences in coping with
childbearing. American Journal of community psychology, 7(4),
397-412.