Four Great Revolutions in Thought and Religion  All human cultures develop religious or philosophical

systems.

Why do you think human kind refuge to port of religion or religion-like philosophy?

The reason is largely down to the belief that society needs religion.

As a society we benefit from our collective religious beliefs.

In fact there are many people who would argue that we could not function without religion.

The biggest reason that society needs religion is to regulate behavior.

Most of the laws that we follow today have their basis in religious teachings.

There is considerable debate as to whether or not religion is required to make us good people, but what is beyond dispute is that the rules for what is acceptable for society are largely based on religion.

The other big reason that society needs religion is that it teaches self-sufficiency.

Virtually all religions teach that you are responsible for taking care of yourself.

While they all support the idea of charity none of them teach that accepting charity should be desirable.

This has helped to encourage the work ethic that is needed to make society successful.

Society is largely based on the idea of cooperation.

This can be a bit of a tricky issue since as humans we are selfish by nature.

One last reason that we need religion is that it gives us something to believe in.

People need to believe that there is a reason for what they are doing and that there is a reason for life.

Religions shape cultures; way of thinking and acting, both at individual and social levels; way of production to some extent.

You may witness individuals without religion, but societies without religion will not survive long.

The most recent one is communist Russia.

What is the difference between religion and philosophy?

Religion is a system based on beliefs and worship, whereas philosophy studies the general and fundamental problems concerning matters such as existence, knowledge, values, reason, mind, and language.

Philosophy is used to find answers from things we are able to see, and accept.

Religion is based on worshipping or believing in a god whose physical characteristics cannot necessarily be seen by one who is not enlightened.

Philosophy asks questions, religion provides answers.

Comparing the Four Great Revolutions  The 4 major cultural zones in the world history since mid-

first millennium C.E. are the Chinese, the Indian, the Western Chirstian, and Islamic.

Last two of these were formed way later to those of Chinese and Indian cultural zones.

The position of Judaism is different; small and nationalistic. Could not form a wider cultural zone than what Jewish national population is.

The population has never been a large one like Indian population. It is exclusive also. Dominance of sons of Isreal is obvious. The chosen people!

Chinese cultural and religion zone have grown without much interaction with other cultures and philosophies.

They grew out of the earlier river valley civilization.

Georgraphically they were isolated from the influence of other cultures and forces.

Religion and culture of Indian subcontinent has been another one of those 4 big cultural zones.

Indian culture, compered to the Chinese culture and philosophy, has been open to the infuence of other cultures.

Indo-Aryan worriers who cleared out the originial Indian culture and religion, created a new civilization that continues currently.

This civilization had been built on the Ganges River.

Over the centuries this society has created a great tradition of Indian thougth and religion.

Philosophy in China

Ancient Chinese had a good tradition of theoretical thinking.

Though the focus was always on human affairs; Chinese philosophers were always looking for a reason to develop thought that explained ordinary affairs of the day-to-day world.

Before the Qin Dynasty (221-207 B.C.E), traditional values from the Zhou Dynasty gradually collapsed, with different regimes and different thoughts flourishing throughout China.

According to official records of the Han Dynasty, there are as many as 189 different schools of thoughts at the time, making that period the pinnacle of Chinese philosophy.

At the end of the Eastern Han Dynasty (25-220), the notion that “heaven is dead” prevailed; Confucian moral concepts and values waned; and, society experienced major turbulence.

Philosophers at the time used metaphysical discussions on the interrelation between Confucianism and Daoism to explain a number of important topics like the relationship between Confucianism and nature.

Theoretical hypotheses were unprecedented during this time.

From the Tang to the Song Dynasty (960-1279), traditional values suffered from disorder as the Han people blended with other ethnic groups.

Later on, this culture and school of thoughts had problems and lost their footing.

The Confucian school of idealist philosophers endeavored to re-establish a spiritual world for the people in the Song Dynasty, with their efforts to integrate Confucianism, Buddhism and Daoism.

At the juncture of the Ming and Qing dynasties (1368-1644), a generation of scholars chose secluded lives in the mountains and temples after the Manchu Ethnic Group seized power.

They sorted out a traditional system and rules, and profoundly criticized and meditated on traditional culture.

A new galaxy of philosophers prevailed. They brought Chinese philosophy to a profound new theoretical height.

In modern times, the "Middle Kingdom" was repeatedly defeated by the imperial countries, and the nation's confidence was at its lowest point ever.

The task of the time was to «save the nation from subjugation and ensure its survival.»

Chinese philosophers researched a wide range of subjects on ancient, modern, eastern, and western philosophies, striving to improve China's own philosophy.

The trend is still continuing today, forming a new mixed cultural philosophy.

The rise and decline of Chinese philosophy has much to do with the rise and decline of society, shaping characteristics and connotations of the nation's ethos.

Other than Confucianism, Daoism and Legalism there were other philosophical schools as well.

Some of which are;

Rhetoricians: It taught the arts of persuasion to be used in diplomatic negotiations. It mostly focused on historical anecdotes, humor and lively style.

Logicians: This school taught logic and relativity. They were masters in making good compressions.

Strategists: This school developed strategies about how to fight wars, how to organize states for battles, for supply, how to spy and develop propaganda.

Cosmologists: This school described the functions of the cosmos in terms of the complementary negative and positive forces of nature, and in terms of the five elements, which are metal, wood, earth, fire and water.

Mohists: Mozi was an early critic of Confucius.

His goals were peace, wealth, and the increase of the population.

He taught an ethic of universal love to overcome a selfish human nature.

Mozi favored a strong state and encouraged his students to obey the state.

 

Confucianism Confucius was born in 551 B.C.E in northeastern China. He had

education in writing, music and rituals.

He was from lower nobility or the knightly class.

Confucius ideas encouraged justice and peace, and who taught social and moral principles which had a great influence on Chinese society.

Confucianism originated as an "ethical-socio-political teaching" during the spring and autumn period, but later developed metaphysical and cosmological elements in the Han Dynasty.

Following the official abandonment of Legalism in China after the Qin Dynasty, Confucianism became the official state ideology of the Han.

The core of Confucianism is humanism, or what the philosopher Herbert Fingarette calls “the secular as sacred”.

Confucianism focuses on the practical, especially the importance of the family, and not a belief in gods or the afterlife.

Confucianism broadly speaking does not exalt faithfulness to divine will or higher law. This stance rests on the belief that human beings are teachable, improvable and perfectible through personal and communal endeavor especially self-cultivation and self-creation.

Confucian thought focuses on the cultivation of virtue and maintenance of ethics.

Historically, cultures and countries strongly influenced by Confucianism include mainland China, Taiwan, Hong Kong, Macua, Korea, Japan and Vietnam, as well as various territories settled predominantly by Chinese people, such as Singapore.

In the 20th century, Confucianism’s influence has been greatly reduced in places like Mainland China.

Daoism  The central concept of Daoism is the Dao or the Way – Path,

principle.

It is mysterious, ineffable and cannot be named; you just believe in!

The Dao functions on a cosmic, not a human, scale.

This is originally called Taoism.

The founder is Laozi dating back to 4th century B.C.E.

This philosophical Daoism, individualistic by nature, is not institutionalized.

It is often said that Chinese have been Confucian while in office and Daoist in their private lives.

It offers a refuge from the burden of social responsibility.

Daoist propriety and ethics may vary depending on the particular school, but in general tends to emphasize wu-wei (action through non-action), “naturalness”, simplicity, spontaneity, and the Three Treasures of this philosophy are: compassion, moderation, and humility.

Throughout Chinese history, Daoism was nominated as state religion several times.

After the 17th century, however, it fell much from favor.

Daoism was suppressed in the first decades of the People’s Republic of China (and even persecuted during the Cultural Revolution), but continued to be practiced in Taiwan.

Today, it is one of five religions recognized in the PRC.

Legalism

A third widespread – well known school of thought in Chinese culture.

It emphasized strict obedience to the legal system and intended to end the endless wars.

It was a utilitarian political philosophy that did not address higher questions like the purpose and nature of life.

The school's most famous proponent and contributor Han Fei believed that a ruler should use the following three tools to govern his subjects: Law, method and legitimacy.

The laws are severe and impartial, if what strengthens the state is rewarded and what weakens the state is punished, then a strong state and a good society will ensue.

Laws should contain incentives for loyalty and bravery in battle, for obedience.

Religion in India  By 400 B.C.E. new social and religion form took shape on

the Indian subcontinent.

This contained both traditions of the Aryan and non-Aryan ideas and practices.

Although there have been many internal divisions and long periods of foreign rule, the Indian culture, religion, social organization have survived for over 2000 years.

The word “Hindu” is not a term for any single or uniform religious community.

“Hindu” religion and culture lump together an immense diversity of social, racial, linguistic, and religious groups.

“Indian” commonly refers to all native inhabitants of the subcontinent, whatever their beliefs.

Historical Background  Brahmanic period, a priest-centered cult, which was dominated

by the upper class of Aryanized northern Indian society.

By the sixth century B.C.E. this had become an elite cult that most of people had no access.

The sacrifices that made in this belief were not something that poor and peasants could fulfill.

During the 7th and 6th centuries B.C.E. skepticism in religious matters accompanied social and political upheavals.

Controlling the sacred power or Brahman of the sacrificial ritual, but they gradually stressed acquiring this power through knowledge instead of ritual.

The middle centuries of the first millennium B.C.E. in India began a religious and philosophical revolution that ranks alongside those of Chinese philosophy and religion, Judaic monotheism, and Greek philosophy as a turning point in the history of civilization.

In the Upanishads, two new emphases emerge.

Knowledge is elevated over ritual and immortality is defined in terms of escape from existence itself.

Knowledge of self and its relation to know the ultimate reality (Brahman) is a life-long quest.

Life after death is a reality. Immortality.

It is a cycle, a never ending cycle of soul. Transmigration of souls is the key to understanding reality. Reincarnation.

This is not a liberating situation, but a burdensome reality.

Endless re-death is unavoidable fate.

It is a fundamental problem for all later Indian thought.

Karma is also a determining character of this belief system.

It means work or action. Virtually it means that every action has its inevitable effects, sooner or later, as long as there is action of mind or body, there are continued effects and hence continued existence.

Good things will return to you as good, bad things will return to you as bad.

There is a quest for a solution to the “Samsara” problem; endless cycle of soul.

There are two solutions for this: The first one is to involve a strategy of maximizing good actions and minimizing bad actions to achieve the best possible rebirth in one’s next round of existence.

The second one is the “liberation” from existence.

Escaping all karmic effects by escaping action itself.

For an easy and peaceful re-birth of the soul, you also have social responsibility.

To do good to others, moral conduct and sense of duty.

Withdraw from the “normal” life.

Become a monk or Hindu hermit.

At least live like them.

Choose non-action over action.

The Buddha’s Middle Path

India’s greatest contribution to the world civilization was the Buddhist tradition, which borned and faded out in India.

It left a great impact on Hindu and Jain religion and culture. It is a single-figure religion, like Islam and Christianity.

Siddhartha Gautama, who is commonly known as the Buddha, meaning “the awakened one”.

The Buddha lived and taught in the eastern part of the Indian subcontinent sometime between the 6th and 4th centuries B.C.E.

Two major branches of Buddhism are generally recognized: Theravada (The School of the Elders) and Mahayana (The Great Vehicle).

While Buddhism remains most popular within Asia and India, both branches are now found throughout the world.

Estimates of Buddhists worldwide vary significantly depending on the way Buddhist adherence is defined.

Estimates range from 350 million to 1.6 billion, with 350–550 million the most widely accepted figure.

Buddhism is also recognized as one of the fastest growing religions in the world.

The foundations of Buddhist tradition and practice are the Three Jewels: the Buddha, the Dharma (the teachings), and the Sangha (the community).

Liberation is important, but not in a way that it is understood in the western culture.

Liberation from the bad-commending soul, desires and ambitions that are harmful.

It is gained through suffering. You deprive yourself from the desires.

The key idea of Buddha is everything in the world of existence is causally linked. What is essential in existence is the suffering.

Cycle of soul is a reality. This is called Samsara.

Buddha is not bound by Samsara, since he purified his soul.

Although, many see Buddhism as a religion, it is also considered as a philosophy by many.

The Religion of the Israelites

Ancient Near East societies had polytheistic worldview.

There were many gods and sometimes for every important natural event and even love there was a god.

While people were worshiping many gods in the ancient world, Jews were the first ones to have a monotheistic faith as we know it today.

Although they were a small, tiny tribe, they created an ethical monotheism, which influenced societies of the time and cultures later.

Monotheism is the belief system, which there is a single, powerful god as the sole creator, sustainer and the ruler of the universe.

The god cannot be seen or fully imagined.

He reveals himself to people through prophets.

Brief History of Hebrews

The history of Hebrews is not very clear since it is a very old ethnic group.

Historians know it from the traditions that Hebrew Abraham came from Ur in southern Mesopotamia and moved to the area as we know it today Palestine.

The likely migration of Hebrews to Palestine was between 1900 – 1600 B.C.E.

Some of Abraham’s people also went further into Egypt.

With Prophet Moses and then David and Solomon they created a substantial civilization.

In the 9th century B.C.E., the kingdom that David and Solomon created split into 2 parts.

Israel in the north and the Judah in the south with capital Jerusalem continued.

The rise of great empires around their territory brought disaster to the Israelites.

Assyrians and Neo-Babylonians destroyed their kingdom.

They were exiled from their land.

After the Persian dynasty of Achaemenids defeated the Babylonians in 539 B.C.E. the Jews were allowed to move back to their land, which they consider holy.

They created another state and lived together till Roman’s destruction of Jerusalem twice: 70 C.E. and 132 C.E.

They spreaded all over the world.

In 1948, after world war 2nd, they came back to their holy land.

The Monotheistic Revolution

Jews, although they went through many distructions and defeats, they knew how to survive.

It is thought that their religion and belief system helped in the long journey that had ups and downs.

The notions of Promised Land and being “Chosen People” might have motivated them to sustain their culture and heritage.

Hebrews created great states when they followed the prophets.

When the prophets pass away, they usually changed their mind; then the destructions came upon them!

Single god, life after death, good deeds will find their rewards and human kind is created for a purpose, which gives meaning to the life.

Morality stems from religion, religious rules and teachings are recipes of a good, praised life that will take you to heaven.

Christians and Muslims are also sons of Abraham.

So, these three religions come from the same roots and they have a common ground.

All three religions believe in a Messiah, who will come on the earth and establish the kingdom of the god.

What we see today in the world is that followers of these three religions are shaping up the world politics.

Greek Philosophy

Greek philosophy pursued answers for the same questions that those three monotheist religions seek for.

One thing is for sure that, in creation of today’s western civilization Greek philosophy has a substantial influence.

There were many gods and goddesses in their philosophy.

Greeks started to become rational in the sixth century B.C.E.

The notion of bringing reason and explaining reasons developed. An attempt to explain everything through mind, which is called philosophy.

The question like what the primary substance of earth started becoming common.

Reasoning, not attributing to the supernatural powers, blossomed.

Mind and reasoning prevailed over religions.

To the Greek philosophers, the world was knowable, rational and simple.

There were many schools of thoughts during ancient Greek.

One of which was Sophists. They were very influential.

These were group of teachers and were traveling around, teaching people practical techniques of persuasion, such as rhetoric which were highly valued at the time in mid-fifth century B.C.E.

They claimed to teaching people wisdom and even virtue.

Later on these people became serious problem, since they were lying to people and getting their money by just talking deceivingly.

Greek philosophers, particularly Socrates, Plato and Aristotle were concerned about ethical, political, and religious issues.

Aristotle had scientific understanding of physical world.

He has impact on later western and Islamic metaphysics.

Socrates was the biggest of all these philosophers. He lived between 469-399 and it is believed that he created the reasoning of the mind.

He brought philosophy from heaven to the earth, it is believed.

He is the father. He was executed on some unimportant accusations.

Plato (429-347) was the student of Socrates. He organized the political idea in its full philosophical context.

He established the Academy, a center of philosophical investigation and school for training statesmen.

The school was closed in the 6th century C.E. His political thought is to create a class of ruler who are philosophers.

People who know the science and have knowledge of ruling. He was for polis state like his teacher Socrates.

He saw corruption taking place in the polis state. The solution was to reform the system and make sure that those rulers are not allowed to own property.

Aristotle (384-322 B.C.E.) was a student of Plato.

He attended his Academy. Marine biology and biology in general was his interest. He was the teacher of Alexander the Great.

He set up a school which was called Lyceum.

This school did not teach much of mathematics, but was more concerned with gathering, ordering and analyzing all human knowledge.

He had arguments about ethics and morally good individual.

He was interested in a state that can deliver the justice and also have the stability.

He thought that middle class has some virtues. Because of moderate wealth, it was free from arrogance of the rich and the malice of the poor. For this reason it was the most stable class.

Proportion of this class will also bring the stability to the country.