four in balance monitor 2009

Four in Balance Monitor 2009ICT at Dutch schools

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Four in Balance Monitor 2009ICT at Dutch schools

Contents Summary 6

1 Introduction Four in Balance 12

2 Benefits of using ICT 162.1 Introduction 162.2 More effective teaching/learning 172.3 More efficient teaching/learning 272.4 More interesting teaching/learning 312.5 Summary 35

3 Use of ICT in education 363.1 How many teachers use ICT in their lessons? 363.2 How often is ICT actually used? 383.3 What is ICT used for? 393.4 Use of ICT by pupils 403.5 How much ICT is enough? 423.6 Summary 44

4 Vision 454.1 Pedagogical methods 454.2 Technology and teaching/learning 484.3 Vision and policy 494.4 Vision supported by teachers 514.5 Summary 53

5 Expertise 545.1 Familiarity with the possibilities opened up by ICT 545.2 Teachers’ skills 555.3 Pupils’ skills 575.4 Summary 60

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6 Digital learning materials 616.1 Proportion of digital learning materials 616.2 What digital learning materials are used most frequently? 626.3 Priorities 636.4 Origin of digital learning materials 656.5 Summary 67

7 ICT infrastructure 687.1 Computers 687.2 Replacement of obsolete computers 697.3 Internet connections 717.4 Interactive whiteboards 737.5 Equipment for using web video 747.6 Satisfaction with management and maintenance of computer facilities 757.7 Adequacy of ICT facilities 767.8 Summary 77

8 Priorities in Balance 788.1 Priorities 788.2 Balance 808.3 Summary 85

References 87

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Summary The Four in Balance Monitor gives educators and other interested parties insight into the current use and benefits of ICT at Dutch primary schools, secondary schools, and vocational schools. The main insights are summarised below.

BenefitsBoth teachers and school managers have a positive opinion of the possibilities and benefits of ICT. Three quarters of school managers believe that ICT contributes to making teaching/learning more interesting. ICT enables schools to offer pupils a richer learning environment. If used in the right way, it can make a demonstrable contribution to more efficient, more effective, and more interesting teaching/learning. The benefits of ICT appear in a variety of ways. The following examples illustrate the added value of ICT.• ICT is very suited to offering subject matter in multiple ways, for

example visually, with audio, and interactively. Providing subject matter via a variety of channels means that pupils learn more effectively.

• It is remarkable that weaker pupils in particular make progress when they learn with the aid of ICT. The condition for this, however, is that the ICT programs that are utilised are properly designed, that they are appropriate to the level of the pupil concerned, that they can direct the pupil’s attention effectively, and that they take the pupil through the subject matter in a series of steps. If the digital learning material fails to meet these conditions, it will be ineffective (or at least much less effective).

• Most pupils like working with ICT. It is important, however, to alternate ICT with other learning methods. A second crucial success factor is that the pupil’s attention must be focused on the learning task. It is therefore important that an ICT application should be assessed not only as regards whether it is fun to use but in relation to its pedagogical depth and efficiency.

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SUMMARy

Such striking benefits would not normally be achieved without the use of ICT. It should be noted, however, that such results are seldom exclusively due to the use of ICT. ConditionsIn order to actually benefit from the use of ICT, it is crucial for there to be a balance between:1. vision (the chosen pedagogical approach);2. expertise;3. the digital learning materials utilised;4. the ICT infrastructure.

It is only if these four conditions are in balance that ICT can offer added value.

Creating the right conditions for effective use of ICT is a complex process, and one that imposes great demands on managers, teachers, and collaboration partners. The individual teacher is not in a position to comply with all these conditions by himself/herself and therefore needs the support of the management. Despite all the efforts made, not every school organisation is able to put the conditions in place that enable teachers to achieve greater educational effectiveness with the aid of ICT.

UseComputers have become an indispensable component in the design and organisation of teaching/learning. The introduction of ICT is slow but steady. The introduction and development of ICT applications have not, however, led to a radical shift in the way learning processes are designed and organised but have been gradual. In other words, the use of ICT results in a different kind of teaching/learning but the process is a step-by-step one. According to teachers and school managers, this development is not yet complete, and greater use of ICT is expected in the coming years.

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That increase is apparent in three areas:• the number of teachers who make use of computers;• the number of hours during which teachers and pupils make use of ICT

applications as a tool for more efficient and effective learning;• the number of different ICT applications that are used for educational

purposes. The general picture is that an increasing number of teachers and pupils are more frequently using ICT for educational purposes and in a greater variety of ways.

VisionThe use of ICT is not confined to any one specific educational approach. ICT is utilised within a variety of pedagogical methodologies, varying from knowledge transfer – with the teacher determining the precise programme – to knowledge construction, in which pupils themselves are partly responsible for managing the learning process. For many Dutch teachers, knowledge transfer plays a larger role than knowledge construction. Knowledge transfer will continue to be important but at the same time teachers wish to teach more frequently according to the method of knowledge construction. Both teachers and school managers believe that ICT will be an important tool in designing the teaching/learning of the future.

Teachers, in particular, need a shared vision of how ICT should be used, a view developed jointly by school managers and teachers. In practice, however, teachers say that this has only been achieved at a limited number of schools. At most schools, the overall approach to using ICT has been set out in a policy plan but that plan is by no means always implemented.

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SUMMARy

ExpertiseVirtually every Dutch teacher is capable of using a computer but only half of them have the skills necessary to use one as a pedagogical aid to designing and organising learning processes. Moreover, many teachers do not have a clear idea of the possibilities opened up by ICT. Developing educational ICT applications, for example digital learning materials, requires specific expertise if it is to create the best possible mix of content, pedagogy, and ICT. The ultimate result must link up with the wishes and capacities of the teacher who uses the applications.

The majority of pupils have fairly reasonable computer skills but not all of them have the same skills. At many schools, there is no systematic approach to the acquisition of digital information skills. Many pupils acquire the information skills that are needed to learn with the aid of ICT outside the school environment.

Digital learning materialsThe availability of digital learning materials that are of practical use is one of the most stubborn barriers to the further integration of ICT in education. Although teachers at all types of school expect there to be a major increase in the use of digital learning materials, this turns out to be difficult to achieve in actual practice. The computer programs that are most frequently used in education were not developed specifically for educational purposes. Standard office applications such as word processing and presentation programs are widely accepted, as is e-mail. Teachers need more digital learning materials that are of real practical use. They believe that in order to meet that need it is important for available digital learning materials to be made easier to find.

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ICT infrastructureThere has been major investment over the past ten years in infrastructural facilities and the availability of computer facilities has also increased considerably. “Computer density” is now stabilising at one computer (or laptop) for every six pupils. All schools have access to the Internet. The current focus is on improving Internet connections (optical fibre or wireless) and on acquiring interactive whiteboards. A lot of teachers expect digital video applications (via the Internet) to play an increasing role in education. Although school managers generally consider the available ICT facilities to be sufficient, most teachers say that they need more computers (or laptops), efficient support if the equipment suddenly causes problems, and an effective connection between their computer at home and the computer facilities at school.

PriorityTeachers and school managers see ICT as a useful aid to improving the quality of teaching/learning and they believe that greater use should be made of it in the near future. Teachers and managers differ, however, as regards how to achieve that goal. Teachers consider that the highest priority should be the procurement of good computer facilities and the availability of digital learning materials that are of practical use. This opinion is shared by teachers at all types of school. School managers, on the other hand, see the professional development of teachers as one of the most important steps towards ensuring better use of the possibilities afforded by ICT. The potential solution to this disparity can be found not so much in the attention paid to the different conditions but in coordinating vision, expertise, digital learning materials, and the ICT infrastructure. This requires managers to display leadership and to facilitate collaboration between teachers and between schools. Collaboration can make one of the most important contributions to professionalization concerning ICT. This applies to the school (as a learning organisation) and also to the professionalism of individual teachers. The important thing now is to make good use of this collaboration to develop and disseminate knowledge regarding the necessary connections between content, pedagogy, and ICT.

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1 Introduction Four in BalanceThe Four in Balance Monitor, an annual publication of the Kennisnet Foundation, gives educators and other interested parties insight into the use and benefits of ICT in education. What trends can be distinguished? What do teachers and school managers think about the pedagogical possibilities of ICT? What is the situation regarding the ICT skills of teachers and pupils? As a centre of expertise in the field of education and ICT, Kennisnet’s aim in publishing the Monitor is to give a cohesive picture of important trends and current issues.

What is Four in Balance?The conceptual framework and structure of this publication are taken from the Four in Balance model, a scientifically based approach to the introduction of ICT in education. The approach was first presented in 2001 by the ICT at School Foundation [Stichting ICT op School] and updated in 2004 as Four in Balance Plus (ICT op School, 2004). We will refer to it simply as Four in Balance.

Basically, Four in Balance proposes that the effective long-term use of ICT in teaching requires the balanced deployment of four basic elements: vision, expertise, digital learning materials, and ICT infrastructure. The following is a brief explanation of these four basic elements:• Vision: the school’s view of what constitutes good teaching and how

the school aims to achieve it. This involves the school’s objectives, the role of the teachers and pupils, the actual teaching content, and the materials that the school uses. The vision adopted by the school’s managers and teaching staff determines both the school’s policy and the design and organisation of its teaching.

• Expertise: teachers and pupils need to have sufficient knowledge and skills in order to utilise ICT to achieve educational objectives. This involves not only basic ICT skills such as the ability to operate a computer. Pedagogical ICT skills are also necessary if ICT is to be used to help design and organise learning processes. These additional skills

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1 - InTRODUCTIOn FOUR In BAlAnCE

therefore specifically concern the use of ICT to achieve educational objectives.

• Digital learning materials: all digital educational content – both formal and informal – constitutes digital learning material. This includes computer programs.

• ICT infrastructure: the availability and quality of computers, networks, and Internet connections constitute infrastructure facilities. In addition to this traditional definition, electronic learning environments and the management and maintenance of the school’s ICT facilities are also taken to be part of the ICT infrastructure.

The field of education finds itself faced with the challenge of carefully coordinating these basic elements with the learning process that is designed for pupils. Although teachers play a role in this, individual teachers cannot create this cohesion all by themselves – support from the school’s managers is necessary. It is up to the managers to provide leadership in this process and create conditions for support and collaboration with other professionals. Figure 1.1 shows the various basic elements as they relate to one another.

Figure 1.1. Basic elements of Four in Balance.

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materialsICT infra-structure

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Pedagogical use of ICT for teaching/learning

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SourcesThe Four in Balance Monitor is based on the results of independent scientific research. The recent data is derived from studies carried out by various research institutions under the authority of Kennisnet. In order to clarify trends, use has been made where possible of comparative data collected previously via the ICT Monitor (1997–2000), the ICT Education Monitor (2001–2005), and surveys carried out on behalf of Kennisnet and/or ICT at School in the period from 2001 to 2009 (TnS-nIPO 2001- 2009, Intomart 2008–2009). Other Dutch and international studies have also been used that relate to the four basic elements defined within the context of Four in Balance. Details of the sources can be found in the bibliography at the back of this publication. nearly all the sources used are available either on the Kennisnet website (onderzoek.kennisnet.nl) or elsewhere on the Internet.

BenchmarkThe Four in Balance monitor provides research-based figures on how Dutch schools integrate ICT into their work and the results they achieve. The data can be seen as a kind of “benchmark for the sector”; they enable individual schools to compare their own situation with that of others. Various data collection instruments are also available as tools that a school can use to analyse its own internal situation. (See www.dutchicttools.nl.) The research results indicate the speed and direction of trends in the use of ICT in primary and secondary education in the netherlands. Information is also given on schools for senior secondary vocational education and training (“VET” schools) insofar as it was possible to collect data from such schools and/or via publicly accessible sources.

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Current understanding of benefits of ICTThe effectiveness of ICT in teaching is gradually becoming clearer, but a lot remains unknown. Kennisnet’s research programme aims to systematically fill in the gaps concerning the benefits of ICT in education. The emphasis lies on collecting empirical data using a “benefits-oriented” approach. By collecting and sharing knowledge of what does and does not work as regards ICT, schools aim to be able to make well-informed decisions. Research results also help developers, educational support staff, policymakers, and market parties to meet the support needs of schools in deploying ICT to improve the standard of their teaching.

Guide to this publicationThe research programme on the educational results of using ICT started in 2007. The data collected so far is considered primarily in Chapter 2. The emphasis lies on research results regarding the benefits of using ICT, with the central question being “what works as regards ICT?”; however, attention is also paid – for the first time – to why ICT works. Chapter 3 focuses on trends in the use of ICT, from long-term trends to what teachers and school managers expect to happen in the future. The following chapters deal with the four conditions that are to a significant extent decisive as regards the benefits of using ICT: vision (Chapter 4), expertise (Chapter 5), digital learning materials (Chapter 6), and the ICT infrastructure (Chapter 7). Chapter 8, finally, sets out teachers’ and school managers’ priorities as regards their support needs.

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2 Benefits of using ICTThe balanced deployment of ICT during lessons is not a goal in itself; ultimately, of course, the main aim is for ICT to help improve teaching/learning. But just what are the potential benefits and what applications are in fact effective? This chapter deals with the contribution ICT can make to more effective, efficient, and interesting teaching/learning.

2.1 IntroductionA growing number of studies confirm that ICT can make an important contribution to the quality of teaching/learning. One can distinguish between three different benefits: 1. More effective teaching/learning: using ICT can help improve pupil

performance and skills (2.2). 2. More efficient teaching/learning: using ICT can help maintain the

quality of teaching/learning while cutting down on teaching time and using cheaper aids. One example is the use of digital learning materials that allow pupils to learn independently and that enable the teacher to devote more time to pupils who require individual attention (2.3).

3. More interesting teaching/learning: ICT applications that improve teacher and pupil motivation, for example by making teaching/learning more varied (2.4).

Although ICT is a powerful aid to improving teaching/learning, it is often problematical in practice to deploy it in the right way. Research shows that positive results can only be achieved if certain conditions are complied with. Those conditions will be discussed at length in later chapters. This chapter focuses primarily on the benefits of using ICT. Our aim is to assist educators in making well-informed decisions as regards how they should utilise ICT and to what extent.

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2 - BEnEFITS OF USIng ICT

2.2. More effective teaching/learningUsing ICT can improve the quality of teaching/learning. It can contribute, for example, to improving pupil performance and it enables pupils to acquire new skills that would be more difficult for them to learn without the aid of ICT, such as creative competencies and collaboration skills. This section discusses applications that have proved to be effective and that can basically be utilised without more time or effort on the part of the teacher.

Young children’s understanding of words increases faster when “multimedia books” are used like traditional picture books, multimedia books – sometimes referred to as “living books” – tell a story. Unlike in “ordinary” books, the story is presented on a computer screen, making extra information sources available. The events in the story can be illustrated, for example, with sounds and music, thus livening up the narrative and making the story interactive. Exercises can also be inserted. In this way, reading becomes a dynamic rather than a static process.

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In the case of children aged from 4 to 5, multimedia books help them develop language comprehension and expand their vocabulary more quickly, and significantly improve their understanding of the story. It is sometimes assumed that multimedia books may overload a child’s memory. This study shows quite the contrary (see also the “Seven Multimedia Principles” on page 22). In actual fact, everything shows that multimedia reading – with words being presented textually, visually, and with audio – helps children understand more words. It would seem that providing extra pointers to interpreting words and understanding stories has a leverage effect (Verhallen et al., 2004).

Figure 2.1. Score for understanding of words by children with or without a language

deficiency. All children used a computer, with the control group playing a non-

language-related computer game. Children using the static book were read to by

the computer. The multimedia group read the same book but it was provided with

multimedia elements to support the events in the story (source: Bus et al., 2009).

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All children benefit from “living books” but they provide an extra boost for children with a language deficiency because with traditional books they quickly end up in a vicious circle. If you do not have a large enough vocabulary to follow the story effectively, it becomes difficult to learn new words because of a lack of the necessary pointers.

That “living books” are particularly effective for children with a language deficiency is clearly shown by Figure 2.1, which illustrates the effect of such books on their understanding of new words. Other children learn about the same with static books as with multimedia books but children with a language deficiency make an extra leap forward when interactive material is presented (Bus et al., 2009; see also Smeets et al., 2008).

Not a replacement but a reduction in workloadProperly designed electronic books clarify events in the narrative with sounds and images and help children understand the story. A digital assistant that guides them through the story and asks questions is also an effective way of helping them follow the narrative and process information. When no questions are asked about words, young children remember one out of eight new and difficult words. When questions are asked, that figure rises to two or three (Bus, 2009). This means that even if “living books” cannot replace the teacher, they can nevertheless reduce his/her workload.

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Strength is also weaknessThe strength of living books – sounds and images immediately pull pupils into the story – is also their weakness because pictures and interactive elements can sometimes distract the children too much. As a result, they become less aware of the text and the learning process is undermined (Bus et al., 2009). Children’s preference for looking at the pictures rather than the text has been demonstrated by eye tracking studies in which their eye movements were followed by a camera. Pictures are as much as 30 times more “attractive” than text: children look at pictures for an average of 10 minutes as opposed to 20 seconds spent looking at text (Evans et al., 2009). Books in which the illustrations and interactive elements are not arranged so as to support the text consequently seldom lead to an increase in children’s vocabulary and may even have a negative effect (Segers et al., 2009). One good example of this is the way some books reward children by showing a feedback film clip when they have answered a question. If the children really like the clip shown when a wrong answer is given, they will tend to deliberately give wrong answers so as to be able to watch it again. If children are to profit from “living books”, it is also important for the book to match their level of knowledge: if the book is too difficult, the essential leverage effect does not occur.

Learning wordsResearch shows that children learn new words most rapidly if:• they read the story at least three times;• the new words occur repeatedly in the text;• the new words are clearly illustrated;• the new words are important for the story;• the meaning of the new words is clear from the context, the pictures,

and/or the explanation given by simultaneous readers;• most of the new words are nouns;• the children are required to repeat the words or retell the story. (Source: Evans et al., 2009)

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Combination of images and sounds works better than images aloneA study by Van ginkel in 2009 investigated which method of instruction – images alone or a combination of images and audio – produced the best result as regards learning to use the Paint digital drawing program. One group of pupils took the course on the basis of visual material (text and illustrations on a computer screen) while a second group also had the same text read to them by the computer. After about three lessons, the pupils in the second group were able to correctly complete more assignments than those who had received only “picture instructions”. Research on the use of ICT in special needs education produced similar results (Van Rens et al., 2008).

These are certainly not the only studies that support the theory that simultaneously stimulating several sensory channels (seeing and hearing) can have positive learning effects. A review of six studies consistently showed that pupils can apply knowledge more effectively in new situations when there is a combination of animation and spoken text than when the information is presented solely visually (Mayer et al., 2002; see also the “Seven Multimedia Principles” box on page 22).

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Seven Multimedia PrinciplesControlled use of multimedia is beneficial to the learning process. Although adding spoken text to pictures has positive learning effects – this is the principle of multimedia – “superfluous details” need to be avoided as much as possible. The use of multimedia can in fact be counterproductive, for example if a single channel – seeing or hearing – is subject to overload. But irrelevant elements – details that distract from the actual content – can also reduce effectiveness.

A great deal of research has been done in recent years on the use of multimedia. The most important multimedia principles are the following:• Diversity (multimedia principle): Combine animation with text rather

than using an animation or text by itself. When more kinds of input are used, the pupil learns more.

• Proximity: When an animation is combined with text, the text should be placed with the section of the animation to which it refers. If visual text is positioned far away from what it refers to, the pupil has to make too great an effort to make the link and learns less from the animation.

• Simultaneity: Text and animation should be presented simultaneously rather than successively. The pupil then does not need to “hold on” to the information but receives the subject matter directly via two channels; the information is then stored in the pupil’s memory more effectively.

• Directness: Present the pupil with as few “extra” details as possible. Superfluous sound effects, “fun” film clips, and/or background music overload the pupil’s memory, ultimately leading to less effective learning results than with “plain vanilla” presentation.

• Variety: It is better to combine an animation with spoken text than with visual text. When animation and visual text are combined, the visual channel is overloaded and the pupil learns less than with a combination of visual/auditory presentation.

• Economy: The animation should preferably be combined solely with spoken text rather than using a combination of spoken and written text. The pupil learns more when he or she is not presented with too many types of the same information.

• Involvement: Words that are presented in a “conversational” style are more effective than words presented formally.

(Based on Mayer (et al.) 2001, 2002, 2003)

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“Swotting” is more effective with ICTICT can make a unique contribution when a pupil needs to learn words and other facts by heart. Research has shown that we remember facts most effectively when the learning moments are as far apart as possible. It has also been established that actively recalling these facts – for example when being tested orally or when testing oneself – stimulates the learner’s memory (see also the box on “What do we know about learning foreign languages?”). The ideal moment to access these facts again is when we have almost forgotten them. When that ideal moment occurs differs from one person to another and is partly dependent on the pupil’s prior knowledge. The “Clever Swotting” [Slimstampen] program makes use of these insights by activating the pupil’s factual knowledge and by using his/her speed of reaction to determine whether the following revision exercise should be planned sooner or in fact later. In other words: if the pupil reacts extremely quickly, the program will wait longer before repeating next time, and vice versa. This works towards the best possible spread.

An experiment with 82 pupils (Van Rijn, 2009) showed that those who use “Clever Swotting” do indeed remember facts better. not only do they achieve a higher score than pupils who determine for themselves how to learn words, they also surpass pupils who use practice programs that do not adapt the presentation to the level of the individual.

Research has also shown that we remember facts most effectively if we have used them actively. In order to encourage this, it is important, for example, to offer lessons that are pitched slightly above the pupil’s level.

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What do we know about learning foreign languages?Research on memory and foreign language learning has produced a number of useful hints for assessing the effectiveness of digital material:

1. “Commotion” in the working memoryIn general, tasks that cause a great deal of “commotion” in the working memory are the most effective. People learn a foreign language most effectively if they use it actively, for example by engaging in conversations, looking for the right word, writing a summary, or doing an oral test.

2. Realistic, functional tasksUtilising a language in realistic, functional situations makes new knowledge “bind” easier to existing knowledge. In a sense, the new knowledge lands in familiar territory. Pupils consequently learn words and phrases better and can also utilise them more easily in new situations.

3. Meaning-oriented processingIt is only when the working memory can indicate the meaning of an utterance in the foreign language that the new knowledge can be stored in the long-term memory. If the pupil is unable to interpret the utterance, the knowledge goes in one ear and out the other.

4. Challenging inputThe more varied and rich the input, the greater the likelihood that the pupil will learn from it. The difficulty of the learning material should be slightly higher than the level already achieved by the pupil.

(Source: Westhoff and Corda, 2009)

Effectiveness of interactive whiteboards uncertainIn the United Kingdom, a great deal of research has been done on the learning effects of interactive whiteboards compared to blackboards (Somekh et al., 2007). Although it has been shown that using an interactive whiteboard can have a positive effect on learning results, the occurrence of such an effect depends on more factors than solely the use of this technology.

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It has been established that after two years of lessons with an interactive whiteboard, pupils are between ten weeks and five months further in maths than pupils who worked with a blackboard. This applies to pupils who are already good at maths. Pupils who are behind in maths in fact profit far less from the use of an interactive whiteboard. Paradoxically enough, the use of interactive whiteboards in chemistry lessons has the opposite effect; pupils who performed badly in the first instance caught up amply with their more “chemistry-oriented” classmates. These examples show that it is important to ask not only whether interactive whiteboards (and other ICT applications) are effective but also to consider who benefits from their use and under what circumstances. Instruction and interactionOne advantage of using interactive whiteboards that is often mentioned is that they can give an interactive impetus to whole-class teaching. Although interactive whiteboards offer options for involving pupils in the lesson more actively – because they can use the whiteboard themselves, give presentations, do exercises, and make a contribution by means of voting panels – in practice these options are only used to a very small extent (levy, 2002, Fisser, 2008).

Small-scale experiments with work on an interactive whiteboard show promising results. Pupils who work in small independent groups on maths problems, for example, are active, motivated, and involved when they work together on problems using an interactive whiteboard. They also get better marks for maths (Coetsier, 2009). A study of history teaching using with an interactive whiteboard show that pupils who used it were better able to apply their historical knowledge at other times and places (De Kock, 2008).

The results of research on the use of interactive whiteboards support the general principles for effective use of ICT. If the teacher has digital learning materials that are of real practical use and has been properly trained in using them and in the pedagogical possibilities, then an interactive whiteboard can be beneficial for the teaching/learning. If these conditions are not met, then there is little or no added value in using an interactive whiteboard.

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Other learning effects• Learning to evaluate

“google lessons” can help pupils learn to be more critical about evaluating information that they find on the Internet. The benefit is largely restricted, however, to the subject in which the lessons are given because pupils do not necessarily apply what they have learned to other subjects (Walraven, 2008).

• Summarising and collaborating improves maths performanceMathematics programs that encourage pupils at “pre-university” (VWO) secondary schools to learn in an enquiry-based manner are most effective if equations are combined with text. If, moreover, the pupils also collaborate or – when working individually – produce a summary, there is an improvement in their insight and understanding of mathematics (Kollöffel, 2008).

• Faster and better maths thanks to gamingPrimary schoolchildren are quicker and better at maths if they play a computer game for 20 minutes a day for a period of ten weeks. Their self-confidence also improves. The pupils in the study were compared experimentally with a control group and a group of children who learned mental training techniques (Miller et al., 2009).

• Developing skills while gamingA comparative study suggests that gaming can increase pupils’ skills. Pupils who played the role-playing game Oblivion learned to cooperate better and were better in English than pupils who took part together in a treasure hunt. It was striking that those who participated in the treasure hunt felt that they had been working more usefully than the gamers (Verheul et al., 2009).

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ICT effects in practiceResults that occur in a research situation do not necessarily also occur in educational practice. In order to clarify the effects in actual practice, ten schools took part in a unique experiment. Within Kennisnet’s “learning with More Effect” programme [Leren met meer effect], the individual schools came up with an ICT project that matched their own specific educational approach. The intended benefits were specified as precisely as possible (on paper). Independent researchers then investigated whether those aims were in fact achieved. In all cases, the study was quasi-experimental, with classes that participated in ICT innovation being compared with parallel classes that continued with normal lessons.

The schools expected there to be effects on pupil performance, motivation, and attitude to learning. The study confirmed that in a large number of cases the pupils in the experimental groups did in fact achieve a better score. The effects were particularly noticeable as regards motivation, but there were also differences in the performance of the two groups. no effects on learning attitude were identified. (Source: Meijer et al., 2008)

2.3. More efficient teaching/learningICT and can help achieve educational objectives more efficiently. This section deals with the applications that can help achieve this in a teaching context, for example by taking work away from the teacher and/or by having pupils work independently (or more independently).

How independently can pupils work with ICT?Many ICT applications are intended to enable pupils to work independently, thus giving the teacher more time, for example to focus on pupils who are lagging behind. In actual practice, however, programs that enable pupils to work independently at a computer do improve pupil performance but still demand a great deal of guidance, preparation, and feedback on the part of the teacher (Meijer et al., 2008). not much time is in fact saved and independent learning by means of ICT does not by definition mean less work for the teacher. Recent research does show,

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however, that it is possible to use ICT to make teaching more efficient. Moreover, ICT makes teaching/learning methods possible that would not be possible without it. For these opportunities to be utilised, the software and the way it is used must comply with certain requirements.

Proper preparation neededIt is important for programs to be properly geared to the level of the pupils using them. If a program is too difficult – or too easy – there is little or no benefit for the pupils. The teacher will then need to make enormous efforts to keep the pupils focused on the lesson. One good example of the differences in educational results can be found in the use of experiments (“tests”) within a simulation program. Pupils who are already familiar with the subject of the experiments turn out to acquire new knowledge. On the other hand, those who have little prior knowledge benefit hardly at all from the simulation. To assist the latter group, the teacher will first need to give lessons on the topic concerned, including “learning from books” and active support in carrying out assignments (Hagemans, 2008; cf. Coetsier et al., 2008).

Programs that support learningAn increasing number of “adaptive” programs are able to take account of differences in level. More attention is also being paid to guiding pupils while they are learning (“scaffolding”), specifically when they are using programs intended for independent use. Examples of this include tests to check whether pupils are keeping up properly, assignments that automatically adapt themselves to the level of the user, and hints and tips that help finish off assignments correctly. This approach appears to be effective. Research shows, for example, that pupils who receive support from the computer in the form of “hints” when doing maths problems perform better in final tests (Van de Schaar, 2009). If controlled use is made of high-quality adaptive practice programs, the teacher does not even need to supervise pupils as regards the subject content; it is enough for an assistant teacher to make sure the pupils stay focused on the lesson (Meijer et al., 2008).

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Multimedia method makes active teaching methods possibleA successful experiment was carried out at a school for preparatory secondary vocational education in which pupils learned English using ICT. They practised speaking English using a multimedia program that focuses on the active use of language; the program includes a large number of listening and speaking exercises as well as explanations and assignments. Pupils work either independently or in pairs. The study (Suhre, 2008) shows that this approach leads to better speaking skills than traditional whole-class methods in which pupils are “consumers” of linguistic knowledge. The positive effects are clearly shown in Figure 2.2. Pupils learning English by the “normal” method made hardly any progress (+ 2 points) whereas those who received multimedia instruction scored 13 points higher, an increase of more than 30%. The figure also shows that the pupils who had normal instruction initially spoke English better than the pupils in the multimedia group. The latter soon caught up, however (50 points for the normal group and 53 for the experimental group).

Figure 2.2. Before and after results for speaking skills (source: Suhre, 2008).

0 10 20 30 40 50 60

score before instruction

score after instruction

normal language instruction

language instruction with ICT and multimedia

test score for speaking skills

40

48 +2

+13

29

The pupils’ improved English speaking skills must be attributed primarily to the active teaching/learning method rather than to the use of ICT in itself. nevertheless, without ICT such active methods would be virtually impossible because they are so labour-intensive and pupils quickly become distracted. ICT ensures that these methods can in fact be used. Teachers also view the program as a practical and promising application: pupils enjoy using it, it helps them process the subject matter, and – if the technology works properly and the pupil has mastered it – it is effective in practice.

Does using ICT save time or waste time? These research results support the expectation that ICT initially requires extra time but that in the long term it can in fact save time. Teachers also expect to use their time differently because of their different role: they undertake more individual coaching and spend less time in front of the whole class (cf. Meijer et al., 2008).

A large majority of teachers find that they save time by using ICT for tests. In the case of other ICT applications, some 40% say that they save time. A lot of teachers (between 22 and 40%) do not notice much difference. A minority of teachers who use ICT say that it leads to a loss of time (Figure 2.3).

30


Figure 2.3. Percentage of teachers who say they save or lose time by using various ICT

applications (source: Intomart GfK, 2009).

Teachers who do not use ICT were asked whether they expect to save time by doing so or in fact to lose time. Most of them are unable to answer this question or say that the amount of time will remain the same (40–50%). A minority expect they will save time by using ICT (10–20%). It is striking that a large percentage of teachers (60%) expect that using ICT for testing will save time. That expectation would seem, however, to be insufficient reason to actually use digital testing, probably because not all of the necessary conditions are complied with (see Chapters 3 to 8).

2.4 More interesting teaching/learningsA lot of teachers and pupils find working with ICT an enjoyable change from normal teaching/learning. But the fact that something is enjoyable does not always mean that it is also instructive.

0 20 40 60 80 100

time saving

no difference/ don’t know

time is lost

% of teachersICT for lesson

implementation

interactive whiteboard

ICT for lesson preparation

electronic learningenvironment

digital learning materials

pupil information management system

digital testing 64

41

42

42

40

39

38 40 22

31 30

29 31

26 32

32 26

22 37

22 14

31

Variety and the right amountA large majority (70–80%) of school managers find that ICT can contribute to making teaching/learning more interesting and can create an enriched learning environment (see Table 2.1). An increasing amount of research confirms these findings, showing that controlled use of ICT is a welcome addition to existing lessons and can improve pupils’ motivation to learn and their interest in the subject.

A study at special needs schools shows that pupils find learning with ICT more interesting, that their ability to manage for themselves improves when it is used, and that it improves their self-esteem (Oomens et al., 2008). A study of the effectiveness of ICT at ten schools revealed many positive effects on motivation (see the ICT effects in practice box on page 27). For example, a maths method (developed by the teachers themselves) in which ICT applets alternate with other types of maths teaching greatly increases pupils’ motivation and interest in maths. The use of an interactive whiteboard also increases their interest in the subject. Using the right amount of ICT is a key factor: pupils who work for a long period with a digital portfolio for project-based learning gradually lose motivation whereas those who switch back and forth between a digital portfolio and more traditional methods are challenged more and are more highly motivated (Meijer et al., 2008).

Attention and distractionResearch on virtual environments such as Second life (Van Schie, 2008) shows that learning environments which a pupil finds interesting are not always the most pedagogically responsible. A good learning environment is not only interesting but focuses the pupil’s attention on the learning task. Teachers who use Second life sometimes find that pupils spend more time on the appearance of their avatar than on the actual learning task.

32


The added value of ICT according to school managers What contribution do school managers believe ICT makes to achieving educational objectives? As in previous years – the “Top Ten” has been stable for years now – school managers find that ICT can contribute to making teaching/learning more interesting and, in combination with this, can create an enriched learning environment (Table 2.1). A majority of school managers also find that ICT promotes independent learning, helps remove deficiencies (remedial applications), and makes the learning process more flexible. A slight majority think that ICT can help make teaching/learning more efficient.

School managers are less convinced as regards the contribution that ICT can make to tailor-made work and testing, cooperative learning, and communication between teacher and pupil. There has been hardly any change in this respect compared to previous years.

Primary school managers are in general somewhat more positive regarding the educational contribution made by ICT than their counterparts at secondary schools.

note: no figures are given for vocational schools because of the small number of respondents.

Table 2.1. Percentage of schools that consider ICT makes a large or very large

contribution to achieving their educational objectives (source: TNT NIPO 2009).

% of schools

Contribution PRIM SEC Average

Teaching/learning more interesting for pupils 82 72 77

Creates enriched learning environment 81 67 74

Promotes self-directed learning 72 54 63

Promotes use of remedial applications 70 52 61

learning process more flexible/individualised 59 57 58

More efficient organisation of teaching 64 45 55

Provision of adaptive/tailor-made teaching 60 39 50

Promotes cooperative learning 39 38 39

Closer communication between teacher and pupil 15 51 33

Tailor-made testing 27 25 26

33

Attention, depth, and efficiency The point of using ICT is therefore not just to get pupils’ attention but also to hold it. Evaluation studies of various innovative ICT applications in education show that they often score well as regards getting pupils’ attention but fall behind as regards learning depth and lesson situation efficiency (Intomart, 2008a; 2008b).

It is only ICT applications that score well for all three of these aspects that are suitable for long-term adoption. In order to estimate the total power of an ICT application, Kennisnet uses the “power indicator” (attention*depth*efficiency) developed by Bernie Dodge (2007). As a general rule, a score of 35 or more can be considered promising. This score can only be achieved if a satisfactory score has been given for all three aspects.

Using video in the classroom is a way of getting subject matter across that is simple to utilise and interesting (power indicator: 42). It is not only teachers who think so; the power of video has also been confirmed objectively by means of a small-scale study (Stevens-van Rijn, 2009). Teachers also believe that virtual environments are very useful. But what they consider most promising are simulations that allow pupils to acquire new knowledge within a virtual environment, for example about the function of the heart. These applications hold pupils’ attention – the heart is clearly visible – but are also of sufficient depth (power indicator: 47). Applications that allow pupils to work independently within a virtual environment – for example by setting up a business – are also well thought of, certainly by teachers with a preference for knowledge construction. Teachers consider using virtual environments to consult an expert remotely, for example – i.e. organisational use – to be less promising (power indicator: 32).

34


2.5 SummaryThe many studies and examples dealt with in this chapter show that ICT can in fact contribute to making teaching/learning more efficient, effective, and interesting. That contribution, however, can seldom be ascribed to ICT alone. This does not alter the fact that ICT can provide pedagogical advantages compared to standard methods:• ICT is very suited to offering subject matter in a variety of ways, for

example visually, with audio, and interactively. Providing subject matter via a variety of channels means that pupils learn more effectively.

• It is striking that weaker pupils in particular make progress when they learn with the aid of ICT. The condition for this, however, is that the ICT programs utilised are properly designed, that they are appropriate to the level of the pupil concerned, that they can catch the pupil’s attention, and that they take the pupil through the subject matter in a series of steps. If the digital learning material fails to meet these conditions, it will be ineffective (or at least much less effective).

• Most pupils like to work with ICT. It is important, however, to alternate ICT with other learning methods. A second crucial success factor is that the pupil’s attention must be focused on the learning task. It is therefore important that an ICT application should be assessed not only as regards whether it is interesting to use but also in relation to its pedagogical depth and efficiency.

Careful thought must be given to how ICT will be used so that it matches the wishes and capacities of educators. Vision, expertise, digital learning materials, and hardware are the four essential conditions for making teaching/learning more effective, efficient, and interesting by means of ICT; they are consequently the logical starting point for the remaining chapters of Four in Balance.

35

3 Use of ICT in educationICT is increasingly being used in an educational setting. Although there are differences between types of school, a majority of all teachers – seven out of ten – make use of ICT applications during their lessons. School managers believe that there is a rising trend, expecting that virtually every teacher will be using ICT within the next three years. Teachers themselves believe that the amount of lesson time during which they use computers will increase in the coming years by 40%. But it is not just the number of teachers using ICT in their lessons that is increasing; the frequency of ICT use is also increasing and ICT is being deployed in more and more different ways.

3.1 How many teachers use ICT in their lessons?If we take all the three types of school together, seven out of ten teachers use computers in their lessons. The extent to which they do so, however, differs from one type of school to another. More primary school teachers use computers for teaching (88%) than do teachers at secondary schools (61%) or vocational schools (60%) (Figure 3.1).

Figure 3.1. Percentage of teachers who (according to school managers) use computers

during their lessons (source: TNS NIPO 2009).

0

20

40

60

80

100

VETSECPRIM

% of teachers

88

6061

average

70%

36

3 - USE OF ICT In EDUCATIOn

The number of teachers who use a computer as an aid to teaching is steadily increasing, and school managers assume that this trend will continue. They expect that in three years time, almost nine out of every ten teachers will be using computers in their lessons (Figure 3.2). This indicates that every teacher will soon be using ICT. It should be noted that that situation has already almost been reached at primary schools.

note: Forecast for 2010–2012, based on expectations of primary and secondary school managers.

Figure 3.2. Trend in average percentage of teachers who use computers in their lessons

(according to school managers) (source: TNS NIPO, 2003–2009).

0

20

40

60

80

100

trend

forecast

2012201120102009200820072006200520042003

56 62 66 66 67 73 75

89

% of teachers

37

Home use of computers for school workComputer use is naturally not limited to actual lessons. Virtually all teachers also do work for school using a computer at home (Figure 3.3). They do so for such purposes as administration and to search for, work on, or develop digital learning materials, but also to keep in touch with colleagues, pupils, and/or other people for professional purposes. Roughly half of teachers use their computer at home for school work for more than five hours a week.

Figure 3.3. Number of hours a week that teachers use a computer at home for

schoolwork (source: TNS NIPO, 2009).

3.2 How often is ICT actually used?Teachers who use computers for pedagogical purposes do so on average for between five and eight hours a week, but here too there are differences between the various types of school. Teachers at primary schools and vocational schools use computer applications more frequently than their counterparts at secondary schools. Teachers expect that in the next three years there will be a 40% increase in the amount of lesson time during which ICT applications are used. If this in fact turns out to be the case, teachers in 2012 will be teaching for an average of between eight and eleven hours a week with the aid of ICT (Figure 3.4).

< 2 hours

2 - 5 hours

5 -10 hours

> 10 hours% of teachers

24

2434

18

38


Figure 3.4. Average number of hours of computer use per week for teaching, now and

in three years time, according to teachers (source: TNS NIPO, 2009).

3.3 What is ICT used for?Although more and more teachers are using an increasing number of educational ICT applications, it is the Internet, an electronic learning environment, practice programs, and word processing programs that are the most frequently used applications. A majority use all these applications more than four times a month. Some applications are used more than ten times a month. games and digital tests are used very little at any of the types of school (Table 3.1).

number of hours

total

2009

expected increase in next three years

8

3

11

5

3

8

8

3

11

0

5

15

20

10

VETSEC PRIM

39

Table 3.1. Percentage of teachers who use ICT applications monthly or more frequently

during their lessons and average number of times per month that ICT applications are

used in lessons (source: TNS NIPO 2009).

3.4 Use of ICT by pupilsOver the past three years, a survey was carried out of how often pupils in the first two years of secondary school use the Internet at school and/or at home in order to do homework. Figure 3.5 shows that use of the Internet at school (supervised and guided by the teacher) is gradually increasing, from two or three times a month in 2006 to three or four times a month in 2008. One striking point is that one out of every seven first or second-year secondary-school pupils never uses the Internet at school.

Application PRIM SEC VET

% of teachers frequency % of teachers frequency % of teachers frequency

Internet to find information 6 6 14

Practice program 13 4 6

Word processing 4 6 13

Electronic learning environment

7 5 8

Internet for communication/collaboration

2 6 12

Planning and independent assignments

4 3 6

Digital portfolio 1 2 6

games 2 3 5

Digital testing 2 2 2

1 - 25%

26 - 50%

51 - 75%

76 - 100%

40


Use of the Internet for homeworkPupils still only use the Internet for homework purposes once or twice a month. That figure is hardly any different to previous years. Virtually all pupils are sometimes given homework assignments that require them to use the Internet. A third of pupils say that their teacher knows – always or almost always – if a piece of work has been copied from the Internet. That percentage has remained stable over the past three years.

Help with Internet use at school Fewer than half of pupils consider that they get a good tips at school about how to search for and use information on the Internet. As regards the first two years of secondary school, that percentage has fallen slightly, from 47% in 2006 to 43% in 2008. Pupils in higher years are increasingly dissatisfied with the quality of the tips they receive. Only 30% of pupils in years 3 and 4 are satisfied with the support they receive from their teachers in finding information on the Internet.

Figure 3.5. Average number of times per month that pupils in the first two years of

secondary school carry out school assignments using the Internet (source: Van Rooij,

2008).

0

1

2

3

4

5

at home

at school

200820072006

2,5

1,5

2,7

1,5

3,3

1,7

number of timesper month

41

School activities for which pupils use the InternetBy far the most important school activity for which pupils use the Internet at home is to find information. Working on assignments with other pupils is also popular, with more than half of pupils using this option. Table 3.2 gives an overview of school activities for which pupils use the Internet at home.

Table 3.2. School activities for which pupils in the first two years of secondary school

use the Internet at home (source: Van Rooij, 2008).

3.5 How much ICT is enough?The use of ICT is increasing. If the expectations of teachers and school managers turn out to be justified, there will be a continued increase over the next few years. But is there an upper limit to the useful deployment of ICT, and if so where is the saturation point? In order to answer this question, teachers were asked to give their professional opinion on the ICT limit for effective teaching/learning. Teachers at all three types of school said that the limit was approximately 40 to 50% of their lessons. Primary school teachers estimate the limit to be somewhat lower than their colleagues at secondary and vocational schools (Figure 3.6).

% of pupils

School activity 2006 2007 2008

Finding information 70 73 83

Working on assignments with other pupils 40 45 55

Contact with fellow pupils regarding schoolwork - 37 38

Doing practice tests 26 31 26

Submitting homework by e-mail 14 20 23

Checking what homework has been assigned 12 13 20

Asking the teacher a question by e-mail 6 11 12

Constructing and maintaining a website - 9 10

Asking an expert a question by e-mail 5 6 6

Finding ready-made assignments to copy 7 4 5

42


Figure 3.6. Views of teachers regarding the maximum percentage of lessons with ICT

for effective use in teaching/learning (source: TNS NIPO, 2009).

When asked to indicate the maximum number of hours that pupils can usefully carry out schoolwork using a computer, secondary and vocational school teachers put the figure higher than their colleagues at primary schools (Figure 3.7).

Figure 3.7. Views of teachers regarding the maximum number of hours that pupils can

learn effectively using a computer (source: TNS NIPO, 2009).

0

20

40

60

80

100

VETSECPRIM

4045 47

% lessons

0

5

10

15

20at school

at home

VETSEC PRIM

number of hours a week

6,8

5

10

11,6

15,3

11,7

43

Teachers views differ widely regarding the maximum number of computers and/or laptop computers needed in the classroom (Figure 3.8). More than 40% of primary school teachers believe that from one to five computers are more than sufficient. Secondary and vocational school teachers see this entirely differently, with about half of teachers believing that effective teaching/learning requires approximately one computer per pupil (more than 16 computers per classroom).

Figure 3.8. Maximum number of computers per classroom for effective teaching/

learning, according to teachers (source: TNS NIPO, 2009).

3.6 Summary De introductie en opkomst van ict-toepassingen heeft niet geleid tot een radicale omslag met betrekking tot de inrichting en organisatie van leerprocessen, maar manifesteert zich als een geleidelijke ontwikkeling.

The introduction and development of ICT applications has not led to a radical shift in the way learning processes are designed and organised but has been gradual. Computers have now become an indispensable component in the design and organisation of teaching/learning. Both teachers and school managers believe that this integration is by no means complete and they expect that further steps will be made in the coming years. This growth concerns three areas:• the number of teachers who make use of computers is increasing;• the number of hours during which teachers and pupils make use of

ICT applications as a tool for more efficient and effective learning is increasing;

• the number of different ICT applications that are used for educational purposes is increasing.

An increasing number of teachers and pupils are more frequently using ICT for educational purposes and in a greater variety of ways.

0 20 40 60 80 100

don’t know

% of teachers

> 16

6 - 15

1 - 5

PRIM

SEC

VET 2

7 26 48

52

19

18152641

29 17

44

4 - VISIOn

4 VisionTeachers’ have differing views on education and apply a variety of pedagogical methods. The great variety of ICT applications means that it is virtually always possible to select applications that fit in with a specific methodology. However, not every application is effective in all pedagogical situations. It is therefore important to select ICT on the basis of a clear vision of how learning processes should be designed and organised. Many teachers say that they feel the need for the school’s management to develop that vision – together with the teachers themselves – and to ensure that the agreements for using ICT for teaching/learning processes are observed.

4.1 Pedagogical methodsWhat educational approaches do teachers use? To what extent do they use ICT in that connection? This section presents results from primary schools in order to illustrate the relationships between the overall educational approach and the use of ICT. Comparative research (on a small scale) at secondary and vocational schools also indicates that such relationships exist at these types of school too (Van gennip, 2006, 2008, 2009). These insights are also supported by recent scientific publications (Dede, 2008; Harris, 2009).

Knowledge transfer versus knowledge constructionMany different pedagogical methods are used at schools, with the extremes being knowledge transfer and knowledge construction. In the case of knowledge transfer, knowledge is transferred to the pupil in small stages. It is the teacher who decides what subject matter the pupils should learn and when, and pupils reproduce known solutions. With knowledge construction, it is the pupil who (in part) directs the learning process and who – often with other pupils – seeks new solutions to problems. The way pupil performance is assessed also differs. In the case of knowledge construction, it is not only what the pupil has learned that is considered but also how that knowledge has been acquired.

45

In short: in knowledge transfer, it is primarily the teacher who directs the learning process, while in knowledge construction pupils have more leeway to do this for themselves (Ten Brummelhuis & Plomp, 2007)

In actual fact, teachers rarely design their lessons solely according to the principles of either knowledge transfer or knowledge construction. As Figure 4.1 shows, both methods are utilised, with knowledge transfer being more common at primary schools than knowledge construction. Teachers expect that in three years time knowledge transfer will still play an important role but that the significance of knowledge construction will increase. The figure also shows that ICT is used to support both knowledge transfer and knowledge construction; the use of ICT is not therefore confined to any one specific educational approach.

Figure 4.1. Extent to which primary school teachers use knowledge transfer and

knowledge construction, now and in three years time (source: ITS 2009).

ExceptionA survey of 200 school managers reveals similar results. There is one exception, however: the managers expect the proportion of knowledge transfer to fall. At the same time, they indicate that there will be an increase in knowledge transfer using ICT applications. This means that school managers – to an even greater extent than teachers – believe that ICT will play a major and more important role in lesson situations that aim to transfer knowledge. Both school managers and teachers also assume

never/hardlyever

now andagain

quitefrequently

frequently veryfrequently

frequency

now

in three years time

knowledge construction with ICT

knowledge construction

knowledge transfer with ICT

knowledge transfer

46

4 - VISIOn

that knowledge construction will be applied more frequently in the coming years. They also expect ICT to become increasingly important for education in the future.

Major differences The trends regarding pedagogical methods and the use of ICT are clearer if one considers not only the average (Figure 4.1) but also the frequency distribution (Figure 4.2); this reveals major differences between teachers. Some teachers make hardly any use of ICT in their teaching, while others do so almost every day. If teachers’ expectations regarding their own ICT use are justified, the frequency with which ICT is used will also differ greatly from one teacher to another in three years time. It should be noted that the differences are less as regards the use of ICT for knowledge transfer (for example practising exercises and carrying out learning tasks independently at the computer) than as regards the use of ICT for knowledge construction (for example finding information on the Internet and collaborating with other pupils online).

Figure 4.2. Variety in primary school teachers’ pedagogical approaches, now and in

three years time (source: ITS 2009). The dark bars in the figure indicate the current

situation. The light bars indicate teachers’ expectations regarding the situation in

three years time. A short bar indicates that the extent of use differs only little between

teachers; a long bar indicates that there are major differences in the extent of use. The

bars indicate the middle 50% of the population studied.

now

in three years time

knowledge construction with ICT

knowledge construction

knowledge transfer with ICT

knowledge transfer

never/hardlyever

now andagain

quitefrequently

frequently veryfrequently

frequency

47

4.2 Technology and teaching/learningWhere technological innovation with ICT is concerned, the education sector primarily follows the trends. The opportunities opened up by new technology act as a driving force for innovation. The education sector therefore follows that technology. Although technology-driven innovations can inspire schools and/or create clarity regarding the opportunities offered by ICT, they have hardly any lasting effect and seldom lead to long-term changes in the teaching/learning process (KPC group, 2008).

Long-term innovation with ICTThe likelihood of the long-term integration of ICT into teaching/learning is greater if its deployment is in line with teachers’ vision of how learning processes should be designed from the pedagogical point of view; in other words, that technology then follows teaching/learning. Research confirms that ICT use needs to fit in with attitudes to what constitutes good teaching. Dynarski and his colleagues (2007) show, for example, that teachers soon give up using a computer program if it is not sufficiently in line with their educational views. A dissertation by Tondeur (2007) and a large-scale international comparative study (law et al., 2008) also indicate a connection between teachers’ pedagogical ideas and the way they use ICT. Similar conclusions can be drawn from research on the use of ICT applications such as virtual environments (Intomart, 2008) and streaming video (Alons, 2008).

The rest of this chapter will focus on the question of the extent to which school managers have developed a vision of how ICT should be used and how far that vision is in line with the needs of teachers.

1001101100101010110010110100110010110101001101100101001011010101010010110010101101101001010010

011011001010111010110010

48

4 - VISIOn

4.3 Vision and policyThe managers at most Dutch schools promote the use of computers for teaching purposes. That is not a new development because the pedagogical use of ICT has been encouraged for many years. generally speaking, school managers believe that the integration of ICT is an important/very important issue compared to other matters demanding their attention (Figure 4.3). If we consider the past seven years, we can say that ICT is high on the policy agenda of at least three quarters of Dutch schools.

Figure 4.3. Percentage of schools at which the management find the issue of computer

use during lessons to be important/very important compared to other matters

demanding their attention (source: TNS NIPO, 2002–2009).

0

20

40

60

80

100

SEC

PRIM

2009200820072006200520042003

92

88

94

84

93

90

97

80

93

86

93

94

88

79

% of schools

49

Vision and policy planThe majority of school managers say that their school has a centralised vision of how ICT should be used. That is the case at 70% of primary schools and 54% of secondary schools (which have scored lower in this regard for years now). Many schools are currently designing or updating their ICT policy: at primary schools, the figure is 19% and at secondary schools 30% (Figure 4.4a).

Figure 4.4b shows not only the percentage of schools that have an ICT policy plan but also that the existence of a policy plan does not necessarily mean that it is also actually used. In practice, many schools consult their ICT policy plan to only a limited extent. That is the case at 30% of primary schools and 40% of secondary schools. The overall picture is one in which half of schools have an ICT policy plan that they actually implement.

a. Schools with ICT policy plan. b. Use of ICT policy plan.

Figure 4.4. Percentage of schools whose management say they have developed a

centralised vision of how ICT should be used in teaching and have set out arrangements

in an ICT policy plan (a) and actually apply the plan (b) (source: TNS NIPO 2009).

developing/updating

% of schools % of schools

SECPRIM

not in use

SECPRIM0

20

40

60

80

100

0

20

40

60

80

10014161511

3019 29 41

70 54 55 45

no plan/don’t know

no plan/don’t know

available in use

50

4 - VISIOn

4.4 Vision supported by teachersA large number of teachers say they feel a major need for an overall view of how ICT should be used that is developed jointly by school managers and teachers (Figure 4.5). That applies at primary schools (37%), secondary schools (50%), and vocational schools (51%).

Figure 4.5. Percentage of teachers who say they feel a need/major need for a shared

vision of how ICT should be used, developed jointly by school managers and teachers

(source: TNS NIPO, 2009).

37

50 51

% of teachers

PRIM SEC

53,245

VET

51

Although many teachers therefore agree that there is a need for a well established vision of how ICT should be used, they say that only a minority of schools actually have such a vision. This is made clear by Figure 4.6, which shows that 40% of primary school teachers say that agreements have been made at their school regarding the pedagogical use of ICT and that efforts are made to ensure that those agreements are observed. At vocational schools, 35% of teachers believe that is the case, but at secondary schools the figure is only 13%. At most schools, teachers say that there is little or no real guidance or coordination of the use made of ICT. The view of school managers is different (lower set of pie charts).

note: The small number of respondents means that the figures for managers at vocational schools can

only provide an indication.

Explanation of labels:

Coordinated: Agreements regarding the pedagogical use of ICT have been made

within the school/programme for most of the subject matter components. Teachers are

required to comply with these agreements.

Not coordinated: Teachers decide for themselves when and how to utilise ICT in their

teaching.

Figure 4.6. Views of teachers on coordination of ICT at their school (based on: TNS

NIPO, 2009).

not coordinated

coordinated

% o

f te

ache

rs%

of

man

ager

s

PRIM SEC VET

60%

28

64

13

72

36

87 6560%

81

40

19

35

60

52

4 - VISIOn

4.5 SummaryICT has made its way into a wide range of pedagogical methodologies, varying from knowledge transfer to knowledge construction. For many teachers, knowledge transfer plays a larger role than knowledge construction. Knowledge transfer will continue to be important but at the same time teachers wish to teach more frequently according to the method of knowledge construction.

Both teachers and school managers believe that ICT will be an important tool in designing the teaching/learning of the future. At most schools, the overall approach to using ICT has been set out in a policy plan but that plan is by no means always implemented.

Many teachers say they feel the need for a shared vision of how ICT should be used, developed jointly by school managers and teachers. Teachers believe that this has been achieved at only a limited number of schools, although school managers think differently.

53

5 ExpertiseUsing ICT for teaching/learning means more than just being able to operate the necessary equipment. To improve quality and to make teaching/learning more interesting and productive by means of ICT, the teacher’s expertise is extremely important. It is only if the teacher is able to carefully coordinate content, pedagogy, and ICT that any added value will become apparent. Do teachers in fact have these skills? In what areas do they need to become more professional? And what about their pupils?

5.1 Familiarity with the possibilities opened up by ICTSchool managers believe that teachers are more aware of educational ICT applications than do teachers themselves (Figure 5.1). Managers would appear to overestimate teachers familiarity with the pedagogical opportunities opened up by ICT.

note: no figures are given for vocational school managers because of the small number of respondents.

Figure 5.1. Percentage of teachers who are aware (or well aware) of computer

applications that they can use in their own teaching, according to school managers and

teachers themselves (source: TNS NIPO, 2009).

0

20

40

60

80

100

teachers

managers

VETSEC PRIM

% of teachers

75

65 6659

53

54

5 - ExPERTISE

5.2 Teachers’ skillsKnowledge of the possibilities opened up by ICT is one thing but for ICT to be used effectively in actual teaching it is crucial that teachers can also utilise these possibilities in a pedagogical context. They therefore need to have the requisite ICT skills. Being able to operate a computer, as well as standard applications such as word-processing software and e-mail, constitute basic ICT skills. Pedagogical ICT skills are taken to be the specific skills required to utilise ICT as an aid in learning situations. This involves having the right combinations of ICT, content, and pedagogy.

Has there been a decline in ICT skills in 2009?According to school managers, teachers’ basic ICT skills are better than their pedagogical ICT skills (Figure 5.2). It is striking that managers now have a lower option of teachers’ skills than in previous years. One possible explanation is the “research effect”. Unlike in previous years, the data was collected in 2009 not by the Education Inspectorate but by a research firm. It is conceivable that school managers wished to present a more positive picture vis-à-vis the Inspectorate than vis-à-vis the research firm. An alternative explanation is that teachers do not keep their skills up to scratch. Technological developments – for example the arrival of interactive whiteboards – mean that a skill level that used to be considered sufficient is now considered insufficient. This explanation is supported by the high priority that managers of all types of schools assign to further professional development regarding the pedagogical use of ICT (see also Chapter 8).

55

Figure 5.2. Percentage of teachers who (according to school managers) have sufficient

ICT skills (sources: Education Inspectorate, 2006–2008; TNS NIPO 2009).

View of teachersApproximately half of teachers consider their personal skill level as regards using computers as a pedagogical aid to be advanced or very advanced (Table 5.1). It should be noted that this self-confidence is significantly reduced when we focus on specific ICT skills. There are in fact no specific skills for which a majority of teachers consider their skill level to be advanced. Teachers are particularly uncertain about their ability to assess the usefulness of educational software, to adapt digital learning materials for themselves, and to use an electronic learning environment. Primary school teachers mainly consider themselves to be familiar with using a digital pupil information management system (59%). A large number of secondary school teachers (61%) and vocational school teachers (72%) have a positive view of their skills as regards using ICT to communicate with their pupils.

0

20

40

60

80

100

SEC pedagogical skills

PRIM pedagogical skills

SEC basic skills

PRIM basic skills

2009200820072006

89

83

81

90

88

84

92

87

87

80

73

71

62 65 5465

56

5 - ExPERTISE

Table 5.1. Percentage of teachers who consider their own pedagogical ICT skills to be

advanced or very advanced (source: TNS NIPO 2009).

5.3 Pupils’ skillsIn 1999, somewhat more than half of pupils in the first and second years of secondary school were able to use an Internet search engine. That figure is now 90% (Table 5.2).

Table 5.2. ICT skills of pupils in first and second years of secondary school (sources:

ICT-monitor, 1999; Van Rooij, 2007, 2008).

% of teachers

Pedagogical ICT skills PRIM SEC VET Average

Use of ICT to communicate with pupils 32 61 72 55

Use of computers as pedagogical aid 54 48 50 51

Use of digital pupil information management system 59 50 36 48

Organise lessons in which ICT is used 41 47 50 46

Work with the class on a project using various ICT ap-plications

39 40 58 46

Use educational software 53 43 36 44

Integrate ICT into teaching 42 38 40 40

Assess usefulness of educational software 40 37 34 37

Use electronic learning environment 25 36 49 37

Adapt digital learning materials for use during lessons 29 39 38 35

% of pupils

Skill 1999 2007 2008

I can surf the Internet. 61 87 89

I can use a search engine (for example google). 54 87 90

I can download a file from the Internet. 42 77 77

I can chat on a chat site. 44 62 59

I can use MSn. - 85 85

I can use a webcam. - 63 58

I can blog. - 43 45

I can create my own homepage or profile site. - 61 64

57

Are young people “digital natives”?Table 5.2 shows that an increasing number of young people have fairly reasonable ICT skills. At the same time, however, it shows that not all of them have the same skills. An increasing number of studies also show that the view that the current generation of young people are “digital natives” – i.e. have extensive knowledge and skills regarding new technology – is empirically untenable (Bennet, 2008). young people also do not see themselves in terms of generalisations such as “the Internet generation” or “the digital generation” (Kanters, 2008). Moreover, young people with ICT skills are not necessarily “information skilled”. In other words, they are far less capable of using ICT for educational tasks than is often assumed.

Information skillsA study by Walraven (2008) examined the way members of various age groups search for information (Table 5.3). young children pay little attention to the influence of spelling, grammar, and syntax on the search result. They often do not search for a keyword but in many cases simply type in the whole query (Ciber, 2008). young people search in the same way as adults who find searching for information difficult. In evaluating the search result – for example websites – they consider primarily the expected usefulness, often ignoring quality aspects such as validity and reliability, and whether the information is up to date.

Table 5.3. Search behaviour according to type of group (Walraven, 2008).

Group Search behaviour

Children Type in query and expect appropriate answer

young people look at every search result without evaluation criteria

Adults who do not find what they are searching for

look at every search result without evaluation criteria

Adults who do find what they are searching for

look at search results while applying evaluation criteria such as title, origin, description, usefulness, or portions of URl

58

5 - ExPERTISE

Because the search strategies used by young people have not developed fully, one must question the objectiveness of the information sources selected (Schravesande, 2008). Meta-analyses show that the current generation of young people have little idea of their own information requirements. This makes it difficult to develop effective search strategies because they devote little time to evaluating information on the basis of its relevance, correctness, and authoritativeness (Kanters, 2008). Does this therefore mean that no young people have the right information skills? According to primary and secondary school teachers, “some” or “most” of their pupils do in fact have information skills. More secondary school pupils have such skills than do primary school pupils (Figure 5.3).

Figure 5.3. Views of teachers regarding the number of their pupils who are skilled at

searching for and evaluating information (ITS, 2009).

People are not born with information skills nor, as the research shows, are such skills acquired spontaneously. Teachers say that only a small number of their pupils acquire information skills outside school. The Internet routines that pupils have developed for themselves outside school must, however, be supplemented at school by the skills needed for effective use of the Internet in order to learn (Kuiper, 2007). The amount of attention that schools are currently devoting to digital information skills varies widely, not just between schools but also within schools. The extent to which schools inculcate Internet skills is primarily determined by the personal preferences and interests of teachers and not because this is anchored in the curriculum and/or teachers’ competencies.

0 20 40 60 80 100don’t know

all pupils

most pupils

some pupils

none

% of teachersSEC

PRIM 62

2 43 45 8 2

344018

59

5.4 SummaryVirtually every Dutch teacher is capable of using a computer and basic word-processing and e-mail software, but only half of all teachers have the skills necessary to use a computer as a pedagogical aid to designing and organising learning processes. Moreover, many teachers do not have a clear idea of the pedagogical possibilities opened up by ICT.

In the case of pupils, the picture is a mixed one: most pupils have fairly reasonable computer skills but not all of them have the same skills. Some pupils acquire the information skills that are needed to learn with the aid of ICT outside the school environment, but they constitute a minority. In addition, many schools do not adopt a systematic approach to the acquisition of digital information skills.

60

6 - DIgITAl lEARnIng MATERIAlS

6 Digital learning materials The availability of digital learning materials that are of practical use is one of the main barriers to the further integration of ICT in education. Teachers at all types of school expect there to be a major increase in the use of digital learning materials, but in the past year that increase was in fact only 1% to 2%. Teachers believe that the highest priority should be making digital learning materials easier to find.

6.1 Proportion of digital learning materialsTeachers expect there to be a significant increase in the use of digital learning materials in the coming years (Figure 6.1). Currently, somewhat more than a third of all learning materials used at vocational schools are digital. At primary and secondary schools, the assumption is that that level of digitisation will be achieved in another three years; the current figure at both these types of school is 15%.

Figure 6.1. Proportion of digital learning materials as opposed to other types of

learning materials and the trend over the next three years, according to teachers

(source: TNS NIPO, 2008–2009).

0

20

40

60

80

100

VET

SEC

PRIM

20122011201020092008

13

16

35

15

17

36

34

36

53

% digital learning materials

61

Although many teachers assume that there will be a major increase in the use of digital learning materials, things are not so simple in actual practice. Teachers expected last year, for example, that there would be a 6–7% increase in the use of digital learning materials in 2008 to 2009. In actual fact, the increase was only 1–2%. Despite that limited increase, teachers also assume this year that the annual increase will be 6–7% (and 20% over the next three years).

6.2 What digital learning materials are used most frequently?The computer programs that are most frequently used in teaching were not developed specifically for educational purposes. Standard office applications such as word processing and presentation programs are widely accepted, as is e-mail. A majority of primary school teachers also utilise practice programs and software associated with a particular course/coursebook. The overall trend is for more teachers to make more frequent use of various types of programs. At the moment, only very limited use is made of games and simulations (Table 6.1).

Table 6.1. Percentage of teachers who make daily or weekly use of computer programs

for teaching purposes (source: TNS NIPO, 2009).

% of teachers

Computer programs PRIM SEC VET

Office applications (for example word processing, presentation software)

69 74 80

E-mail program 58 66 78

Software associated with a particular course/coursebook

70 44 42

Specific software for practising exercises 77 33 38

graphics software (for example photo or video software)

24 26 27

Software to collaborate on a task (for example Wiki, google Docs, blog)

15 16 16

Simulation software (for example to simulate experiments)

9 10 22

games 22 4 7

62


needless, to say, not all of the digital learning materials are considered equally valuable. The materials that are most highly prized have the following features:• they can be used by pupils independently (58%);• they provide extra opportunities for practising (44%);• they allow pupils to work at their own level (34%).

Primary and secondary school teachers, in particular, also like digital learning materials in which audio or visual support is provided, but they also have a good opinion of materials linked to the course/coursebook that they use. Teachers at vocational and secondary schools are enthusiastic about digital learning materials that pupils can access from wherever they like, i.e. also at home. 6.3 PrioritiesTeachers say that the limited availability of digital learning materials that are of practical use is a significant problem. More of this kind of material is therefore necessary if further integration of ICT into teaching/learning is to be possible. This is not a new development because teachers have been saying for more than ten years that high-quality material is a priority.

In order to find solutions to this stubborn problem, teachers were asked what measures should be taken to meet their need for digital learning materials. Teachers at all types of school say that it should be a priority to make existing materials easier to find. They also consider it important to be given the scope to experiment, so that they can discover for themselves what digital learning materials are suitable for their own method of teaching. Being able to “freely” use, adapt, and distribute such materials is also viewed as an essential support requirement.

63

Table 6.2 lists the ten most frequently mentioned types of support that teachers want. These results show that there is no single solution to the problem of digital learning materials. Facilitating the further integration of ICT into teaching/learning requires a cohesive package of measures.

Table 6.2. What do teachers say needs to be done to provide digital learning materials

that are of practical use (source: TNS NIPO, 2009).

% of teachers

Support PRIM SEC VET

Make it easier for teachers to find available digital learning materials. 46 47 47

Make use of open source software so that everyone can utilise, adapt, and distribute digital learning materials without having to pay.

43 41 35

give teachers more facilities to discover what digital learning materi-als are most useful for their own method of teaching.

30 42 37

Make more digital learning materials available via Kennisnet. 44 33 32

Clarify what digital learning materials are most useful for a particular teaching method.

40 37 27

Carry out research to determine what digital learning materials actu-ally produce better pupil performance.

36 39 28

Clarify the learning goals for which digital learning materials are available.

29 28 42

Entroduce a quality mark for digital learning materials. 32 22 28

Standardise the technical interchangeability of digital learning materials.

25 23 23

Indicate what skills a teacher needs in order to successfully use parti-cular digital learning materials.

26 24 20

>40% 30 -40% <30%

64


6.4 Origin of digital learning materialsTeachers use various sources to acquire digital learning materials, with textbooks – and ICT materials supplied with them – being important. But teachers also find material on the Internet, adapt existing material, or use lessons provided by colleagues. Half of primary school teachers see Kennisnet as a source of digital learning materials. Secondary and vocational school teachers also use digital material provided by Kennisnet, although to a lesser extent. Teachers at secondary schools and vocational schools develop digital learning materials more frequently than their counterparts at primary schools (Table 6.3).

Table 6.3. Origin of digital learning materials (source: TNS NIPO, 2009).

About half of all teachers have no plans to develop digital learning materials. A large number of primary school teachers, in particular, say that that is the case (Figure 6.2).

% of teachers

Origin of digital learning materials PRIM SEC VET

Found on Internet 64 70 51

ICT material supplied with textbook 64 64 47

From colleagues 55 41 40

From Kennisnet 51 31 16

Self-developed materials or adapted existing materials materials

26 51 54

65

Figure 6.2. Percentage of teachers who have no plans to develop digital learning

materials themselves (source: TNS NIPO 2009).

Of the teachers who already develop digital learning materials and/or plan to do so, more than half are definitely prepared to make their materials available to other teachers via the Internet (Figure 6.3). About two in ten teachers do not want to exchange learning materials that they have developed via the Internet. The rest are not averse to sharing digital learning materials but only wish to do so subject to certain conditions. The most frequently mentioned condition is that there must be reciprocity: teachers who wish to use material must be prepared to share their own material. The other conditions mentioned include the need for time to be available, financial recompense, security, and attribution.

0

20

40

60

80

100

VETSEC PRIM

% of teachers

67

50

40

66


Figure 6.3. Development of digital learning materials by primary/secondary/vocational

school teachers and their readiness to make this available to other teachers via the

Internet (source: TNS NIPO, 2009).

6.5 SummaryThe programs that are most frequently used in education are standard computer programs, for example office applications for word processing and e-mail. Teachers find that there is a shortage of digital learning materials that are of practical use and see this as a serious problem. They believe that in order to solve this problem it is important for digital learning materials to be made easier to find.

not prepared to distribute materials

prepared conditionally to distribute materials

prepared to distribute materials they have developed

not planning to develop materials% of teachers

10

13

27

50

67

7 ICT infrastructureFor digital teaching to be possible, the ICT infrastructure must be effective. The great majority of schools in fact have the essential basic technical facilities, for example computers and an Internet connection. Generally speaking, the management, replacement, and maintenance of the ICT infrastructure is also effective. In the past year, technical investment by schools was primarily in interactive whiteboards and in fast or wireless Internet connections. School managers consider that their schools have sufficient ICT facilities, but many teachers say they need more computer facilities.

7.1 ComputersThere has been major investment over the past ten years in the procurement of computers. This is apparent from the major fall in the pupil/computer ratio between 1998 and 2003, i.e. in the number of pupils for whom the school has a computer available. That figure has stabilised over the past five years at one computer for every six or seven pupils (Figure 7.1). Some of these are laptops: approximately 1 in 10 at primary schools and 1 in 8 at secondary schools.

68

7 - ICT InFRASTRUCTURE

* note: no figures are given for vocational schools because of the small number of respondents.

Figure 7.1. Trend in pupil-computer ratio (sources: ICT-monitor 1998–2000; ICT

Education Monitor 2001–2004; Education Inspectorate 2005–2008, TNS NIPO 2009).

7.2 Replacement of obsolete computersAlthough the pupil/computer ratio gives a clear idea of the number of computers that schools possess, quantity is no guarantee that they can in fact be used successfully; the quality of the computers is also an important factor. What is the current situation regarding that quality? How swiftly are obsolete computers replaced?

Somewhat less than a quarter of the computers used for teaching/learning need to be replaced (primary schools: 24%; secondary schools: 22%). That is a familiar picture because the figure has fluctuated at 20% to 25% in recent years. At primary schools, 14% of the computers are expected to need replacing this year. This means that, in contrast to previous years, a significant proportion of the obsolete computers will not be replaced this year (Figure 7.2). At secondary schools, 23% of the computers will be replaced by more recent ones; this is in fact somewhat more than actually necessary.

0

5

10

15

20

25

30

SEC

PRIM

200920082007200620052004200320022001200019991998

27

20

17

18

9

12

8

10

7

9

7

9

7

9

7

7

7

7

6

6

6

6

12

13

numberof pupils per

computer

69

Figure 7.2. Percentage of computers for educational purposes that school managers say

need to be replaced compared to the percentage that will in fact be replaced this year

(source: TNS NIPO 2009).

0

5

10

15

20

25

30need to be replaced

SEC PRIM

% of computers for educational purposes

2322

14

24 actually replaced during present school year

70


7.3 Internet connectionsVirtually all the computers used at primary and secondary schools are connected to the Internet: 93% at primary schools and 98% at secondary schools. Approximately a quarter of primary schools have a wireless Internet connection (28%) and/or an optical fibre connection (26%). Secondary schools invest more, proportionately, in faster and/or wireless Internet connections. More than three quarters of secondary schools can access the Internet by means of a fast optical fibre connection (78%) and more than two thirds (69%) have a wireless connection (Figure 7.3). A large number of vocational schools (74%) also have an optical fibre network connection.

* note: no figures are given for wireless Internet at vocational schools because of the small number of

respondents.

Figure 7.3. Percentage of schools with wireless access to the Internet and Internet with

an optical fibre connection (source: Intomart 2009; TNS NIPO 2009).

0

20

40

60

80

100wireless Internet

optical fibre connection

VET*SEC PRIM

% of schools

7478

69

2628

71

Trend in optical fibre connectionsThe percentage of optical fibre connections at primary schools has been stable for the past two years. In the coming two years, an 11% increase is expected (from 26% in 2009 to 37% in 2011). The increase at vocational schools – the majority of which already have an optical fibre connection – will be restricted to a (forecast) increase of 4% over the next two years.

The number of secondary schools with this type of connection is increasing rapidly, namely from 41% in 2007 to 78% in 2009. This trend is expected to continue in the coming period and school managers assume that in two years time 94% of all secondary schools will have an optical fibre connection to the Internet (Figure 7.4).

Figure 7.4. Percentage of schools with an optical fibre Internet connection, and

forecast (dotted line) for the next two years (source: Intomart 2009).

0

20

40

60

80

100

VET

SEC

PRIM

20112010200920082007

25

41

27

59

67

26

78

74

37

94

78

% of schools

72


7.4 Interactive whiteboardsSchools are quickly embracing the use of interactive whiteboards and many of them procured one or more last year (Figure 7.5). Of primary schools, 67% already have at least one interactive whiteboard (increase in past year: 19%); the percentage is even higher at secondary schools (93%), an increase of 33%. There has also been a major increase at vocational schools (27%) up to a total of 67%.

If the schools’ own forecasts are accurate, virtually every primary school (95%) and secondary school (98%) will have one or more interactive whiteboards within two years time. At vocational schools, less of an increase is expected (from 67% in 2009 to 76% in 2011).

Figure 7.5. Percentage of schools with at least one interactive whiteboard, and forecast

(dotted line) for the next two years (source: Intomart 2009).

0

20

40

60

80

100

VET

SEC

PRIM

20112010200920082007

10

40

48

60

40

67

93

67

95

98

76

% of schools

73

7.5 Equipment for using web video A growing number of schools intend investing in web video facilities in the next two years, for example webcams and/or equipment for videoconferencing (Figure 7.6). An increase is expected particularly at secondary schools, namely from 23% at present to 38% in 2011. Of vocational schools, 17% already have equipment for web video and that percentage is expected to increase to 25% over the next two years. An increase is also expected at primary schools, namely from 9% at present to 16% in 2011.

Figure 7.6. Percentage of schools with webcams and or equipment for

videoconferencing, and forecast (dotted line) for the next two years (source: Intomart

2009).

0

20

40

60

80

100

VET

SEC

PRIM

201120102009

9

23

17

16

38

25

% of schools

74


7.6 Satisfaction with management and maintenance of computer facilitiesAs in previous years, schools are satisfied or very satisfied about the way their computer networks are managed and maintained (Figure 7.7). no fewer than 97% of primary school managers say that management and maintenance are adequate or more than adequate. The percentage at secondary schools is 85%. In fact, almost a quarter of all managers at these two types of school say that management and maintenance are excellent (primary schools: 24%; secondary schools: 17%).

Figure 7.7. Percentage of schools whose managers say that management and

maintenance of the computer facilities are adequate or more than adequate (source:

TNS NIPO 2001–2009).

0

20

40

60

80

100

SEC

PRIM

20092008200620052004200320022001

59

68

69

92

85

79

80

85

89

92

87

92

91

87

97

85

% of schools

75

7.7 Adequacy of ICT facilitiesMore than 80% of school managers consider the ICT facilities at their school to be sufficient or more than sufficient for use during lessons, although teachers do not always agree. Figure 7.8 shows in detail the points where school managers and teachers disagree regarding the adequacy of the ICT facilities. At primary schools, the main points are wireless networks, expert help with problems, more reliable Internet connections, and more computers. Only 14% of primary school managers find it necessary, for example, to invest in a wireless network, whereas 37% of teachers say that they have a need/major need for one. Of teachers, 67% say that they feel a need/major need for more computers, for example laptops, although more than half of the managers do not.

Figure 7.8. Percentage of teachers and managers with a need/major need as regards

hardware and infrastructure (source: TNS NIPO, 2009).

0 20 40 60 80 100

PRIM teachers

PRIM managers

SEC teachers

SEC managers

% of respondents

more computerssuch as laptops

more reliableInternet connection

(fewer malfunctions)

immediate expertassistance if something

goes wrong witha computer or network

secure high-speed linkfrom hometo school’s

computer facilities

broadbandInternet facilities

wireless network

36

3231

2741

1437

41

4640

5440

5829

5625

47

5439

6746

6546

28

76


The picture at secondary schools is not significantly different. Secondary school teachers – more than their managers – also say that they need wireless networks, support for technical problems, more reliable Internet connections, and more computers (such as laptops). Almost half of school managers, for example, say that they do not need more computers, whereas 65% of teachers say that more are in fact needed.

7.8 SummaryOver the past ten years, there has been a major increase in the availability of computer facilities at schools. The average number of computers per pupil has stabilised at 1 to 6. All schools have access to the Internet. The current focus is on improving Internet connections (optical fibre or wireless) and on procuring interactive whiteboards. Digital video applications (via the Internet) are also expected to play a more important role in education. Although school managers generally consider the available ICT facilities to be sufficient, most teachers say that they need more computers (or laptops), immediate support if the equipment suddenly has a problem during a lesson, and an effective connection between their computer at home and the computer facilities at school.

77

8 Priorities in Balance The preceding chapters have clarified the current situation regarding the various basic elements of the Four in Balance model. This chapter focuses primarily on how ICT can be used more frequently and more effectively. What priorities do school managers wish to set? What do teachers think? Teachers and managers would appear to have different views regarding this matter. The potential solution is to be found not so much in the separate basic elements, but concerns the coordination between them. To optimise that coordination, school managers need to display leadership and facilitate collaboration. But teachers too are confronted by a challenge: to get results (or more results) from using ICT for educational purposes, teachers will need to act professionally as regards combining content, pedagogy, and ICT.

8.1 PrioritiesChapter 2 set out the benefits of using ICT, according to whether it helps make teaching/learning more effective, efficient, and interesting. The main conclusion was that the benefits of using ICT can be substantiated scientifically. Chapter 3 has shown that teachers and managers wish to make greater use of the possibilities opened up to ICT. The factors that are to a significant extent decisive in determining the benefits of ICT – vision, expertise, digital learning materials, and ICT infrastructure – have been dealt with at length in Chapters 4 to 7. But one important question has not yet been answered: what conditions should be prioritised? Teachers were asked what they thought about the need for support.

Teachers’ perspectiveTeachers believe that for greater use to be made of ICT, priority should be given to adequate ICT facilities and digital learning materials that are of practical use. There is in fact a striking measure of agreement among teachers as regards this priority. We can therefore conclude that teachers primarily require high-quality material facilities (Table 8.1).

78

8 - PRIORITIES In BAlAnCE

Table 8.1. Basic elements that teachers think should be given the highest priority so as

to make more use of ICT (source: TNS NIPO, 2009).

Managers’ perspectiveIt is not only teachers who frequently agree about this matter; the same is true of school managers. The managers of all types of school say, for example, that the ICT infrastructure should have the lowest priority. Managers believe that there needs to be a shift and that the emphasis should be on other conditions; this is partly because since the introduction of ICT in teaching the greatest investment has been in infrastructural facilities. The managers believe that if the intended aims are to be achieved with ICT, the highest priority should be assigned to teachers’ expertise (secondary schools and vocational schools) and the development of a vision of how to use ICT (primary schools) (see Table 8.2).



Table 8.2 Basic elements that managers think should be given the highest priority so as

to make more use of ICT (source: TNS NIPO, 2009).

% of teachers

Basic element PRIM SEC VET Average(with ranking)

Vision (of use of ICT) 23 19 17 20 (3)

Expertise (knowledge, attitude, and skills) 16 13 13 14 (4)

Software/digital learning materials 29 28 43 33 (1)

ICT infrastructure 31 40 27 33 (2)

% of managers

Basic element PRIM SEC VETAverage

(with ranking)

Vision (of use of ICT) 41 26 19 29 (2)

Expertise (knowledge, attitude, and skills) 27 33 36 32 (1)

Software/digital learning materials 19 29 27 25 (3)

ICT infrastructure 13 12 18 14 (4)

79

Disparity at all types of schoolThe four conditions for the use of ICT can basically be reduced to two main conditions, namely material and social. Both the ICT infrastructure and the digital learning materials can be allocated to the material conditions. The characteristic feature of material conditions is that they can be purchased. That does not apply – or at least applies to a much lesser extent – to the social conditions of expertise and a vision of how ICT should be used. Social conditions cannot be achieved by means of a once-only financial transaction but are the final result of investment in social capital. If the priorities of teachers and school managers are categorised according to material and social conditions, the result is as shown in Table 8.3. This reveals that there is the same disparity at all types of school: managers prioritise changes in the views and behaviour of teachers, while teachers believe that high-quality material facilities are the most important thing.



Table 8.3. Priorities according to material and social conditions (source: TNS NIPO,

2009).

8.2 BalanceIn order to do away with this disparity, there needs to be a proper balance between the material and social conditions. The potential solution is therefore to be found not so much in the separate basic elements, but in the coordination and cohesion between them. School managers will need to display leadership and create favourable conditions for collaboration.

Conditions PRIM SEC VET

% of teachers % of managers % of teachers % of managers % of teachers % of managers

Social (vision, expertise) 39 68 32 59 30 55

Material (digital learning materials, ICT infrastructure

61 32 68 41 70 45

80


LeadershipA broadly supported vision of how ICT should be used and shared objectives are important features of effective leadership. According to teachers, these features have only been achieved at a limited number of schools. As was explained in Chapter 4, the way in which ICT is utilised pedagogically depends at many schools on the personal preferences and interests of individual teachers. Because there are hardly any specific guidelines, the use of ICT is often largely a voluntary matter. That picture is confirmed when teachers are asked about the extent to which their school’s management organises activities regarding ICT that can be considered as facilitatory leadership, i.e. leadership that facilitates the use of ICT. The most frequent leadership activity is for teachers to be given the scope to experiment with ICT in their teaching. This applies to all three types of school. Other leadership behaviour (i.e. supportive leadership) occurs to a far lesser extent (Table 8.4). The least amount of attention is paid to:• discussion with teachers regarding how the school should utilise ICT;• monitoring compliance with agreements regarding the use of ICT;• professional development of teachers in the pedagogical use of ICT.

Table 8.4. Percentage of teachers who say that leadership is displayed at their school

regarding ICT (source: TNS NIPO 2009).

% of teachers

Activity PRIM SEC VET

Teachers are given scope to experiment with ICT in their teaching 78 77 67

School managers make time and means available for educational planning with ICT

61 45 32

Teachers receive support in using ICT in their teaching 60 47 39

Discussion with teachers of situation regarding ICT use 58 30 20

School managers keep track of what teachers do as regards ICT in their teaching

57 49 31

Monitoring of compliance with agreements regarding use of ICT in teachingt

57 29 32

Encouragement and organisation for professional development of team regarding pedagogical use of ICT

54 39 32

81

Calculating the average figure for the seven leadership activities in Table 8.4 produces an indicator for ICT leadership. This “final score” is highest at primary schools and significantly lower at secondary and vocational schools (Figure 8.1). There would appear to be a clear connection between the existence of leadership regarding ICT and the extent to which teachers believe that their school’s ICT policy is actually coordinated (see Chapter 4, Figure 4.6). If a school has a coordinated ICT policy, then clear agreements regarding the pedagogical use of ICT have been made within the school for most of the subject matter components. Moreover, teachers are expected to comply with those agreements. It seems plausible that extra leadership efforts on the part of school managers can contribute to a school having a broadly supported vision of how ICT should be used, to shared goals, and to helping overcome the differences that exist in the views of managers and teachers. Whether this hypothesis is in fact correct is dealt with in Kennisnet’s study leadership in Balance: a tool for school managers [Leiderschap in Balans: een tool voor schoolleiders].

Figure 8.1. Indicator for ICT leadership activities based on activities in Table 8.4

(based on data in study by TNS NIPO, 2009).

0

20

40

60

80

100

VETSEC PRIM

score on indicator for ICT leadership

61

45

36

82


CollaborationBoth at primary and secondary schools, collaboration would appear to be the most significant driving force behind professional development as regards the use of ICT. Besides the support that schools offer one another – whether or not this is organised in the context of actual collaborative organisations – partnerships with external parties play an important role (Figure 8.2). This involves above all collaboration with educational publishers, Kennisnet, and other market parties. Between a quarter and a third of primary schools also receive support from the Ministry of Education, Culture and Science or from an educational advisory service. The contribution made by local and regional government is limited as regards all three types of school. Compared to primary and secondary schools, vocational schools collaborate less frequently with other schools of the same type. Vocational schools say that they receive support mainly from educational publishers and, to a lesser extent, from Kennisnet and other market parties.

Figure 8.2. Support regarding computer use through collaboration with other parties,

according to school managers (source: Intomart, 2008).

0 20 40 60 80 100

VET

SEC

PRIM

municipality/province

Ministry of EducationCulture and Science

educationaladvisory service

other market partiessuch as Microsoft

and KPN

Kennisnet

educational publishers

collaborativeorganisation of which

school forms part

other schools

% of schools

7167

35

6849

42

6654

57

5445

3847

35

329

12

1413

1313

10

25

31

83

Collaboration is also one of the cornerstones as regards the professional development of teachers in the pedagogical use of ICT (Figure 8.3). This means that collaboration makes a significant contribution not only at the level of the school (as a “learning organisation”) but also encourages the professional development of individual teachers. Where ICT is concerned, it is the ICT coordinator and/or the ICT department that act as contacts for support. They also play a specific role in the context of collaborative networks within and between schools.

Figure 8.3. Types of support that teachers say they receive at their school in

developing ICT skills (source: TNS NIPO, 2009).

The above data shows that collaboration regarding ICT is frequent and plays an important role in supporting teachers and in their professional development. The important thing now is to make good use of this collaboration to develop and disseminate knowledge regarding the necessary connections between content, pedagogy, and ICT.

0 20 40 60 80 100

collaboration and explanationfrom ICT coordinator/ICT

department

cope for taking courses

assistance from colleagues

% of teachers

VET

SEC

PRIM69

5050

4153

38

3831

44

84


8.3 SummaryIn order to make greater use of ICT, teachers primarily need appropriate material ICT facilities. School managers say that since ICT was introduced that schools, there has already been major investment in such facilities. They therefore believe that a shift is necessary and that the emphasis should now be on social conditions such as the expertise of teachers. The major challenge now facing schools is to decide how the social and material conditions that ultimately determine the contribution that ICT makes in improving teaching/learning can best be achieved. The point is, in short, that the cohesion between the various conditions needs to the managed effectively. In order to do so, school managers need to display leadership and to facilitate collaboration – or continue to facilitate it. Major demands are also now being made on the knowledge and expertise of teachers. To get results (or more results) from ICT for educational purposes, teachers will need to create the necessary links between content, pedagogy, and ICT.

85

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91

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