Fragmentation of Muslim world

European intervention

1798-1801 French occupation of Egypt

19th c. European powers take effective controlof much of Muslim world

Attempts at reform by Muslim states

1826 Ottoman sultan Mahmut II (r. 1808-39)destroys janissaries, suppresses BektashiSufi Order

1839 Mahmut II issues first of Tanzimat(re-organisation) decrees

1839-76 Era of Tanzimat

Tanzimat…

Incl. European-style education and legalsystems

Centralisation of power

Opposed by bureaucrats, religious scholars,foreign powers and domesticChristians

Capitulations Abdulaziz (r. 1861-76)

Sunni reformers:

Rejection of customary practices

Return to Qur’an and hadith as onlysources of Islamic practice, mediatedthrough ijtihad

Translations of the Qur’an

Muhammad ibn ‘Abd al-Wahhab (1702/3-91/2)

Muwahhidun (Unitarians)/Wahhabis

1744 Ibn ‘Abd al-Wahhab allies withMuhammad ibn Sa‘ud of Dir‘iya

1810 Allies complete conquest of most ofArabia

Map Link: First Saudi State:

<http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/4a/First_Saudi_State_Big.png/800px-First_Saudi_State_Big.png>

1893 ‘Abd al-Rahman ibn Faysal of Sa‘udifamily (d. 1928) takes refuge in Kuwait

Wahhabi combination of reform and force

Shrine of al-Husayn at Karbala

Twelver Shi‘ism:

Late 18th c. Usulis dominate religiouselite

Guidance from Hidden Imam given tomujtahids (qualified scholars), incl.ayatollahs (“signs of God”)

Religious elite tightening grip onreligious interpretation

18th c. Establishment of modern practicesmarking ‘Ashura’ (10th Muharram),commemorating martyrdom of al-Husaynin 680

ta‘ziye

Nizaris:

1841 Nizari Imam (Aga Khan), afterconflict with Qajar shah of Persia,flees to Afghanistan

1848 Imam moves to Bombay (Mumbai),recognised as leader by most Khojasof S. Asia

May 1844 Sayyid ‘Ali Muhammad claimsto be the Bab (gate) to the 12th Imam

1848 The Bab is imprisoned. Claims to be the12th Imam

8th/9th July 1850 The Bab is executed.Persecution of Babis follows

1853 Mirza Husayn ‘Ali (Baha’u’llah [“Gloryof God,” 1817-1892]) begins to havevisions while in prison

Flees to Baghdad, eventually exiled toEdirne, then ‘Akko

Meanwhile, gathers followers

1892 Death of Baha’u’llah. Leadership passes tofamily, then in 1957 to ruling council

1963 Election of the first members of theUniversal House of Justice

Major Baha’i principles:

1. Oneness of God

Same being worshipped by other faiths

2. Oneness of humanity

Rejection of racism/sexism

3. Oneness of religion

Progressive revelation

Emphasis on spiritual advancement and unity

Islamic reform:

At one end – Sunni, scripture-basedmovement

At other end – Baha’i faith, not evenIslamic

‘Abd al-Rahman ibn al-Hasan al-Jabarti. Fromprominent family

Historian best known for ‘Aja‘ib al-Atharfi’l-Tarajim wa’l-Akhbar, originally meantas biographical dictionary, but he turned itinto a history covering 1688-1821

Text here is from Muzhir al-Taqdis bi-DhahabDawlat al-Faransis, history of Frenchoccupation of Egypt, finished 1801 or 1802

Al-Jabarti 1753-1825/6)