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The Languages of Vanuatu: Unity and DiversityAlexandre François, Sébastien Lacrampe, Michael Franjieh, Stefan Schnell

To cite this version:Alexandre François, Sébastien Lacrampe, Michael Franjieh, Stefan Schnell. The Languages of Vanu-atu: Unity and Diversity. Alexandre François; Sébastien Lacrampe; Michael Franjieh; Stefan Schnell.France. 5, Asia Pacific Linguistics Open Access, 2015, Studies in the Languages of Island Melanesia,9781922185235. �halshs-01186004�

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THE LANGUAGESOF VANUATU

UNITY AND DIVERSITY

Edited byAlexandre FrançoisSébastien Lacrampe

Michael FranjiehStefan Schnell

SLIM 5AP-L 21

Asia-Pacific LinguisticsOpen AccessStudies in the Languages of Island Melanesia

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u di e s in the

L angu age s of Island Mel an esi a ~

As ia-P acifi c Ling uis ti c s O pe n A

ccess

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he Languages of Island Melanesi a ~

Asia-Pacific Linguistics Open Access

edited by

The languages of Vanuatu: Unity and Diversity

Cover design:

Asia–Pacific Linguistics

Open Access Studies in the Languages of Island Melanesia (SLIM)

edited by

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he Languages of Island Melanesia ~


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Asia-Pacific Linguistics Open Access Studies in the Languages of Island Melanesia (SLIM)

SLIM EDITORIAL BOARD: Isabelle Bril, Bethwyn Evans, Alexandre François, Bill Palmer. SLIM ADVISORY BOARD: Paul Geraghty, John Lynch, Andrew Pawley, Malcolm Ross,

Nick Thieberger. A-PL EDITORIAL BOARD: I Wayan Arka, Mark Donohue, Bethwyn Evans, Nicholas Evans,

Simon Greenhill, Gwendolyn Hyslop, David Nash, Bill Palmer, Andrew Pawley, Malcolm Ross, Paul Sidwell, Jane Simpson.

Published by Asia-Pacific Linguistics College of Asia and the Pacific The Australian National University Canberra ACT 2600 Australia Copyright in this edition is vested with the author(s) Released under Creative Commons License (Attribution 4.0 International) First published: 2015 URL: http://hdl.handle.net/1885/14819 National Library of Australia Cataloguing-in-Publication entry: Title: The languages of Vanuatu: Unity and diversity / Alexandre François,

Sébastien Lacrampe, Michael Franjieh, Stefan Schnell, eds. Series Asia-Pacific linguistics / Studies in the Languages of Island Melanesia

A-PL 021 / SLIM 005 ISBN: 9781922185235 (ebook)

Subjects: Historical linguistics--Vanuatu. Linguistic analysis (Linguistics). Vanuatu--Languages.

Dewey number 499.995

Other Creators/ Contributors

François, Alexandre, editor. Lacrampe, Sébastien, editor. Franjieh, Michael, editor. Schnell, Stefan, editor. Australian National University. Asia-Pacific Linguistics, issuing body.

Alexandre François, Michael Franjieh, Sébastien Lacrampe, Stefan Schnell

Elizabeth Pearce

ka

Peter Budd

Benjamin Touati

Michael Franjieh

Murray Garde

up down

Alexandre François

Cynthia Schneider & Andrew Gray

Dorothy Jauncey

Nick Thieberger

Introduction to the volume

in situ

Citation François, Alexandre; Michael Franjieh; Sébastien Lacrampe; Stefan Schnell. 2015. The exceptional linguistic density of Vanuatu. In A. François, S. Lacrampe, M. Franjieh, S. Schnell (eds), The Languages of Vanuatu: Unity and Diversity. Studies in the Languages of Island Melanesia, 5. Canberra: Asia-Pacific Linguistics. Pp. 1-21.

Acknowledgments This work was partially supported by a public grant overseen by the French National Research Agency (ANR) as part of the program “Investissements d’Avenir” (ref. ANR-10-LABX-0083).

Copyright © 2015, the author(s), release under Creative Commons Attribution license

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François, Franjieh, Lacrampe, Schnell

New Hebrides Languages

Vanuatu

International Workshop on the Languages of Vanuatu

Studies in the Languages of Island Melanesia

lingua franca

Figure 1

Table 2

The exceptional linguistic density of Vanuatu – �

Figure 1 — A reference map of Vanuatu’s 138 vernacular languages

TORBA

PENAMA

SANMA

MALAMPA

SHEFA

TAFEA

61

130

57

107108

109110111

112113

114

115

118

119

120

116

121

123

123

122

117

8788 86

83798082

8177

757372

7476

67

6866

65

100999897

96

89

105106

103

101

104102

8485

58

27

18

1

2

34

56

7

8

17

16

1514 13

12

10

911

19

20

2223

24

25

26

30

31

3637

54

5051

43

59

6263

64

78

929190

7169

70

95

9493

127

126125

129

128

138131

134

133 135

136132

137

124

28

29

32

42

3356

484946

47

53

55

52

4544

39 4134

40

38

35

60

21

TORRES IS

BANKS IS

EspirituSanto

Maewo

Pentecost

Ambae

Malakula

C O R A L S E A

Efate

Erromango

Aneityum

Tanna

Port Vila

Ambrym

Epi

Shepherd Is

VanuaLava

Gaua

Merelava

Motalava

Mota

Urepara-paraToga

Lo

Hiw

Tegua

169°167°

16°

18°

20°

22° 0 4020

km

© François et al., eds (2015), The languages of Vanuatu: Unity and diversity. Canberra: SLIM

1 Hiw

2 Lo-Toga

3 Lehali

4 Löyöp

5 Mwotlap

6 Volow

7 Mota

8 Lemerig

9 Vera’a

10 Vurës

11 Mwesen

12 Nume

13 Dorig

14 Koro

15 Olrat

16 Lakon

17 Mwerlap

18 Sungwadia

19 Sungwadaga

20 Baetora

21 Ambae

22 West Ambae

23 Raga

24 Apma

25 Ske

26 Sa

27 Tolomako

28 Piamatsina

29 Vunapu

30 Valpei

31 Nokuku

32 Meri

33 Wusi

34 Bura 35 Merei

36 Mores

37 Ande 38 Toksiki 39 Kiai

40 Moiso 41 Kene 42 Daruru 43 Akei

44 Retlatur 45 Wailapa

46 Farsaf 47 Varavara 48 Narmoris 49 Biliru 50 Atin 51 Ati

52 Farnanto 53 Se

54 Sinia 55 Butmas-Tur 56 Ngen

57 Tholp 58 Sakao

59 Mavea

60 Tutuba

61 Aore

62 Tamambo

63 Tangoa

64 Araki

65 Axamb

66 Lendamboi

67 Nasvang

68 Sörsörian

69 Avok

70 Uliveo 71 Port Sandwich

72 Nisvai

73 Burmbar

74 Mbwenelang

75 Aulua

76 Niolean 77 Rerep

78 Unua

79 Vivti

80 Nitita 81 Avava

82 Neverver

83 Litzlitz

84 Uripiv

85 Rutan

86 Botovro

87 Vao

88 Alovas

89 Vovo

90 Nese

91 Najit

92 Malua Bay

93 Njav

94 Tirax

95 V’ënen Taut

96 Tape

97 Larëvat

98 Neve’ei

99 Nivat

100 Nasarian

101 Aveteian

102 Ninde

103 Nahavaq

104 Nāti

105 Naha’ai

106 Navwien

107 North Ambrym

108 Orkon

109 Southeast Ambrym

110 Daakie

111 Daakaka

112 Dalkalaen

113 Raljago 114 Paama

115 Lamen

116 Lewo

117 Bierebo

118 Baki

119 Mkir

120 Bieria

121 Namakura

122 Emae

123 Nakanamanga

124 Lelepa

125 Eton

126 South Efate

127 Mele-Fila

128 Sie

129 Ura

130 Utaha

131 North Tanna

132 Lenakel

133 Southwest Tanna

134 Whitesands

135 Kwamera

137 Anejom

138 Futuna-Aniwa

The languages of Vanuatu


2.1.1 Methodological issues

Lehali Löyöp

Ureparapara

The exceptional linguistic density of Vanuatu

Lo Toga

Lo–Toga

2.1.2 About the total number of languages

language dialectlect communalect

vavetēme

a b c d


2.1.3 Living, moribund and extinct languages

PakVatrat Vuras Mosina Lomrig Tolav

Table 2

LomrigVatrat Vuras Mosina


Table 2 Figure 2

Figure 2 —

Figure

Table 1


Figure 3 —

per capita


in situ

Lapitaet al.

South Vanuatu North–Central Vanuatu

Southern OceanicNorth Vanuatu

SV NCV


Nuclear Southern OceanicCentral Vanuatu Southern Melanesian

South Vanuatu New Caledonia et al.Figure 4

et al.

Figure 4et al

Figure 4 North VanuatuCentral Vanuatu

et al.

intersecting subgroupsCV–SV NV–CV

et al.

(other subgroups)

(other subgroups)


linkagelinkage

et al.Figure 4 linkages

Figure 5

Figure 5

Figure 5

linkage

(North-)Central Vanuatu

Historical Glottometry

Vanuatu linkage Central–South Vanuatu linkage


South Vanuatu

lingua franca


Table 1

Table 1 —

�

�

unity diversity

Figure 1


hierarchy of functional projections

ka *akin[i] ka

ka

a-ra ɛ-rɛmrɛm

common nouns

�

� -n

Kastom

skulan


rules roles

The handbook of pidgin and creole studies

Pacific Archaeology: Assessments and prospects

Asian Perspectives

Antiquity


Adverbs and Functional Heads: A cross-linguistic perspective

Austronesian linguistics at the 15th Pacific Science Congress

Language contact and change in the Austronesian world

*Leo Tuai: A comparative lexical study of North and Central Vanuatu languages.

The Melanesian languagesOceanic Linguistics

Journal of the Polynesian SocietyCurrent Issues in Language Planning

The Avava language of Central Malakula (Vanuatu).

Tape: a declining language of Malakula (Vanuatu)

Naman: a vanishing language of Malakula (Vanuatu)

Nese: a diminishing speech variety of Northwest Malakula (Vanuatu)

A study of valency-changing devices in Proto Oceanic

Austronesian historical linguistics and culture history: A festschrift for Bob Blust

Journal of Historical Linguistics

Oceanic Linguistics

International Journal of the Sociology of Language

The Routledge Handbook of Historical Linguistics

Music of Vanuatu: Celebrations and MysteriesMusiques du Vanuatu: Fētes et Mystères

Philosophical Transac-tions of the Royal Society B: Biological Sciences

Let's talk about trees: Tackling Problems in Representing Phylogenic Relationships among Languages

The Lapita Peoples: Ancestors of the Oceanic World

Proceedings of the Second International Conference on Oceanic Linguistics (SICOL), vol.2: Historical and descriptive studies

Oceanic LinguisticsThe linguistic history of Southern Vanuatu

Oceanic linguistics


Languages of Vanuatu: A new survey and bibliography.

Oceanic LinguisticsThe Oceanic languages.

Studies in Pacific Languages and Cultures in Honour of Bruce Biggs

Oceanic Explorations: Lapita and Western Pacific Settlement

12th International Conference on Austronesian Languages Journal of Pacific

HistoryJournal of

the Polynesian SocietyLanguages of the world: An introduction

Proto-Oceanic and the Austronesian languages of Western Melanesia.

Archaeology and language 1: Theoretical and methodological orientations

The lexicon of Proto Oceanic: Plants

Working Together in Vanuatu: Research Histories, Collaborations, Projects and Reflections

New Hebrides Languages: An internal classification.

Comparative Austronesian Dictionary

Arts of VanuatuAtlas of

languages of intercultural communication in the Pacific, Asia, and the Americas

Language Diversity in the Pacific: Endangerment and Survival

A journey through Austronesian and Papuan linguistic and cultural space: Papers in honour of Andrew K. Pawley

Pacific Pidgins and Creoles: Origins, Growth and Development.

Language Use in Melanesia Inter-national Journal of the Sociology of Language

D'une fonction véhiculaire à une fonction identitaire. Trajectoire du bislama au Vanuatu (Mélanésie)

Gens de Motlav. Idéologie et pratique sociale en Mélanésie.

2009 National Census of Population and Housing: Summary Release

A Grammar of DaakakaNem blong olkaen

kakae: Repot blong sovei long Santo


Table 2Figure 1

Table 2 —

leju goj

Citation Pearce, Elizabeth. 2015. Completing and terminating: On aspect marking in Unua. In The Languages of Vanuatu: Unity and Diversity, ed. by A. François; S. Lacrampe, M. Franjieh, S. Schnell. Studies in the Languages of Island Melanesia, 5. Canberra: Asia-Pacific Linguistics Open Access. Pp.23-52.

Acknowledgments Material that appears in this paper was first presented at the Eighth International Conference on Oceanic Linguistics (COOL8), University of Auckland, 5-9 January 2010. I am grateful to Lisa Matthewson and to members of the COOL 8 audience for their valuable comments, as well as to Hooi Ling Soh for helpful discussion. The paper has also greatly benefited from the probing questions and insightful comments of four anonymous reviewers. I alone am responsible for any errors.


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Elizabeth Pearce

during the holidays

On aspect marking in Unua

Elizabeth Pearce

along the road

xa


m- b-mo- ber-

seb-seb- t- b-

mo-

nenxi(se)-

Elizabeth Pearce

toxni -xotvi bbunibbuni imej ikasi

ju goj goj nu

inog

3.2.1 Result morphology toxnitox

tokani

tox ni

Matt/Luke/Mark x:xx New Testament


suatoxni susu ixaixa

-ri -ritoxni

jiv -toxni

uaen

-toxni-toxni

toxnitoxni

toxnitoxni

toxnibsitotoxni bsi gratoxni gara kartoxni kare rutoxni ru suatoxni su(a) vartoxni

toxnijertoxni jari jibtoxni jib jivtoxni jvi/jvi postoxni pos (ni) revtoxni ravi ritoxni ri suatoxni su(a) vostoxni vosi vurtoxni vur/vri xirtoxni xir/xri

Elizabeth Pearce

toxnikare

toxnitoxni

jari toxni

rrur jari-toxni vos rrur

jer toxnifast hold fast

-toxni toxjar(i) (to-)toxni

-jer-to-toxni � (to-)toxni

vrrarr-bbuni vrrerr-bbunitai xotvi ~ te-(xot-)xotvi

… a(C)-i

e i i


xotvi kotikoti koto-vi koto

kotixotvi xotvi

vase xotvi

tai xotvi

xotvixotvi

xotvi

Elizabeth Pearce

3.2.2 Result predicates

bbuni

bbunivrrarri

vrrarribbuni vrarri

bbuni

te-xotvi tai xotvi

bbun-i

bbuni


Ale

i vrrarri

vrrarribbuni

bbuni

-mejmej

vrrerri vrrarri

Elizabeth Pearce

mejvase

bbuni mej

mej

i

imej iserbbuni xotxotvi

-mej -ser i-

i-


-mej -ser

kas-ikasi

kasi

kasi

3.2.3 Summary

Elizabeth Pearce

vrrerr-bbuni vrrarri bbuni(-)xotvi (-)bbuni

imej iser

xotvi toxni

vrrerr-bbuni-jari iser

tuvni … ikasi

his arm has been broken

ju goj goj nu

goj nu ju/gojgoj nu

ju/goj


goj

goj nu

gogo ju goj

goj nu

goj nu

Ale

goj nu

go

Elizabeth Pearce

goj nu

goji-

mama

mama

igoj nugoj (nu) i-

goj nu ju/goj

nano

ju/gojju/goj

ju goj goj ju

ju/goj


ju

ju

mej kasirex

ju/goj

ni xni rroniju

Elizabeth Pearce

goj bimmes

ju goj

bbuniju

nog

nog

nog


nog endfinish end finish

I have been making a basket and, subsequently, I say:

end

finish

nogi-nog

inogixa

ale,

inoginog

he coughed he was coughingipur ipur inog

Elizabeth Pearce

Ale

Ale wet

ixainog

inoginog

inog

Ale Ale


inogvrrarri

inog

inog

inog m-i-nog inog go

minog

Ale

minogale

inog go

minog

Ale Ale

xemer

m-inog

Elizabeth Pearce

xi

inog goinog

inog

ale allez inog go

inog go

-toxni ju goj … ikasi inog (i)goj (nu) -xotvi

(-)bbuni imej

iser

(i-)goj (nu)inog

ju/gojikasi ikasi

kasi inogixa, ixa, …

inog


inoginog.

inog

lele le

le

lele

le le

le le

le

le le

le

. le

le

lele le le

Elizabeth Pearce

lele

lele

wán

le

le

wán

le

wánwán

wánxotvi toxni

leju

ju gojgoj nu

le

le

lealready


le

wán le letoxni ju/goj (i-)goj (nu)#

Elizabeth Pearce


once then perhaps usually

already no longer stillalways characteristically? completely

tutto completely

le

vos -toxni xiěi-wán

Elizabeth Pearce

already alwaysalready always

wán

inogikasi


Rejen nga mifo hise Iesu Kresto Mark iri

Rejen ga mifo hise Atua Matiu iriRejen nga mifo hise Iesu Kresto Luk iri

Adverbs and Functional Heads: A Cross-Linguistic Perspective

LinguaUniversals of Language

Today*Leo Tuai: A Comparative Lexical Study of North and Central Vanuatu Languages.

AspectWord Meaning and Montague Grammar: The Semantics of Verbs and Times in

Generative Semantics and in Montague’s PTQ.LanguageLinguistic Inquiry

The Antisymmetry of SyntaxSemantics

Pacific Languages: An IntroductionInternational Workshop on the Languages of

VanuatuA Grammar of Unua, Malakula

Linguistic Inquiry

Elements of Grammar

The Structure of CP and IP: The Cartography of Syntactic Structures, Volume 2

Papers from the Twelfth Regional Meeting Chicago Linguistics Society

The Parameter of Aspectle

Natural Language and Linguistic Theory

–le already Event Structure in Linguistic Form and Interpretation

Elizabeth Pearce

Papers from the Parasession on Lexical Semantics, Chicago Linguisstics Society 20

A Grammar of South Efate: An Oceanic language of Vanuatu.

Linguistics in Philosophy

kaakin[i] ka

ka

ka

Citation Budd, Peter. 2015. Move the ka. Valency and Instrumental shift in Bierebo. In The Languages of Vanuatu: Unity and Diversity, ed. by A. François; S. Lacrampe, M. Franjieh, S. Schnell. Studies in the Languages of Island Melanesia. Canberra: Asia-Pacific Linguistics Open Access. Pp.53-76.

Acknowledgments I am grateful for comments from Stefan Schnell, Alex François, and an anonymous reviewer which have all improved this paper. I am of course responsible for all remaining errors and shortcomings.


kaakin[i]

ka

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Peter Budd

ka

ka

–(n)ian i

kaka

ka

Figure 1: ka

Instrument marking preposition ka

Oblique marker in oblique transitive ka

Applicative suffix - ka

in Instrumental shift ka

wupu

m

Valency and instrumental shift in Bierebo

la m-la

m s

sarmono

Figure 2: Bierebo Verb Complex

kaka

a ia nia

Section

Ne-de =a yato

Peter Budd

chupolpo

ka


ka

ka

‘

ka

ka

Table 1ka

Table 1: Bierebo forms with glosses

ka ka -ka -ka ka-

Peter Budd

ka

ia a nia

Table 2: Allomorphs of the 3rd person object enclitic

Occurs following

i

n)ia n)i-i akin[i]

(Lewo)

ni

a ia niani pimi

(Lewo)

a ~ ya ~ nya

ii

vitalivitalia


(Bierebo)

ka

i

(n)ia

Table 3: Selected Bierebo reflexes of POc verbs

puat puat-i puat-i-a

inum inum-i inum-i-a

kati kati- kati-a

poli poli- poli-a

war pwar pwar=ia

mun mun=ia

sar sar=ia

wul pul pul=ia

sar

sar=ia sari=asari

–(n)i dengi pweli sani–i pinim(i) gitit(i)

–(n)i

Peter Budd

ii- a

ne-waia-ai –i

wai suweiwa suwe

dapayakachepcha

chepcha ia da pa kania da

=nia

ya

ya ia

Pa da pani tani

nini

long heme

e-a ya ye a

ya=ia


Purchesi lal ta

Table 4: ya, =ia, and y=ia

Orthography Morpheme break(s) Gloss Meaning ya ia yia

mwawa

a-bwelu-iamwawa

joru

a iana nia

Peter Budd

No-mun=ia rui

mun

No-mun

n)iaka

.

ka

‘

sa(n)


trace

Chumwa-te ne ø-meno na ka=nia

with them (Purchesi lal ta)

Figure 3: Instrument constructions

ka ka

kapreceding

ka

Man lal ta

Figure 4: Instrumental shift

ka

Peter Budd

Purchesi lal ta

Man lal ta

=nia ka

kania

Naman

Neve‘ei

nambob


Bislama

long

Hem i karemaot ston ia. Hem i bonem long solwota

Lewo

e

e

akin[i]kina

e

ateroga e kokani playu

Peter Budd

Bauan Fijian

’aki

nia

ka

ka kaka

ka

a’i


ka

Table 5: Intransitive roots taking plus second participant

ka

chele chele kakrase krase kalotu lotu ka vinimi vinimi ka ‘ sina sina ka yel yel ka chulua chulua kakulul kulul ka moluwe moluwe kavalua valua kavina vina ka yos yos kasin sin ka soora soora ka yumwa yumwa kateng teng ka tooluk tooluk ka magul magul ka wu wu ka yo yo kamon-bwe mon-bwe ka vichang ‘ vichang ka vichang mum

vichang mum ka

vilu vilu ka vuche vuche ka

ka

Peter Budd

valua ka

ka

ka

soora ka

kaka .

akin i

lele

ak


Table 6: Semantic roles of Os in Three Participant events involving

kala-pianki-longlongvanganwudisa ‘eat’ yobio

ka

ka

ka

akin[i]ka

akin[i] iTable 7

ka akin[i]

kai akin[i]

Table 7: Comparison of roles denoted by Bierebo ka with akin[i] (adapted from Evans 2003:235)

i akin[i] ka

Peter Budd

akin[i]

akin-i

Figure 5: Two analyses of clauses with akin[i] (Evans 2003:238)

akin-iakin-i

akin i ibid

kaka

ka pichangka

yumwa-ka

A-m-yumwa miok.

a-m-yumwa-ka

ka


amyumwakakaniayumwa-ka

ka

a-m-yumwa-ka-ka=nia

ka

a-m-yumwa-ka ka

Purchesi lal ta

kaka ka

re

kaka re

Peter Budd

kare ka

pa

ka ka

pwo ka

ka

Figure 6: Analysis of Bierebo oblique arguments marked by ka

ka vichang kaka yumwa-ka

ankhën


Naman

i

Avava

ki ki ki

siwer siwer-ki siwer kiweswes weswes-ki weswes ki

Peter Budd

ni enini

ni ni

nia

ka

ka

ka

Valency and instrumental shift in Bierebo – 75

6 References Clark, Ross. 1973. Transitivity and case in Eastern Oceanic languages. Oceanic Linguistics 12: 559-605. ———. 1985. Languages of North and Central Vanuatu: Groups, chains, clusters and waves. In Pawley

and Carrington 1985. Crowley, Terry. 1982. The Paamese language of Vanuatu. Canberra: Pacific Linguistics. ———. 1983. Development of a Paamese transitive suffix. In Halim, Carrington and Wurm, (eds) 1983.

269-283. ———. 1987. Serial verbs in Paamese. Studies in Language 11/1:35-84. ———. 1991. Parallel development and shared innovation: some developments in Central Vanuatu

inflectional morphology. Oceanic Linguistics Vol. 30, 2. ———. 1995. Melanesian languages: Do they have a future? Oceanic Linguistics 34: 327-344. ———. 2000. An Erromangan (Sye) grammar. Canberra: Pacific Linguistics. ———. 2002. Serial verbs in Oceanic: A descriptive typology. Oxford: Oxford University Press. ———. 2006a. The Avava language of Central Malekula (Vanuatu). Canberra: Pacific Linguistics ———. 2006b. Naman: a vanishing language of Malekula (Vanuatu). Canberra: Pacific Linguistics. ———. 2006c. Nese: a diminishing speech variety of Northwest Malakula (Vanuatu) (edited by J. Lynch).

Canberra: Pacific Linguistics. Dixon, R. M.W. 1988. A grammar of Boumaa Fijian. Chicago/London: University of Chicago Press. Early, Robert. 1991. Lewo. In Darrell T. Tryon (ed), 823-826. ———. 1993a, Nuclear layer serialization in Lewo. Oceanic Linguistics 32/1:65-93. ———. 1993b. The tripartite negative in Lewo. In Peter Kahrel & René Van Den Berg (eds.), Typological

studies in negation. Amsterdam: John Benjamins [Typological studies in language 29] ———. 1994 A grammar of Lewo, Vanuatu. Unpublished PhD dissertation. Canberra: The Australian

National University. ———. 1995, Lewo, in Tryon (ed.) 1995, 825-828. ———. 2002. Lamen. In Lynch, Ross & Crowley (eds), 671-680. Evans, Bethwyn. 2003. A study of valency-changing devices in Proto Oceanic. Canberra: Pacific

Linguistics. Foley, William & Robert Van Valin Jr. 1984. Functional syntax and universal grammar. Cambridge/New

York: Cambridge University Press François, Alexandre. 2002. Araki: A disappearing language of Vanuatu. Canberra: Pacific Linguistics. Halim, Amran; Lois Carrington & W.A. Wurm, (eds) 1983. Papers from the Third International

Conference on Austronesian Linguistics, vol.4: Thematic Variation. Canberra: Pacific Linguistics. Hopper, Paul J. & Sandra A. Thompson. 1980. Transitivity in grammar and discourse. Language 56:

251-299. Lynch, John. 1973a. Verbal aspects of possession in Melanesian languages. Oceanic Linguistics 12:69-

102. ———. 1973b. Possessive structures in Lenakel. Linguistic Communications 11:65-82. ———. 1975. Oral/nasal alternation and the realis/irrealis distinction in Oceanic Languages. Oceanic

Linguistics Vol 14, 2. ———. 2000. A grammar of Anejom . Canberra: Pacific Linguistics. ———. 2000. Linguistic subgrouping in Vanuatu and New Caledonia. In Palmer and Geraghty (eds) 155-

184. ———. 2001. The linguistic history of Southern Vanuatu. Canberra: Pacific Linguistics Lynch, John & Fa’afo Pat (eds). 1996. Oceanic studies: proceedings of the First International

Conference on Oceanic Linguistics. Canberra: Pacific Linguistics. Lynch, John & Terry Crowley. 2001. Languages of Vanuatu: A new survey and bibliography. Canberra:

Pacific Linguistics. Lynch, John; Malcolm Ross & Terry Crowley (eds). 2002. The Oceanic Languages. Richmond: Curzon

Press. Lynch, John & Darrell T. Tryon. 1985. Central-Eastern Oceanic: a subgrouping hypothesis. In Pawley &

Carrington (eds) 1985, 31-52. Lyons, John. 1977. Semantics. Vol.2. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. Musgrave, Jill. 2007. Neve‛ei. Canberra: Pacific Linguistics.

76 – Peter Budd

Pawley, Andrew K. 1972. On the internal relationships of eastern Oceanic languages. In R.C. Green & M. Kelly (eds). Studies in Oceanic culture history 3. Honolulu: Bernice Pauahi Bishop Museum.

———. 1973. Some problems in Proto-Oceanic grammar. Oceanic Linguistics 12. Pawley, Andrew & Lois Carrington (eds). 1985. Austronesian linguistics at the 15th Pacific Science

Congress. Canberra: Pacific Linguistics. Ross, Malcolm, D. 1988. Proto-Oceanic and the Austronesian languages of western Melanesia. Canberra:

Pacific Linguistics. ———. 1995. Some current issues in Austronesian linguistics. In Tryon (ed). 1995. Comparative

Austronesian dictionary: an introduction to Austronesian studies. 45-120. Berlin/New York: Mouton de Gruyter.

———. 1998. Proto Oceanic phonology and morphology. In Ross, Malcolm, D., Andrew Pawley, and Meredith Osmond (eds) 1998. The lexicon of Proto Oceanic: the culture and environment of ancestral Oceanic society. Canberra: Pacific Linguistics.

Thieberger, Nicholas. 2004. Topics in grammar and documentation of South Efate, an Oceanic language of Central Vanuatu. Canberra: PhD thesis.

Tryon, Darrell, T. 1972. The languages of the New Hebrides: A checklist and general survey. Papers in the linguistics of Melanesia, No. 3. Pacific Linguistics A-35. 43-90.

———. 1976. New Hebrides languages: an internal classification. Canberra: Pacific Linguistics. ———. 1986. Stem-initial consonant alternation in the languages of Epi, Vanuatu: a case of assimilation?

In Paul Geraghty, Lois Carrington and S.A. Wurm, eds Focal II: papers from the Fourth International Conference on Austronesian Linguistics. Pacific Linguistics C-94:239-258.

———. 1995 (ed.). Comparative Austronesian dictionary: an introduction to Austronesian studies. Trends in Linguistics, Documentation 10. Berlin: Mouton de Gruyter.

———. 1996. Mae-Morae and the languages of Epi (Vanuatu). In Lynch and Pat (eds) 1996. 305-318. Van Valin, Robert D. & Randy J. LaPolla. 1997. Syntax: Structure, meaning and function. Cambridge:

Cambridge University Press.

$-$-

ra � -ra

$-

Citation Benjamin Touati. 2015. The initial vowel copy in the Sakao dialect of Wanohe (Espiritu Santo). In The Languages of Vanuatu: Unity and Diversity, ed. by A. François; S. Lacrampe, M. Franjieh, S. Schnell. Studies in the Languages of Island Melanesia, 5. Canberra: Asia Pacific Linguistics Open Access. Pp. 77-90.

Acknowledgments I wish to thank Alain Lemaréchal, Alexandre François and all my reviewers for their valuable comments and Agnès Henri, Karell Marchand, Patricja Matera, Ergin Öpengin and Kathy Stanton for their proofreading.


$-$- Section 2)

Section 3$- Section 4

~ S

tudie

s in t



~ S

tudie

s in t



Benjamin Touati

$-

$- $-

$-

$- $-

$--tnar $-

o

o

n- $-

*na

*a

$ l lɔm

The initial vowel copy in Sakao

n-ɔn n-ɔd n-ym n-ɛm n-e n-ɛ n-aðl-

Table 1 — Phonology of the prefix

-ʁini -hy -kenu

ɛ -nɛs -tœɾ -ra -kat -vu -wyð -novɾað -ðɔn -lɔm -mɒrkar -vɒt

i y -jar/ -jarn- iðɛl , ulen ɛm

$-

$-,

n-i-

i- i-ðɛl i-

Benjamin Touati

$-

3.1.1 Address forms

$-

mama tata kø

vuvu kɒtɒl

3.1.2 Kin-terms

watyɾ waɾi / wakœɾ

ðiɔn ðanan walðœn

manan utien taten

3.1.3 Proper nouns

3.1.4 Names of personified animals in tales $-


3.1.5 Pronouns $-

$-

$-

$-

$-

-nɔs ‘ -sɒkɒl-ʁœðheɾe ‘to know’ -hœɾ tnɛt -stat

ŋyɾ j-*i ʁe

j-yr

Benjamin Touati

$-

-rœs o-lɔm vɔʁvɔʁ

$-noun$-verb

e-kelɛp te

e-repɛp te

$-

$- $-

$-$-

ve

$-$-

$-$-


$- n- table 2

Table 2 – Distribution of prefixes

Kind of noun C- nouns V- monosyllabic nouns V- polysyllabic nouns Personal nouns Prefix Example a-ra: n-ym: iðɛl: ðiɔ-n:

$-

$- $-

$-

$-

$-

4.1.1 Subject

$-noun $-verb

Benjamin Touati

4.1.2 Object

4.1.3 Object introduced by the applicative morpheme -yn

$-

4.1.4 Complement of preposition

$-

4.1.4.1 After Hyɾ

$-


$-

After Møhœn mø-hœ-n

4.1.4.3 After l- $-

$-

4.1.5 Predicate in equational constructions: $-

l- -akren akren

Benjamin Touati

4.2.1 When nouns appear in their bare form word phrase $-

– $-word

–

o-


4.2.1.1 Incorporation

$-

4.2.1.2 Genitive noun

3SG.POSS

4.2.2 When nouns and verbs appear in their bare form

4.2.2.1 After the interrogative hi: hi (‘ ) $-

�

�

4.2.2.2 TAM and person-marked predicate

Benjamin Touati

4.2.3 When verbs appear in their bare form

4.2.3.1 V2 of a nuclear serial verb construction:

$-

4.2.3.2 Non predicate verb preceded by a preposition

4.2.4 What is the function of $-? $- nV-

$-$-

$-

$-$-

$-$-

l- $-l-$-lɔm) lɒð

transferrer


$-

$-

– $-$-nouns

– $- $-nouns $-

$-

$-

$-

$- $-

Language Description, History and Development: Linguistic indulgence in memory of Terry Crowley.

A grammar of the northern dialect of Sakao

Les parties du discours. Sémantique et syntaxe.

Nominalisations Faits de LanguesFairy tale as myth, myth as fairy tale.

Benjamin Touati

complementiser

Citation Franjieh, Michael. 2015. The construct suffix in North Ambrym. In The Languages of Vanuatu: Unity and Diversity, ed. by A. François; S. Lacrampe, M. Franjieh, S. Schnell. Studies in the Languages of Island Melanesia, 5. Canberra: Asia-Pacific Linguistics Open Access. Pp.91-116.

Acknowledgments I wish to thank Sébastien Lacrampe, Oliver Bond and my two anonymous peer reviewers, for their help and guidance on writing this paper. All transcriptions and translations from other languages are as they appear in the original, though the interlinear glosses have been standardised.


-n

-ña

homne-n

~ S

tudie

s in t



~ S

tudie

s in t



Michael Franjieh

North Ambrym

North Ambrym

*-ña

The construct suffix in North Ambrym

North Ambrym

North Ambrym

-n-te

-n

Table 1 – Pronominal possessor suffixes.

Singular Dual Paucal Plural -ngrùng -ngsul -ngken

-ng -marù -masul -ma-m -mrù -msul -mi-n, -te -rù -sul -r

ama

boto

mwena

Michael Franjieh

-na

-la

lala


-na -ne -ra -re (n)i

-n

-ne -re

Michael Franjieh

-n

North Ambrym

-n

*-ña

-n

3.1.1 Number


North Ambrym

North Ambrym

-n

North Ambrym

-n

Michael Franjieh

North Ambrym

hoge vanten

North Ambrym

North Ambrym

taala-err

North Ambrym

wa


-n

3.1.2 Animacy

-n-te

North Ambrym

North Ambrym

-te

North Ambrym

3.1.3 Person

Michael Franjieh

North Ambrym

3.1.4 Summary

Table 2 — Proto Oceanic possessive marking

Specific

Non-specific


3.2.1 Personal noun possessors i

*i

North Ambrym

North Ambrym

-n *-ña-n *ni

*ni *i*-ña

Michael Franjieh

North Ambrym

*-ña i

3.2.2 Common noun possessors

*-ña

North Ambrym

North Ambrym


3.2.3 Non-specific common noun attributes

qi

North Ambrym

nine ni

North Ambrym

*qi*ni

3.2.4 Summary

*i *-ña *qi*ni

*qi *i

*-ña -nne *ni

Michael Franjieh

Table 3 — Proto Oceanic and North Ambrym possessive marking

Specific Ø Ø -n -n

Non-specific Ø ne

homne ' yekirine

4.1.1 Syntactic analysis of verbal object marking in North Ambrym

-n -te-n


-n

elicited

Michael Franjieh

elicited

homne

Table 4 – Construct suffix in possessive, prepositional and verbal constructions

Pronominal Suffixes Free Pronoun Possessor/Object PNP Possessor/Object CNP Possessor/Object

4.1.2 Diachronic analysis of verbal object marking in North Ambrym *=a

-n*=a

*-ña


-Ø -i -e -a- -ni

-e -ie

-Ci

-nV

-Ci

*-ña

-nV -e -ie

-ie

Michael Franjieh

*=a*=a

*=a*-ña *-ña

*=a*=a

*-ña

4.2.1 Verbal prepositional constructions

Table 5 – Verbal prepositions

byane menekirine fyaasinemetene besare

-(n)e 7byane mene bya

mekirine

kirineTebya

tebyantebyan

tebya

-e


byane *pani-metene *tani- kirine *kini-

ibid

-n byane

thank you

Michael Franjieh

Table 6 – Construct suffix in possessive, verbal and verbal prepositional constructions

Pronominal Suffixes Free Pronoun Possessor/Object PNP Possessor/Object CNP Possessor/Object -n -n -n

4.2.2 Bound prepositional constructions


Table 7 – Bound prepositions

fo- tù-fya- ra-bo- biiri-lo- taahi-

North Ambrym

*ta-

ta ta Linbul

*ta-

Michael Franjieh

North-East Ambae

-n

liLi

li bolva-ye liye

woye raye rreye


-ye li

Table 8 – Construct suffix in possessive, verbal and prepositional constructions

Pronominal suffixes

Free pronoun Possessor/Object

PNP Possessor/Object

CNP Possessor/Object -n -n -n -n

li

Michael Franjieh

*-ña*i *qi

-n*=a

*=a

*ta-


The Paamese Language of Vanuatu

Tape: A Declining Language of Malakula (Vanuatu)

Oceanic Linguistics

A study of valency-changing devices in Proto Oceanic

Oceanic Linguistics

The Lolovoli Dialect of the North-East Ambae Language, Vanuatu

Studies in the languages of Erromango

The Oceanic Languages

Ambrym (Lonwolwol) Grammar

Ambrym (Lonwolwol) Dictionary

Oceanic LinguisticsAustronesian Linguistics at the 15th Pacific Science

Congress

Michael Franjieh

Proto Oceanic and the Austronesian languages of Western Melanesia

Issues in Austronesian morphology: A Focusschrift for Byron W. Bender

Language and Linguistics

kastomkastom

kastom

kastom

Citation Garde, Murray. 2015. Numerals in Sa. In The Languages of Vanuatu: Unity and Diversity, ed. by A. François; S. Lacrampe, M. Franjieh, S. Schnell. Studies in the Languages of Island Melanesia, 5. Canberra: Asia Pacific Linguistics Open Access. Pp. 117-136.


kastom

~ S

tudie

s in t



~ S

tudie

s in t



– Murray Garde

kastom

Figure 1 - Contemporary language distribution, Pentecost Island.

kastom

skulan kastom

kastom

kastom

Skulan, skul –an

Numerals in Sa

kastom lon duan skulan Kastom

Wawan.

Table 1 – Consonants

labiovelar labial alveolar velar glottal voiceless stop voiced stop nasal ŋ

fricative

rhotic glide lateral

ʃ ʃuf

– Murray Garde

Table 2 - Vowels, short and long

Table 3 - Practical orthography (vowels)

*bulu-

tēlpat

vati

Table 4 – Numerals 3 and 4 in paucal pronouns.

Lonbwe, Bwilaôt other dialects 1 paucal 2 paucal 3 paucal

besu

Numerals in Sa

su nga

te

be . be

andred taosenkastom

teTe

tawo-lsi te

sangul sungul sangful hungêl hongil

– Murray Garde

mô-

môn

nul

nul su

sangul

nul aē

Table 5 – Basic form of ten vs decadal form in Pentecost languages

BASIC DECADAL

Sa Ske Sowa Apma Raga

Numerals in Sa

Table

sagavulusa-[ŋa]-puluq

Table 6: basic and decadal forms of ten in other Vanuatu languages

LANGUAGE LOCATION BASIC DECADAL

saŋavəl (na) ŋavəl isŋel iŋel- laŋal ŋal saŋav'il ŋovul (sə)nal nel saŋavur ŋavür seŋavür ŋavür esŋavöl, seŋavöl ŋavöl haŋavulu ŋavulu saŋavul ŋavul saŋavulu ŋavul saŋul wiŋil

saŋulnul

nul nul sangul

(14) nul ôl be ru

– Murray Garde

be limnul

ba

Nul

–an –anan

kērēnē

kērēnēan lijianan / lesuanan ruan lēôruanan tēlan lētēlanan ētan liapatanan liman sungulanan

kastom

Numerals in Sa

*lave-alavi

la-i li-

v

Table 7 - Pentecost formative ligatures 6-9 and verb to take.

Sa Sa (north) Ske Sowa Apma 1 Apma 2 Apma 3

kastom

kastom

kastom kastom

vasi fa toluteul

– Murray Garde

Table 8 - Decimal and imperfect decimal sytems in Sa

tea wantua su rua urua ru tolu teul tēl vasi fa ēt lima lima ~ nima lim ono ondo lijia, lesu bitu fiti ~ piji leôru vwelu walo lētēl sivo suan liapat hangvulu tendu sungul

kastom

fiti

kastom

‘wantua…’

Numerals in Sa

kastom

skulankastom

wantua, urua, teul, lima ondo, fiti

kastom

– Murray Garde

mal kastom

etc

wantua

su ru tēl ēt lim lijia

su, ru, tēl, ēt, lim, lijia

Numerals in Sa

Table 9 - North Ambrym spirit numbers

sokae soŋae hu benalua naloe ru benatelu natolu sul telunimba tolunɛmba virr, yirr nimbaŋgaŋga nimbaŋeŋe lim naoreŋga naorŋeŋe liuse, liisa naorbisi naorbisi liuru bisinia bisiniŋge liusul, liisul

*sivwa taŋaŋae taŋaŋae yaferr, laferr taŋoŋolo taŋoŋolo sangul, sangil

sokaetolu

benatelu telunimbabitu naorbisi bisinia

bena-/na- naor-taŋV-

benatelu telunimba naorbisi bisinia

taka, luaka, telka, verka, limka, kona, isi, varo, siwe

– Murray Garde

ka-

kastom

kastom nul selen suten selen kastom

pon su.

pon be lim nul pon su .

nul pon be N

Numerals in Sa

andred su ma-mrôp su môrôban su .

taosen su ma-mtar su, ma-mtartari

pon sukastom

– Murray Garde

se-lae se-timan se-ket telung benang s-atak s-aman

kastom

kastom kastom

kastomkastom

kastom

kastom

kastom

faef taosen

Numerals in Sa

Ausbau.

kastom

kastom

kastom

kastom kastom

kastom

kastom

kastom

– Murray Garde

• • • •

kastom

Numerals in Sa

Oceanic Linguistics

Oceania

A world of language: papers presented to Professor S.A. Wurm on his 65th birthday. PL,

A Descriptive Grammar of Merei (Vanuatu).

Austronesian linguistics at the 15th Pacific Science Congress,

*Leo Tuai: A comparative lexical study of North and Central Vanuatu languages.

The Melanesian languages.Typology of Numeral Systems

Bedrohte Vielfalt: Aspekte des Sprach(en)tods Endangered Diversity: Aspects of Language Death

Oceanic Linguistics John Lynch, Ross Crowley. The Oceanic

languages.The Avava Language of Central Malakula (Vanuatu)

Naman: a vanishing language of Malakula (Vanuatu)

Nese: a diminishing speech variety of Malakula (Vanuatu)

Tape: a declining language of Malakula (Vanuatu)

Oceanic Linguistics, A grammar of Lewo, Vanuatu.

A description of Sa, a new Hebridean language

Araki: A disappearing language of Vanuatu.

La Sémantique du Prédicat en Mwotlap (Vanuatu)

Oceanic LinguisticsThe Languages of Pentecost Island.

The Lolovoli dialect of North-east Ambae language, Vanuatu.

– Murray Garde

Women of the Place: Kastom, Colonialism, and Gender in Vanuatu.

Te Reo, The Oceanic languages.

Discovering history through language: Papers in honour of Malcolm Ross

Tales of Ambrym. Pacific Linguistics

Studies in Oceanic culture history,

Reports of the Cambridge Anthropological Expedition to Torres Straits.

Lisepsep spirit numbers counted by Joel Saksak

A Grammar of Abma, a Language of Pentecost Island, Vanuatu

A Grammar of South Efate: An Oceanic Language of Vanuatu.

Some Sowa Vocabulary.

The Arithmetic Teacher

Vevhurin Raga.

Citation François, Alexandre. 2015. The ins and outs of up and down: Disentangling the nine geocentric space systems of Torres and Banks languages. In The Languages of Vanuatu: Unity and Diversity, ed. by A. François; S. Lacrampe, M. Franjieh, S. Schnell. Studies in the Languages of Island Melanesia, 5. Canberra: Asia Pacific Linguistics Open Access. Pp. 137-195.

Acknowledgments The research underlying this study was funded by LACITO–CNRS. This publication forms part of the strand ”Typology and dynamics of linguistic systems” within the program Investissements d’Avenir, overseen by the French National Research Agency (Labex EFL, Empirical Foundations of Linguistics). I thank Maïa Ponsonnet, Olivier Le Guen, Michael Franjieh, Stefan Schnell and an anonymous reviewer for their insightful comments on earlier versions of this paper. Finally, I feel greatly indebted to the Torres and Banks people for their kindness and patience as they taught me their beautiful languages.

~ S

tudie

s in t



~ S

tudie

s in t



Alexandre François

Figure 1 — A typology of space strategies (after Levinson 1996b:359)

in this house close to the tree

� the ball is in FRONT of the house house

� the ball is in FRONT of the tree

�

my house is SOUTH of the river

et al.

northern England western suburbs

et al.

relative EGOCENTRICabsolute GEOCENTRIC

Geocentric systems in Torres and Banks languages

right left in front behind

behind the housebehind the tree

She’s standing behind the tree.

on the east side

North–West–South–East

land–sea

space directionals

� �

� �

� �

Alexandre François

northwest downseawards down out

Table 1 — The directional system of Dorig (Gaua island)

Directional PARTICIPANT-ORIENTED TOPOLOGICAL GEOCENTRIC

Table 2 — The directional system of Hiw (Torres islands)

Directional PARTICIPANT-ORIENTED TOPOLOGICAL GEOCENTRIC

non-geocentricalong the shore towards southeast, on land, for long

distances

ag


Figure 2 – The system of geocentric directionals in Dorig and other Gaua languages

Figure 3 – The system of geocentric directionals in Hiw

northwest–southeast

‘thither’ ‘out’

‘down’

‘up’

ag‘down’

ag

‘thither’

‘down’

‘out’

SE ag ‘thither’

‘down’

‘down’

NW ‘down’

‘thither’

‘thither’ ‘down’

‘across’ ‘down’

‘across’

‘down’

‘up’

‘up’ ‘across’

‘across’

‘up’

SE

‘across’ ‘up’

‘across’ ‘down’

‘up’

‘down’

‘down’

NW ‘down’ ‘up’

Alexandre François

et al.


Map 1 – The 17 languages of northern Vanuatu (Torres and Banks Is)

Ureparapara

Vanua Lava

Motalava

Gaua

Merelava

B A N K S A N K S I S .S .

T O R R E S O R R E S I S .S .

Toga

Lo

Hiw

Tegua

[LTG]

[HIW]

[LHI][LYP]

[VLW]

[MTA]

[NUM]

[MRL]

[DRG][KRO]

[OLR]

[LKN]

[MSN]

[VRS]

[VRA]

[LMG][MTP]

Volow (1)

Mwotlap (2100)

Mota (750)

Lemerig (2)

Lehali (200)Löyöp (240)

Mwesen (10)Vurës (2000)

Vera'a (500)

Lakon (800)

Olrat (3)

Koro(250)

Dorig(300)

Nume (700)

Mwerlap (1100)

Hiw (280)

Lo-Toga (580)

25 km0

© Alexandre FRANÇOIS (CNRS, Paris)

uninhabited area

monolingual area

bilingual area

(280) number of speakers

Alexandre François

in situ

sipo

hēwtēqēl

hēw tēqēl

van van

locatives

She’s DOWN in the cellar he walked DOWN to the lakethe people DOWN there

me van hag hōw hay yow


kal

en

how

2.4.1 Participant-oriented directionals

Table 3 — Pairs of participant-oriented directionals in Torres–Banks languages

participant

egotropic allotropic� egotropic

� allotropic

egotropic egoegocentric ego

Alexandre François

mai watulako pano

give show speak

hither

thither

van

hay

vën

topological

maipano watu


2.4.2 Topological directionals

in—outup—down

Table 4 — Topological directionals in Torres–Banks languages

kal

telnor

lō

verb-modifying adverbsKAL sag TELNOR sar LŌ row

in—out

Alexandre François

kal

hōw � hō yow � yo van � vahay � ha hag � ha

saa

hōw

inside the house outside the house towards the interior of the house towards the door

colexificationsaa

� � � ��

��

� �

� � � �

up (-hill)

across across

up (-wind)

down (-wind)

down (-hill)

in

down

up

updown

out

�

�

�

�

� �

up/in

down

up/in

up/indown

out

in

down

across

updown

out

down

down

up

up

in

back

across

updown

out

down

down

up

up

out

down

down

up

up

down in

up

down up

down

down

up

up

out

across

down

up

across

across up

across

down up

down

down

up

up

down

up

across

down up

out

in

across

down

down

up

up

out

down

down

up

southeast

down in

southeast

down

southeast

down

down

southeast

southeast

out

down

up

thither?

down

thither?

down

down

down

thither?

thither? down

up (-hill)

across across

up (-wind)

down (-wind)

down (-hill)

down

down

up

up

�

�

� �

�

� � � � � � � � � �

�

�

Alexandre François

7.3.3 Across pano

�vën vano van van

vak pähpano

volo

�wël wōl wōl wol

7.3.4 Up sake

ag ag iag ha sa ha hagsag sag siag sag sage sa sagsa sag saa hag rok\a seag

vene

� vēn vin vēn

7.3.5 Down sake sipo

sipo

iw swo siwosipo

sipo siwo suwo

uw how sōw hō hōw sōw suwōsōw sōw hōw rōk ōw sōw


� ror ror ror roy

7.3.6 In

� say ha hay sar sar sarsar sar sar

sarosarovaɣi -akin

sarovaɣi hayveg sarovag

ila

� iy il ila la

7.3.7 Out

rowoRopok

Ropok � �rōw rōw yow yow yo yow row rōwrōw row rowo row

saro zara

Alexandre François

Table 11 — Morphology of directionals in Mwerlap

topological meaning

directional + deictic

kēkē

kēnē

nē

7.4.1 Static locations

ka karaka(ra)

seag ka(ra) van

kara

digging a hole

per se

=mē vowel harmonykara

kere =mē kara kere =mē

kere

kere ven=mē kere

7.4.2 Motion paths

=mē su=mē =lēgsu=lēg


=mē =lēg =lēgmē

7.4.3 Combination with deictics

kēkē kēlēnēnē nea

ki kēki row

ki sōw

ki

sar nē

down

nē

Alexandre François

Proc. Nat. Acad. Sci. (PNAS)

Representing space in Oceania: Culture in language in mind

Zeitschrift für Phonetik, Sprachwissenschaft und Kommunikationsforschung

Journal of Linguistic AnthropologyMarquesan: A grammar of space

*Leo Tuai: A comparative lexical study of North and Central Vanuatu languages

Language

Language SciencesDevelopment of Geocentric Spatial Language and Cognition: An

Eco-Cultural Perspective

LinguisticsA Grammar of Boumaa Fijian

Oceanic Linguistics

Oceanic LinguisticsOceanic

Linguistics

From Polysemy to Semantic change: Towards a Typology of Lexical Semantic Associations

Discovering history through language: Papers in honour of Malcolm Ross

Typologie et comparatisme. Hommages offerts à Alain Lemaréchal

Journal of Historical Linguistics

International Journal of the Sociology of Language

Lexical and structural etymology: Beyond word histories

The Routledge Handbook of Historical Linguistics

Journal of Linguistic Anthropology

Vaka moana: Voyages of the ancestors. The discovery and settlement of the Pacific


Let's talk about trees: Tackling Problems in Representing Phylogenic Relationships among Languages

GestureCognitive Science

Working paper no. 13

Language and space

Annual Review of AnthropologySpace in Language and Cognition: Explorations in Cognitive Diversity

Journal of Linguistic Anthropology

A grammar of Manam

Language Diversity and Cognitive Representations

Language Description, History and Development: Linguistic Indulgence in Memory of Terry Crowley

Te Reo

LanguageProto-Oceanic and the Austronesian languages of Western Melanesia

Deixis and demonstratives in Oceanic languages

The lexicon of Proto Oceanic: The physical environment

Referring to space. Studies in Austronesian and Papuan languages

2009 National Census of Population and Housing: Summary Release

N’erē kakaka ‘a Vera’a – Ol storian blong Vera’a – Stories from the village of Vera’a

a b

a b

Citation Schneider, Cynthia & Andrew Gray. 2015. Is it worth documenting "just a dialect"? Making the case for Suru Kavian (Pentecost Island In The Languages of Vanuatu: Unity and Diversity, ed. by A. François; S. Lacrampe, M. Franjieh, S. Schnell. Studies in the Languages of Island Melanesia, 5. Canberra: Asia Pacific Linguistics Open Access. Pp. 197-216.

Acknowledgments We would like to thank Vicki Knox, two anonymous reviewers, and Stefan Schnell plus one other editor of this volume for their helpful comments on earlier drafts of this paper. Any errors or omissions are, of course, our responsibility.


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Documenting Suru Kavian

Figure 19 — Pentecost languages – historical Figure 2 — Pentecost languages – modern

Table 12 — Cognacy rates between Apma and other Pentecost languages. Main figures based on computations by Tryon (1976: 74) from a wordlist of 258 items. Alternative figures in brackets from Gray (2012: 13); a range of figures indicates multiple dialects.

Raga Apma Sowa Ske


2.2.1 Impact of dialect size on language ecology


The Languages of Pentecost Island

2.2.2 Cognacy rates across the three dialects

Table 2 — Cognacy rates between Apma dialects (Gray 2012: 13)

SM SR


kastom

leut le ut

temwa


Table 3 — Non-cognate lexical items (PNCV reconstructions from Clark 2009)

People / Relationships

English SM SR SK Raga PNCV tokens dalmʷa dalmʷa kuhnuᵐbu atamani haβin haβin βa:mat vavine datsi- datsi- badi- ratahi- ha:βak ha:βak biribirik naturixi

Animals

English SM SR SK Raga PNCV tokens bo bo kaβi boe temwa temwa ko:p xarivi simo: simo: mwasak xarote

Body parts

English SM SR SK Raga PNCV tokens mwa:sa- mwa:sa- bwabwa- bwabwa- βadale- βaⁿdale mwakore- halan xa- kauwa- kauwa- βaⁿdale- mwaxoro- ŋa- ŋa- lima- lima-

Plants

English SM SR SK Raga PNCV tokens kul kul ni niu baɡa wale wale ramute

Things

English SM SR SK Raga PNCV tokens tela tela mut bʷati-talai kabʷal kabʷal kabʷal, bat bata mu: mu: mu:, lil lulu leut leut kina xinau kuran kuran asŋan atuŋana

Activities / Events

English SM SR SK Raga PNCV tokens leleh leleh kakaː xaxaru maluni maluni kilβak vinihi malioi doŋβi doŋβi os hiᵑɡe ɡet ket siki av dentene


States

English SM SR SK Raga PNCV tokens -tpo dobo en eno ɡapmʷa kapmʷa sa:bek hantai mamamdidi mamamdiⁿdi mʷ=ilili masisi βiah βiβah mudak ses ses βiro vusi

Locational / Deictic

English SM SR SK Raga PNCV tokens kamel kamel wunis xamali dokah dokah iⁿda teti dokih dokih iⁿdaŋi aia

Temporal

English SM SR SK Raga PNCV tokens buŋ buŋ mwaᵑɡap boŋi tsu:buŋ tsu:buŋ mwaᵑɡap[ŋ]ɡol maᵐboŋi mʷerani rabʷaŋa naᵐbʷerik xarixi βaŋren βaŋaren maːwuk vaixouxo lileleh lokloᵑɡoih ililokloᵑɡoih

3.2.1 Independent pronouns

ruai


Table 4: Independent pronouns (PNCV reconstructions from Clark 2009)

nana nana ina inau kik ᵑɡi kuᵑɡu ~ ᵑɡu xiᵑɡo ni ni ini kea kuduru kuⁿduru kiⁿdiri xidaru ɡemaru ᵑɡemaru iᵑɡari kamaru ɡumru ᵑɡimiru ᵑɡumiri kimiru nu:ru nuːru iniːri kera kidi kiⁿdi kiⁿdi xida ɡema ᵑɡema iᵑɡa kamai ɡimi ᵑɡimi ᵑɡumi kimiu niː niː iniː kera

ina inau ina va-na mʷetak

nananana na

3.2.2 Possessive indexation rua

ri

Table 5: Possessive indexation in SM, SR, SK, and Raga

-k -ᵑɡV -ᵑɡV -ku ~ -ᵑɡu -m -m -m -mʷa -n -n -n -na -daru -ⁿdVru -ⁿdVri -daru -maru -maru -mari -maru -mru -muru -miri -miru -ru -ru -ri -raru -da -ⁿdV -ⁿdV -da -ma -ma -ma -mai -mi -mi -mi -miu -V -V -V -ra

V = vowel quality echoes that of vowel in the root

k ŋgVk

index


3.3.1 Third person singular imperfective

m[ʷ]V-m[ʷ]-

Table 6: Third singular imperfective in SM/SR, SK and Raga8

gloss SM/SR SK Raga tokens* mʷe=sak Ø= mʷa hae mʷi=sip Ø= mʷa hivo mʷo=rop mʷo= mʷa rovo mu=uh m[ʷ]= mʷa ulo mʷa=iah mʷ= mʷa hovi mʷa=pma Ø= mʷa mai Ø=ban Ø= mʷa ᵐbano

*Frequency of the SK verb root (bolded above), not the larger phrase that contains it.

3.3.2 Consonant mutation for imperfective

Table 7: Initial consonant mutation in SM, SR, SK and Raga

SM SR SK Raga β > b β > b β > b v > b w > bʷ w > bʷ w > bʷ vʷ > bʷ

k > ᵑɡ k > ᵑɡ x > ᵑɡ t > ⁿd t > d


k gk k > ᵑɡ

t dt d

di du sisu di si

Table 8 — Some verbs in SM, SR, SK and Raga showing d / s correspondences

English SM SR SK Raga tokens di ⁿdi si to ~ do dibwiri ⁿdibwiri sibwiri sibweri diɡoro ⁿdiᵑɡore siᵑɡore tuᵑɡoro ~ duᵑɡoro ditsibi ⁿditsibi sisibi sisibo duksuru ⁿduksuru suksuː tuxu ~ duxu duhkuru ⁿduhuri sukuri huri dumre ⁿdumre sumwere tomare ~ domare -tni ⁿdini sin tunu ~ dunu

td t ts

*t s

t si u

Table 9 – Some SM, SR, SK and Raga words, and reconstructed PNCV forms (Clark 2009), show-ing the differing fates of historical * . SK changes *t > s where the PNCV form had a following high vowel but retains unmodified t in other environments.

English SM SR SK Raga *PNCV tokens nu u- ni u- ne u- ni u-

ine- ine- ine- ine- ka il ka il kai il xai- olu

i i i oi βe βe βa va u bʷe bʷe bʷe bʷe a

t s


*t ssi d s

t d d ds

3.3.3 Directly-possessed noun roots

o ue i

βil i

βil u

Table 10: Possessed forms of a noun showing vowel changes in SK (with SM and Raga for comparison)

gloss SM SK Raga ili-k βil -ᵑɡu ilu-ku ili-m βil -m ilu-mʷa ili-n βil -n ilu-na ili-da βil -ⁿdi ilu-da ili-ma βil -ma ilu-mai ili-mi βil -mi ilu-miu ili-ː βil -ː ilu-ra


Table 11: Morpheme and syllable boundaries in SM, SR, SK and Raga ([-] = morpheme boundary; [.] = syllable boundary)

English SM SR SK Raga tokens* mʷa=t.ka mʷe=ⁿde.ka Ø= mʷa ⁿdu.le mʷa=m.tsuː mʷa=m.tsuː Ø= mʷa ma.tu.ru te=l.hi te li.hi te nu le.a.hi.ni.a te=m.ni te mi.ni te nu mʷi.nu.a te=s.ro te so.ro te nu ho.ra.e

*Frequency of the SK verb root (bolded above), not the larger phrase that contains it

Table 12: Estimated proportion of verb roots with C.CV- shape in Apma dialects and neighbouring languages

Raga SK SR SM Sowa Ske


bʷarusbarurit bʷarus

awiawi

daŋrodaŋro

daŋro


Language Contact in Amazonia


The Languages of Pentecost Island

Language Documentation and Conservation Special Publications No. 4

tas dasdas

tastasan


Language Contact in Amazonia

*Leo Tuai: A comparative lexical study of North and Central Vanuatu Languages

Oceanic LinguisticsCurrent Issues in Language Planning,

Language death: The life cycle of a Scottish Gaelic dialect.

Investigating Variation: The Effects of Social Organization and Social Setting

Locating language in time and space

Phonological Variation in Western Cherokee

Oceanic Linguistics

Journal of Historical LinguisticsThe Languages of Pentecost Island

Language Variation and Change

Languages across boundaries: Studies in memory of Anna Siewierska

Sociological Inquiry

Encyclopedia of Language and Education, 2ⁿd Edition, Volume 9: Ecology of Language

The Lolovoli dialect of the North-East Ambae language, Vanuatu

Balkan linguistik: Synchronie und diachronie

Principles of Linguistic Change, Volume 2: Social Factors

Languages of Vanuatu: A New Survey and Bibliography

Children’s language and multilingualism: Indigenous language use at home and school

Case-marking in contact: The development and function of case morphology in Gurindji Kriol

Linguistic ecology: Language change and linguistic imperialism in the Pacific region


The Social Life of Language

A grammar of Abma: a language of Pentecost Island, Vanuatu

Variation in Indigenous Minority Languages.

Stories in Apma language.

Bongmehee: Ih nii mini lemtakte nii li dalekte ah Apma

New Hebrides Languages: An Internal Classification

Anthropological Linguistics

Citation Jauncey, Dorothy. 2015. Not just stories: the rules and roles of oral narratives in Tamambo. In The Languages of Vanuatu: Unity and Diversity, ed. by A. François; S. Lacrampe, M. Franjieh, S. Schnell. Studies in the Languages of Island Melanesia, 5. Canberra: Asia Pacific Linguistics Open Access. Pp. 217-246.

Copyright © 2015, the author(s), release under Creative Commons Attribution license ~

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Dorothy Jauncey

The ancient oral traditions, rooted in a pre-scientific age, illuminate many aspects of traditional life. They tell of beliefs in good and evil spirits controlling people lives; of the origins of natural features such as rocks, mountains, rivers and lakes; of the powers of witches and sorcerers; of cannibalism and revenge. They teach the young about the exploits of their ancestor-heroes and about the wholeness of a universe in which boundaries are blurred between the spiritual, the natural, animal and human worlds.

sumbwea

vwotaololoa,

sumbwe

sumbwevwota

Oral narratives in Tamambo

sumbwe

sumbwea

sumbwea

sumbwea,

sumbwea

sumbwe

Dorothy Jauncey

rohainamwania

samburu

Vuete Tamambo

sumbwea


hwenono hehoitan

alo

kakaitala,

Tala anamua

araarapangatangikakai

taratupua,

kang kangaik teman

sorae sulasula tandono

Dorothy Jauncey

Kastom stori,

sora-e sula-sula

sorae sohi,

tandono tanume

4

5 Kastomvaivaia


sorae Sorae niani matai Sorae nian nia tandono? Motete, nian nia sorae tinambu matai kastom Hemia wan kastom stori nomo

stori sorae-hi storihi sorahi

sorae sulasula tandono

kastom stori

ana bongi tuai

– Kastom stori 1:

– Kastom stori 2:

Sorae sulasula

sumbwehambulevua

6

7 sora soraesorahi

Dorothy Jauncey

sorae sulasula

8

sorae sulasula9

Uluvou mai votahisana

10

Iau kumbo sorahi na vaivaia nona tamalohi marasaku, mara B.

Nira tamalohi ureuretahi. 11 Sorae talom kumbo sorahi …

beru

10

11 uretahiureuretahi

Dorothy Jauncey

kakai/tala

sorae

moiso

12

kakai/tala

soraesorae sulasula

sorae sulasula


sorae

13

sorae sulasula

sorae sulasula

sorae sulasula

Tandono only inon

tandono

Dorothy Jauncey

tandonoNabanga

tandono

tandono

tandonosorae sulasula. tandono

tanume 14

tandono

tandonovonjavi

tanume-na tanume

bukere, duli


tandono

Dorothy Jauncey

�


�

Lei-o tambum ambea Lei-o tambum maringo Lei-o, Lei-o, rio Lei, Sohotiku Lei-o.

Lei-o your grave is where Lei-o your grave is in the west Lei-o, Lei-o, little person Lei, My little brother Lei-o.

tandono,

tandono

– moiso = mo-iso– moisoro = mo-iso-ro

– mo turu (aie)

Dorothy Jauncey

tandonotandono,

tandono 17

18

tandono,

mo re

tandonosorae sulasula

tandono

Nabanga

tandono

tandono


tandono

Tandono dondo asua19

tandono.

tandono 20 vatu

tandono

tandono

tandonobong tano

sala

maringonamaringo

dondo asuatandono

21

tandono

tandono

havuhavu

kastom stori tandono

Dorothy Jauncey

tandono

4.3.1 Kastom stori 1

Kastom stori

kastom stori Toa mana mala

Ku tao ambea Mala mo soari na toluku ro Ku tao ana marahamba, Mala mo soari na toluku ro Kute tao aiente jara duhu Sekohai, sekohai-hai.

I nested where Hawk saw my egg I nested in the white grass Hawk saw my egg I didn’t nest in a good place Sekohai, sekohai-hai.


Ku tao ambea Mala mo soari na toluk’ ro Ku tao ana vumbaka, Mala mo soari na toluku ro Kute tao aiente jara duhu Sekohai, sekohai-hai.

I nested where Hawk saw my egg I nested in the banyan tree Hawk saw my egg I didn’t nest in a good place Sekohai, sekohai-hai.

Ku tao ambea Mala mo soari na toluk’ ro Ku tao ana vurara, Mala mo soari na toluku ro Kute tao aiente jara duhu Sekohai, sekohai-hai.

I nested where Hawk saw my egg I nested in the coral tree, Hawk saw my egg I didn’t nest in a good place Sekohai, sekohai-hai.

Dorothy Jauncey

Ku tao ambea Mala mo soari na toluk’ ro Ku tao aulu vorivori, Mala mo soari na toluku ro Kute tao aiente jara duhu Sekohai, sekohai-hai

I nested where Hawk saw my egg I nested on the little hill, Hawk saw my egg I didn’t nest in a good place Sekohai, sekohai-hai.

Ku tao ambea Mala mo soari na toluk’ ro Ku tao ana vumbahura, Mala mo soari na toluku ro Kute tao aiente jara duhu Sekohai, sekohai-hai.

I nested where Hawk saw my egg I nested in the nambakura, Hawk saw my egg I didn’t nest in a good place Sekohai, sekohai-hai.


tandono .

kastom stori

mo avumo mai

mo vanomo va 22

23

Dorothy Jauncey

Kastom stori marahambavumbaka vurara aulu tawera aulu

vorivori, vumbahura, tandono

marahambaaulu tawera aulu vorivori

4.3.2 Kastom stori 2

ana bongi tuai

duli 24

manja bisuroi

sorae sulasula Nabanga

duli bukere

Bisuroi


duli Nabanga

vovombo

burusi

Dorothy Jauncey


�

tandono kastom stori

takatakataka.

tandono

tuai bongi tuaimo vano

mo vano

mo van, mo van, mo vanmoiso moisoro

mo soheamo sahe mo sahe

Dorothy Jauncey

bongi tuai barindi

kastom stori

ratalaua,

natamambo

Table 1

sorae sulasula, tandono, kastom stori

sorae sulasula, tandono kastom stori

kastom stori


natamambo

tandono

kastom

Table 1 — Synthesis: Types of oral folk narratives on Malo

dondo asua


Death, witchcraft and the spirit world in the highlands of Papua New Guinea.

Journal of American Folklore. Solomon Island folktales from Malaita.

Folklore genres.

Arts of Vanuatu.

Melanesians: studies in their anthropology and folk-lore.

The social life of stories: narrative and knowledge in the Yukon Territory.

Journal of American Folklore

Lore: an introduction to the science of folklore and literature.

Oral traditions of Anuta: a Polynesian outlier in the Solomon Islands.

Oral traditions and the verbal arts: a guide to research practices.

Consuming agency in fairy tales, childlore, and folk literature.

South Pacific oral traditions.

Tamambo, the language of west Malo, Vanuatu.Toromuimui: Myths of Milne Bay, Papua New Guinea

Narrative as social practice: Anglo-Western and Australian Aboriginal oral traditions.

Myth in primitive psychology.Australian review of applied

linguisticsJournal of literary

semanticsLive: A history of church planting in the Republic of Vanuatu. Book 7.

Oceanic and Australasian mythology.Morphology of the folktale.

Placing the self on Malo: an account of the culture of Malo Island, New Hebrides.

Vanuatu: politics, economics and ritual in island Melanesia.

Frontiers of folklore.

Vanuatu.

Oxford Dictionary of English.

Dorothy Jauncey

Gender, song, and sensibility: folktales and folksongs in the highlands of New Guinea.

). Folklore: performance and communication. Payback: the logic of retribution in Melanesian religions

Nabanga: an illustrated anthology of the oral traditions of Vanuatu.

National Census of Population and Housing.Fairy tale as myth, myth as fairy tale.

Citation Thieberger, Nick. 2015. Walking to Erro: Stories of travel, origins, or affection. In The Languages of Vanuatu: Unity and Diversity, ed. by A. François; S. Lacrampe, M. Franjieh, S. Schnell. Studies in the Languages of Island Melanesia, 5. Canberra: Asia Pacific Linguistics Open Access. Pp. 247-263.

Acknowledgements An early version of this chapter was given at the workshop ‘Walking about: travel, trade, migration, and movement in Vanuatu’, organized by the British Museum and the Centre for Cross-Cultural Research, Australian National University, 2000. Thanks to the editors and to two anonymous reviewers for helpful comments. Thanks to Chris Ballard for pointing me to the Guiart references and for sending a copy of Annand’s diaries. This chapter was completed while I was the beneficiary of an Alexander von Humboldt Foundation grant and based at the University of Cologne. The work reported here was partly funded by Australian Research Council grants DP0450342 and DP0984419.


Map 1The Southern New Hebrides

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~ S

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Nick Thieberger

Elvate

Ralefati

Rampunalvat Elvate Ralefati Rampunalvatfat vat

Map 1. The southern islands of Vanuatu

raRalefati Ilfate

u-

faat

Walking to Erro

Nick Thieberger

Table 1 — Cognate lexemes in Proto-Oceanic, South Efate and Nakanamanga (Lynch 2000a:333)

POc English South Efate Nakanamanga tur turi-a, tutuuri mat mate n/kafik na/kavika n/faat vaatu na/un na/vunuvunu mtak mataku tag tagi-si

*n-sem

nakte nagku

kai- m-

nakte nagkum- kai-

Walking to Erro

tapa

tapa

Elevate

ElevateElevate

pers.comm

Nick Thieberger

pers. comm.

kastom

kastom

kastom

Kastom

Walking to Erro

kastom

kastom

kastomsputan

natopu,

kastomkastom

naflak

pers comm

Katapel Langtatalof Adanman Asaraf et al. kastom

Asaraf Mantu (the story of the flying fox) The vine from Erromango Angels and Erromango; Wota ni Manu (Adanman).

Nick Thieberger

Asaraf

Mantu, the story of the flying fox

The vine from Erromango

Angels and Erromango

Wota ni Manu Wota ni Manu

Nabanga

http://catalog.paradisec.org.au/collections/NT3/items/sope

Walking to Erro

Adanman et al.

et al

Wota ni Manu Adanman

Nick Thieberger

Asaraf ga ipi natamol ni teetwei

Go komam unrogo kin apu me ati nigmam ruto nigmam trausi na ipi natamol nen ipram, ipram kotkot.

Malnen ina kefak, itu sa imur na kefak Ermag.

Malnen isiwer ur ntas kin ipak Ermag, go ntas ipamor naputwen.

Esan mana ruta lom mau.

Me ina ipak Ermag pan kaimer ler mai go naliati iskei welkia Ermag, ipi, kutae to Efat go kuto lek Ermag.

Emeltig mas.

Me, teni, teni Ermag, teni Efat rupregi imaet

Go itrau to nrus ki Ermag ipak inrus pa, me welkia ina ilao ki npaun pak ntas tefla.

Me ipregi teflan ki nana go ntas ipo puk.

Welkia, ipreg na paun pak ntas tefla me ipul ki npaun tefla, nen kin ntas ina ifuk.

Go, kupo kano lek Ermag.

Go malnen kin itu san to, itu Efat toto panpan malnen kin imat, go tiawi ni esan rupo tan ki.

Me nlaken ipram top go rupo pelkin itol wes.

Natrauswen ni mantu, kafo traus mantu nen kin ito.

Ore mantu nen ito Erontpau teetwei ga ito pan, ito pak Ermag.

Ito esan to, pan pan imur kefak Ermag, kemer pak Ermag pa, go naliati iskei ipan.

Go kipiatlak na, atol, ipiatlak atol me,

ga, mantu nen, imai, ipsol ki atol,

atol inru ipsol ki atol inru.

Go gar atol nra nen rapato Ermag.

Walking to Erro

Go namer ni Ermag runa rukwatgi. Runa rukwatgi.

Go kitli na, “Kafo gamus tao atol keto rakto san tok. Akam kofo teleekor atol, me kineu kafo mer ler pak naur ni Efat.”

Go mees imai to Efat.

Go mantu nen ito esan rusoso ki Ewor, ito mees ne.

Kafo gaag traus naor sees a?

Ermag. Ag kutae Erontpau?

Erontpau ipiatlak natiel iskei itok. Aleka ki namtak.

Natiel wan rop mifala i talem natiel

Me natiel nen ito, esan kin na fei kia, Thanh

Kutae ana katraus natiel nen kin, me

kafo psa ki etog, me akam kin kofo ona, konrog sokso ki teplan ato traus me go kofo welu wou wes.

I kat wan ples we hu ia, Thanh i putum haos long hem long Erontpau.

Hemia oli kolem Blue Hole.

I kat wan ol olfala. Mi wantem talem se natraus-wen ni Ermag

Sernale nen kin rumai tu wes to, olgeta samting we oli kam stap long Erontpau oli blong Erromango.

Long taem bifo ol olfala blong Erontpau oli, taem oli wantem wan samting oli mas askem we,

ol tapu man blong Ermag. Sapos yumi wantem wan samting bambae yu mas askem olgeta blong Erromango.

Rupaoski, rupaos ki Ermag, Ermag ituer sernale.

Kumur tenamrun Ermag kefo.

Ipiatlak natiel iskei ito san kin aa,

Thanh ipreg nasum wes mees ne.

Ipiatlak natiel iskei, natiel pur aleka ki namtak.

Ito pau pag ito pau elag nana, natog.

Me natiel ne hem i no gat stampa blong hem.

Nick Thieberger

Be yu ko yu luk we hem i stap antap long, long ol natongtong.

Long ples ia. Yu luk we i defren, yu luk we yu no save faenem stampa blong hem.

Kutap lek na nlaken mau.

Ipi nmaagwen, me ipiatlak afsak iskei itok, naik, afsak. Rusoso ki afsak.

Ito na eluk sees nen kin Thanh ipo preg ptaki. Naik rupo tu wes to.

Itototo panpanpan malnen rustat klin ki Eront-pau.

Go namrun nen rusef ler pan pak Ermag pa.

Ruto Ermag panpan tuk mees ne.

Natiel ipuel. Afsak ipuel.

Tepur knen nen amurin kanriki ki kin mees ne, natamol kin ruto pan puel Erontpau.

Ipiatlak natlaken, ito watgir.

Akit tuf laap pa, akit iskei kefo puel.

Go Erontpau ipiatlak nlaken.

Namer ni Ermag rutae, teflan sernale gar ruto mai pak, Erakor.

Erontpau. Erontpau itpau ser naor naor ilfek ki Efat,

Ipi naor nen kin itap top.

In the prelude to telling this story, Metu Josef referred to the twelve winged women who flew to Erromango from Efate. She used the term 'angel' to describe the flying women, but makes the point that they are just mortal humans with wings.

Ruto los ena, ruto pan los Ermag me gar,

rupi nana, rupi nafet nmatu mas.

Nmatuerik. Me kin rulao ki nafarur runrir. Runrir mai pak e

rupak Ermag pan rupan los.

Me ruto pregi ser nrak.

Rupan los panpan inom tefla. Kin, pata preg tenen mau.

Me katraus teflan tukpe pei nrogo.

Ina rupa, rupan me

ruto elag sanpe e ilakor pi

rupato, rupato e Epuf me,

rumur na rukfak, e, rufan los sanpe.

Walking to Erro

Rutrau stat nrir trau pa. Rupa.

Malen kin runa rukfa, rutmer, rutmer, runa runa rutmer …

mai ponkir panpan inom tefla, rutmer fer panpan inom. Rutmalu.

Rutmalu, kainrir panpanpan rupan lao Ermag.

Rupan lao Ermag, rulao tete nai nen kin, nai itop Ermag, me ata tae sef nai kin rupakes mau.

Ale rupan na, rulos, rulos teflan pan inom.

Me, kano iskei ga ikus to, ikus to leker.

Me rulos panpan inom teflan rumai

pak euut teflan, kutae rujenj panpan panpan go go inom.

Tefla. Rupreg na,

rulao ki nafarur tefla, me runrir, runa ruknrir.

Me iskei me iskei nafarun ipuel.

Go inrogtesa wes. Ruileles panpan me rukano wes.

Me kano nen kin ikus to israkor na nafarun na teesa nmatu ne.

Go mal tefla nen kin al ipak etan teflan, me tenen ruipa.

Me nmatu, teesa nmatu nen nmatu nen ito kait nafarun.

Ikaiten panpan.

Ruito, runa, “Ag pato me mam kofan me.”

Runa ruto kaipa me, ga ito.

Ito panpan go natamol nen israkoro ipo mai.

Imai na ina, ipo psir na, “Ag kuto lel nafte?” Go ipo tli,

“E, Me nafarum ga ilakor to, ko naat ifla wesi.”

Me ga iwesi.

Ipregkoro ito panpan mal skei mau nen kin.

Gar rukui mai go ina, “E, naat ilakor srakor, nana nafarum. Akit talakor pan nru pan matur.

Go kiplake pa, kiplake pan, ranru matur.

Iplake pan ramatur panpan panpan, kipi nmatu ni kano nen to.

Panpan go, ita pokoro ki puur lisan ito.

Me israkor wi ki, me ito panpan go ipitlak teesa inru, teesa nanwei inru.

Teesa ni kano ne. Kano nen ina ito pan go ina, “Koto me kamer pak talmat pa.”

Nick Thieberger

Malnen kin ipak talmat pa, ipato panpan imalik, mai ki nmatu nen ito.

Me ruta pamor namrun nen mau, me ito pan kaipe pi nmatu ga to, me

ito mro ki namer ga nen kin ruipe pa.

Ruto mai traem panrogo me, ina, “Nafaruk ita puel. Kapei to.”

Ito pan panpan nrak iskei go

teesa sees nra nen, rato pan me ratili na rukgar preg nas a?

Go rata tup, go ratup na. Go nas a go

teemol seserik nen kin ruto sil sil na, e, panpan …

Teemol iskei ina, kutae ofag?

Ina isef pan trau sil puur lisan ne.

Malen kin kaaru ipo na inrea teflan trau pamor tenamrun pur ni Mama ga.

Me maarik nen ga kipe pak talmat pa.

Ipak talmat pan pato talmat tu me,

teesa ne ipamori me itrau slati pan.

Inrik iak ga ki na, “He, e.”

Iak ga ki na, “Apamor namrun iskei me itrau wipewi.”

Ale ipeikin kin teflan go itrau mur me ina, “O atrau semsem lek namrun go.”

Go itrau na, malfanen kaigar preg nafnag ki, me kafo traem wes. Ilakor ta wi to ki.”

Igar preg nafnag panpan, nen kin ketaor ki.

Igar preg nafnag panpanpan rato fam.

Isol kutae tenamrun ni tiawi nen kin ruto- runa ntae a?

Ilofir kin panpan rawi to.

Ipregi ralos panpan inom me rapo ipo gar pregi.

Pan inom ina, “Raknrokof nafnag gamus to, me

kineu katraem nana, namrun ne, katraem wes. Ilakor ta wi to ko?”

Malen kin ipo traem teflan itrau tae nrir a?

Isemsem wes, me, ina imai kaimer mai

imai sog namer nran ne, inakin, “Kafo tao mus ki.

Me raktorek ki apap gamus to.”

Walking to Erro

Me maarik nen ipato me inrogo teflan kin

al ito pamas, me iwelkia tfa ito kat.

Go ina, “Mes nen tfa kin ito kat neu me al ito pa.”

Me mtulep ga ito por na, ntali pur iskei ito emau ga a?

Me ito krakporpor namrun ne, nen kin kenrogo me kemai.

Pregi panpanpan inom tefla, na nra ntali ien

Me mtulep kipe pa, a? Maarik nen imai mai mro ki na ipo taos ser na, mal

Po na imai ki tenran rato, ina

ilek, ileka teflan kin rapi na, ntae ito a?

Rupamor namrun nen, mtulep nen ipan kipak namlen pa.

Malen kin imai,

imai na inrikin ki tefla, go ranrikin kin na na, “O Mama nigmam kipe pa.”

Kipe pak namlen pa.

“Me fei kin ipamori?” Go rana, “Komam, komam rapamori.”

Go itraem laokin kia kunrog na, nra ntali nen ien kia ruto maltelit. Go ina

“O anrogo me amro ki nana tfa ito kat, me al ito pa.”

“E ga kia ipregi.” Panpan kipa. Ipan pan tuk mees ne.

Kipe pak namlen pa.

Nick Thieberger

Arts of VanuatuThe artefacts tell their story. Vanuatu Arts.

An Erromangan (Sye) Grammar.Ura: a disappearing language of Southern Vanuatu.

Nguna Voices: Text and Culture from Central Vanuatu

Discovering history through language: Papers in honour of Malcolm Ross-

PLoS Genet

Archaeology and languages I: Theoretical and methodological orientations

We are the ocean: selected works

Walking to Erro

The Southern New Hebrides: an ethnological record.

Oceanic LinguisticsProceedings of the Second

International Conference on Oceanic Linguistics

The linguistic history of Southern VanuatuLa bonne vie: Le rêve et la réalité.

Customs in conflictSocial change in the Pacific islands

Cross-cultural consumption

Mémoire de Pierre, mémoire d’homme: tradition et archéologie en Océanie

Nguna texts: a collection of traditional and modern narratives from the central New Hebrides.

Ethnology of Vanuatu: An early twentieth century study.

Indo-Pacific Prehistory Association BulletinA Grammar of South Efate: An Oceanic Language of Vanuatu

Natrauswen nig Efat, Stories from South Efate.

Arts of Vanuatu

Endangered languages in the Pacific: Essays on their Documentation, Archiving, and Revitalization.

Nabanga: an illustrated anthology of the oral traditions of Vanuatu.

Tesa! Mal natrausuen.

Oceania

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