kmdm the literature of France, from the mid-800s until the present considered one of the richest and most varied national literatures, noted especially for its examination of human society and the individuals place within society does not include francophone literature reflects the cultural and political history of France Until the French Revolution of 1789, France had a social and political system that was arranged by rank or class. The hierarchy of genres had epic poetry at the top and the more common prose genres, such as the novel, at the bottom. major transformation of the society and political system of France, lasting from 1789 to 1799 early 1800s: Writers associated with the romanticism movement called for the abolition of all the literary rules established by the LAcadmie Franaise (The French Academy) signaled a change in the French literary landscape characterized by creative freedom and innovation, culminating in such 20th century movements as dada, surrealism, existentialism, theater of the absurd, the new novel, and postmodernism French literary traditions have endured. encompasses nearly six centuries, more than the remaining periods of French literary history combined begins with La squence de Sainte Eulalie (The Life of Saint Eulalia), a church song in fourteen couplets that dates from the late 800s ends with the printing of the complete works of poet Franois Villon in 1489 Much of French medieval literature is sacred. Many writers addressed the deeds of French nobility and kings and Crusaders. French literature focused on both religious and political subjects. in harmony with the worldview of the time, which assigned equal power to church and state Frances political situation was relatively stable. reign of Hugh Capet brought stability to France and established a hierarchy that promised social and political stability Literary genres fell into two competing categories in France. Some genres affirmed the hierarchical social structure. scholastic quests after eternal truths, liturgical dramas on biblical themes, and epic poems known as chansons de geste Some genres questioned the hierarchical social structure. courtly literature and satirical literature Early literary forms Scholasticism: the medieval way of learning and teaching consisted of studying the Bible, the Sententiarum libri quator (Four Books of Sentences the standard theological text of the Middle Ages) by 12th century Italian theologian Peter Lombard Liturgical dramas enacted in Latin the stories of Christmas, Easter, the Ascension, and other biblical events. Le jeu d'Adam (Adam's Play) and La sainte rsurrection (The Holy Resurrection) Early literary forms mystery plays: written texts on subjects from the Bible chansons de geste (songs of great deeds, 11th 13th centuries): epic poems that depict the Crusades and wars fought among the aristocracy first and most famous: Chanson de Roland (1100?; Song of Roland) describes Charlemagnes holy war against the Saracens in Spain, his relationships with his vassals, feudal rivalries within his army, and the martyrdom of the hero Roland Forms of Protest Courtly literature protested against the restrictions of the feudal system and its values, and satirical literature exposed that systems dark side. Courtly literature examined the social and personal consequences of a system that fostered arranged marriages and advocated the submission of the individual to higher forces and beings. Satirical literature expressed with realism, humor, and sometimes bitterness the reality of life behind the feudal ideal. Forms of Protest Eleanor of Aquitaine: queen consort of France fostered the tradition of the troubadours, lyric poets from Provence whose verses centered on love Guillaume de Lorris: wrote Le Roman de la Rose (The Romance of the Rose), an allegorical poem in which a rose stands for the beloved and a garden for courtly life Forms of Protest The middle class developed a literature that reflected its own tastes and preoccupations. a narrative, satirical, picturesque, realistic, and sometimes smutty literature masterpiece: Le Roman de Renart (The Romance of Reynard) fabliau: a short narrative in verse that flourished in the 13th and 14th centuries consisted of the contes rire (tales for laughing) and the contes moraux ou edifiants (moral or edifying tales) Lyric Poetry Beginning in the 13th century, French literature began to break away from old forms. Lyric poetry traditionally had been accompanied by music and had expressed the thoughts and emotions of an individual who spoke as I. 13th century Jean Bodel, Colin Muset, and Rutebeuf wrote a less conventional kind of poetry in which the poets personality played an essential role and established a distinctive voice. Lyric Poetry change in lyric poetry culminated in the works of Franois Villon, one of the greatest of all French lyric poets French poet, considered by many scholars Frances outstanding lyric poet famous for the beauty and originality, as well as the evocative quality, of his verse His work, Testament (1461), is a masterpiece of French literature. It reviews his own vagabond life and relates it to human life in general. Franois Villon (1431?-1463?) The Renaissance in France coincided with the 16th century. th an age marked by intense intellectual and artistic activity during which writers explored new ideas and new literary forms The new way of thinking began to filter into France after the outbreak of the Wars of Italy in 1494. French armies returning from Italy brought knowledge of the Italian Renaissance, of the taste and luxurious living of the Italian nobility, and of the new values of humanism. Humanism th promoted the revival of Greek and Roman artistic and philosophical models that celebrated the worth of the individual The royal courts of King Francis I and his sister Margaret of Navarre in particular fostered the humanist spirit. 1530 King Francis I founded an institution for the study of ancient languages (the study of the humanities was the core curriculum) eventually evolved into the distinguished Collge de France Humanism th rhtoriqueurs: a group of poets devoted to the old ideas of rhetoric (rules of composition) and form, dominated the first quarter of the century Clment Marot: the first great poet of the century; the last representative of the Middle Ages and the first of the Renaissance; introduced the sonnet to France French writer, whose boisterous satirical work, with its emphasis on individual liberty and its enthusiasm for knowledge and life, is a vigorous expression of Renaissance humanism the first great French writer of Renaissance prose Franois Rabelais (1494?-1553) brought together the humanist passion for knowledge and the Italian love of beauty and pleasure created the fictional giants Pantagruel and Gargantua Humanism th Margaret of Navarre the author of L'heptamron (1559; The Heptameron), a collection of tales Maurice Scve the chief representative of L'Ecole lyonnaise (The School of Lyons) Other Trends th Joachim du Bellay: a French poet who issued a manifesto entitled La dfence et illustration de la langue franaise (The Defense and Illustration of the French Language) the manifesto of a group of poets known as La Plade La Plade: a Renaissance group restyling French literature on Greek and Roman models announced the groups goal of elevating the French language and its literature to a level at least as illustrious as that achieved by the Greeks, Romans, and Italians Other Trends th Pierre de Ronsard: a French poet of the Pliade famous for Odes, Amours de Cassandre (Loves of Cassandra), La Franciad (epic), and Sonnets for Helene (love poems) La Plade: composed of seven poets --- Joachim du Bellay, Pierre de Ronsard, Etienne Jodelle, Rmy Belleau, Jacques Peletier du Mans, Antoine de Baf, and Pontus de Tyard Civil War between Roman Catholics and Protestants in France th the so-called Wars of Religion (1562-1598) the most violent single incident in 1572 Massacre of Saint Bartholomews Day Catholics murdered about 2,000 Protestants in Paris. The violence did not end until King Henry IV converted to Catholicism in 1593 and issued the Edict of Nantes in 1598. the decree giving partial religious freedom to the Huguenots (French Protestants) ended the Wars of Religion revoked by Louis XIV in 1685 King Henry IV Wars of Religion (1562-1598) th The great poet of the period was Thodore Agrippa dAubign (1552-1630). Histoire universelle (major prose work): a lively, mostly eyewitness history of the Huguenots during the second half of the 16th century Les tragiques (1616; The Tragic Ones): an epic in which he praised God and Protestantism, deplored war's cruelty, and touched on the sciences, magic, and political and military affairs French writer who introduced the essay as a literary form wrote Essais (Essays) essai: his efforts to search for, study, and explain himself and, by extension, the human condition Michel Eyquem de Montaigne (1533-1592) created the modern personal essay and left an indelible example of Renaissance individualism For France, the 17th century was le grand sicle (the great century), lge classique (the classical age), and the century of le roi soleil (the sun king) Louis XIV. th classicism and an emphasis on classical ideas of order, restraint, clarity, and reason French literature French scholars formulated rules governing literary style. chief literary forms: drama, satire, and novel two important and related questions What is the truth of the human heart? What ideal should society have for its members? led to the great preoccupation of the century: the relationship between human passions and human reason king of France (1643-1715), known as the Sun King brought to fulfillment the idea of absolute monarchy French culture flourished under Louis XIV, and French culture, manners, and thought spread throughout Europe. (1638-1715) Baroque Period th the period before classicism hallmarks of the baroque style: illusion, mystery, emotionality, multiplicity, dynamism, and depth prciosit (preciosity or preciousness): the style that most fully represented the baroque period Htel de Rambouillet: the liveliest Paris literary salon hosted by Catherine de Vivonne, Marquise de Rambouillet important writers of the period: Franois de Malherbe, Jacques-Bnigne Bossuet, and Marie de Rabutin-Chantal, Marquise de Svign Classical Period th Armand du Plessis de Richelieu (1585-1642) French cardinal and statesman, who more than anyone else, promoted absolutism in France and laid the foundations of the country's 17th century grandeur prime minister of King Louis XIII wished to control the French language and French literature asked a group of writers to form the French Academy Classical Period thFrench Academy (L'Acadmie Franaise, 1635) the oldest of the five learned societies that make up the Institut de France worked on compiling a French dictionary and planned a grammar, a rhetoric, and a poetic that would lay down the rules for literary composition centered on the notion of catharsis as the function of tragedy major literary debate on the rules for theater catharsis: possible by invoking Aristotles three dramatic unities (the unity of action, the unity of place, and the unity of time) Classical Period th French Academy (L'Acadmie Franaise, 1635) Pierre Corneille (1606-1684) French dramatist whose plays are masterpieces of classical French literature produced the tragedies Le Cid (based on a Spanish play), Horace, Cinna, and Polyeucte Ren Descartes (1596-1650) French philosopher, scientist, and mathematician, sometimes called the father of modern philosophy proposed a philosophy based on reason and advocated the use of scientific principles to discover truth Trait des passions (1649; Treatise on Passion) describes the struggle involved in using reason to control the passions. Classical Period th Blaise Pascal (1623-1662) French philosopher, mathematician, and physicist, considered one of the great minds in Western intellectual history Jean Baptiste Racine (1639-1699) French dramatist, considered the greatest writer of French classical tragedy masterpieces: Andromaque (1667; Andromache), Iphignie (1674; Iphignia), and Phdre (1677; Phaedra) reflected the pessimism of the Jansenists in his Lettres provinciales (1656-1657; The Provincial Letters) and Les penses (1670; The Thoughts of Pascal) Classical Period th Molire (1622-1673) born Jean-Baptiste Poquelin was interested in the workings of the human heart, the ideal member of society, and the relationship between reason and the passions Frances greatest comic dramatist (the master of comedy) who produced, directed, and acted in the plays he wrote masterpiece: Le misanthrope (1666; The Misanthrope), the story of an incompatible couple first successful comedy: The Conceited Ladies, a satire on contemporary women Classical Period th Jean de La Fontaine (1621-1695) French writer who produced the most famous fables of modern times drew on the fables of several other storytellers including Aesop, Phaedrus, and Pilpay known for his Fables choisies mises en vers (Selected Fables Versified) Classical Period th Querelle des anciens et des modernes (The Quarrel of the Ancients and Moderns) Ancients (supported Greek and Roman authors): Greek and Roman culture remained superior and provided a goal toward which contemporary writers and artists ought to strive divided writers toward the end of the 17th century into two camps according to whom they thought superior Moderns (supported contemporary writers): contemporary writers represented the maturity of human intellect and because human thought and culture had progressed, the contemporary intellectuals had surpassed the Greeks and Romans; included Charles Perrault and Bernard Le Bovier de Fontenelle Age of Enlightenment The 18th Century(Age of Enlightenment) a term used to describe the trends in thought and letters in Europe and the American colonies during the 18th century prior to the French Revolution emergence from centuries of darkness and ignorance into a new age enlightened by reason, science, and a respect for humanity 18th century in Europe (Age of Enlightenment) The 18th Century(Age of Enlightenment) period of intellectual curiosity and experimentation based on an abiding faith in the power of human reason to unlock the mysteries of nature and society steady advancement of civilization through scientific progress les philosophes (the philosophers) French writers and thinkers who had the desire for improvement of the general human condition through tolerance, freedom, and equality 35-volume Encyclopdie (The Encyclopedia), a project headed by Denis Diderot and Jean d'Alembert advanced opinions of the time on philosophy, politics, religion, civil law, and other subjects newfound intellectual energy in France = questioning of authority of all sorts The 18th Century(Age of Enlightenment) The political turmoil and consequent weakening of royal power led to stronger expressions of dissent and of doubts about the established culture and government. The culmination was the French Revolution. France went through a period of crisis (from Louis XIV to Louis XV). Changes in French society were reflected in changing literary preferences. The traditional hierarchy of literary genres was altered by newly elevated forms. prose novel and short story: significant genres favored by the emerging bourgeoisie The most important philosophes Charles de Montesquieu, Jean Jacques Rousseau, Voltaire, and Diderot all wrote fiction as well as nonfiction essays on a variety of topics. The 18th Century(Age of Enlightenment) were hostile to thought based on authority, prejudice, fanaticism, superstition, and the assumption that one principle can explain all Charles de Montesquieu (1689-1755) French writer and jurist, perhaps best known for De l'esprit des lois (1748; The Spirit of Laws), the first great work of political sociology literary masterpiece: Les lettres persanes (1721; The Persian Letters) Voltaire (1694-1778) The 18th Century(Age of Enlightenment) pseudonym of Franois Marie Arouet, French writer and philosopher who was one of the leaders of the Enlightenment Lettres philosophiques (1734; The Philosophical Letters) Voltaire admired English customs and institutions while attacking their French counterparts known for his attacks on religion and is usually called a deist reflected in his masterpiece, the philosophical tale Candide (1759) was called the personification of the Age of Enlightenment satirizes the Optimism (by Gottfried Wilhelm Leibniz) Denis Diderot (1713-1784) The 18th Century(Age of Enlightenment) French encyclopedist and philosopher who also wrote novels, essays, plays, and art and literary criticism wrote an epistolary novel called La religieuse (written 1760, published 1796; The Nun) Neveu de rameau (written 1761-1774, published 1805; Rameau's Nephew) follows the uncommon form of a dialogue the most subtle thinker of the philosophes Jacques le fataliste (1796; Jacques the Fatalist): a novel in the form of a series of dialogues Jean Jacques Rousseau (1712-1778) The 18th Century(Age of Enlightenment) French philosopher, social and political theorist, musician, botanist, and one of the most eloquent writers of the Age of Enlightenment known as the Father of Romanticism famous statement: I felt before I thought. concerned with human sentiment and human intellect and believed in God treatise Le contrat social (1762; The Social Contract): provided a philosophical basis for the French Revolution wrote La nouvelle Hlose (1761; The New Heloise), a lengthy epistolary novel, and Confessions (1781, 1788; The Confessions), his autobiography Other novelists of the periodThe 18th Century(Age of Enlightenment) Alain-Ren Lesage, Pierre Marivaux, Abb Prvost, and Pierre Choderlos de Laclos Pierre Augustin Caron de Beaumarchais play Le mariage de Figaro (1784; The Marriage of Figaro) Andr Marie de Chnier (1762-1794) French poet regarded as the greatest lyric poet of the 18th century and as a forerunner of the French romantic poets France: a country struggling to deal with the aftermath of the Revolution th Romanticism, realism, naturalism, Parnassianism, and symbolism were the concepts, movements, and schools that dominated. The novel (preeminent democratic genre) continued to prosper. literary history: a series of efforts to replace the classicism of the 17th and 18th centuries and its emphasis on order, reason, and clarity Romanticism th echoed the demand for freedom in the political sphere emphasized the role of the imagination and a subjective approach in creativity, along with freedom of thought and expression called for the abolition of the rules created in the 17th century by the French Academy opposed any limitations placed upon the individual artist by cultural or political powers French romanticism: began with De la littrature (1800; On Literature) by Madame Germaine de Stal (1766-1817) de Stal: defined romanticism as the rejection of classicism and suggested that lyricism was its chief characteristic Romanticism th Alexandre Dumas (1802-1870) French novelist and playwright of the romantic period, known as Dumas pre the most widely read of all French writers best remembered for his historical novels historical novel: employed couleur locale (local color the use of distinctive detail in plots, characters, and especially to descriptions of customs, people, places, and objects intended to ensure historical accuracy) The Three Musketeers (1844; trans. 1846) and The Count of Monte-Cristo (1844; trans. 1846) Romantic School/Movement th started in 1823 in the literary salon of Charles Nodier, which was frequented by the four great romantic poets of France Victor Hugo, Alfred de Vigny, Alfred de Musset, and Alphonse de Lamartine expressed intensely personal feelings and a concern with humankinds relation to nature and the universe romantic pathetic fallacy: projection of human feeling onto inanimate nature Victor Hugo (1802-1885) th French poet, novelist, and playwright whose voluminous works provided the single greatest impetus to the romantic movement the leader of the romantic movement in France published the verse drama Cromwell, which established him as a proponent of the romantic movement a leader of the authors who rejected many of the rules that had governed French drama in the classical age wrote the historical novels Notre-Dame de Paris (The Hunchback of Notre Dame, 1833) and Les Misrables, and Quatre-vingt-treize (Ninety-Three) Romantic School/Movement Alfred de Vigny (1797-1863) th French romantic poet, novelist, and dramatist wrote the historical novel Cinq Mars (1826; trans. 1847) and the romantic drama Chatterton (1835; trans. 1908) Romantic School/Movement Alfred de Musset (1810-1857) French poet of the romantic movement comedies of manners: Les caprices de Marianne (The Caprices of Marianne, 1833) and On ne badine pas avec l'amour (No Trifling with Love, 1834) autobiography: La confession d'un enfant du sicle (Confessions of a Child of the Century, 1836) Alphonse de Lamartine (1790-1869) th French poet, man of letters, and statesman, who was a leader in the romantic movement Romantic School/Movement known chiefly for his poetry the romantic characteristics of conventional sentiment expressed with lyric grace and refinement, an atmosphere of gentle melancholy, and particularly effective descriptions of rural scenery a prolific writer of fiction and of biographical, critical, and historical works wrote the autobiographical novels Raphal (1849) and Graziella (1852; trans. 1876) Realism th outstanding feature: the concern for accurate, detailed description pursuit of scientific accuracy reflected a desire to keep pace with the scientific methods and discoveries of the period can be seen in Stendhals Le rouge et le noir (1831; The Red and the Black) and in Eugnie Grandet (1833) and Le Pre Goriot (1834; Father Goriot) by Honor de Balzac Honor de Balzac (1799-1850) French author, one of the worlds great novelists masterpiece: La comdie humaine (1842-1848; translated as The Human Comedy, 1895-1900), a cycle of about 90 novels describing French society in detail Gustave Flaubert (1821-1880) th French writer, considered the father of realism or realistic fiction Realism known for his novels Madame Bovary (1857; translated 1886) and Lducation sentimentale (1869; Sentimental Education, 1898) influenced the development of the modern novel, most notably in his works detailed, objective observation of everyday life and their concern for form Naturalism th Hippolyte Adolphe Taine (1828-1893) French literary and art critic and historian and one of the leading exponents of positivism published Les philosophes classiques du XIXe sicle en France (Classic French Philosophers of the 19th Century) the application of scientific methods to the study of human nature and history asserted the importance of formative influences as "la race, le milieu, et le moment" ("race [heredity], environment, and historical moment") for human character and society Edmond Louis Antoine de Goncourt and Jules Alfred Huot de Goncourt formed a bridge between realism and an extreme form of realism, called naturalism novel: Germinie Lacerteux (1864) was a precursor of naturalism Naturalism th mile Zola (1840-1902) French novelist, essayist, and critic the chief advocate and practitioner in France of a movement known as naturalism wrote Les Rougon-Macquart (1871-1893; The Rougon-Macquarts), a cycle of 20 novels contains the masterpieces of naturalism L'assomoir (1877; The Dram Shop) and Germinal (1885) Other major naturalist novelists Guy de Maupassant, Alphonse Daudet, Joris Karl Huysmans, and Henry Card Henri Becques Les corbeaux (1882; The Crows): the best naturalist play Parnassians Parnassian school of poetry named after Parnassus, the legendary Greek mountain th leaders: Thophile Gautier and Charles Marie Ren Leconte de Lisle Gautier's theory of art for arts sake and de Lisle's notion of pure art the Parnassians revolt against the emotionalism of romanticism in favor of technical perfection and an impersonal attitude published the journal Le Parnasse contemporain (The Contemporary Parnassus) began with Romances sans paroles (1874; Romances Without Words) by Paul Verlaine and L'aprs-midi d'un faune (1876; The Afternoon of a Faun) by Stphane Mallarm th Symbolist Movement Symbolists used fluid and musical versification, impressions, intuitions, and sensations. wanted to evoke rather than describe symbol: meant to provoke and evoke different associations in different readers proclaimed that the imagination was the true interpreter of reality an aesthetic movement that encouraged writers to express their ideas, feelings, and values by means of symbols or suggestions rather than by direct statements th Symbolist Movement wrote Le bateau ivre (1871, The Drunken Boat) his use of bizarre imagery and his bold experimentation with language profoundly influenced many later French poets Arthur Rimbaud: the greatest symbolist poet Other symbolist writers Jules Laforgue, Henri de Rgnier, Jean Moras, Tristan Corbire, and Jean Marie Mathias Philippe Auguste Villiers de l'Isle-Adam Symbolist Movement th Charles Baudelaire (1821-1867) French poet and critic, a leader of the symbolist school wrote the volume of poetry Les fleurs du mal (1857; The Flowers of Evil) deeply influenced the symbolists through his concept and use of les correspondances (the correspondences) between the colors, scents, and sounds of this world, and their correspondences with another world noted for his emphasis on the musicality of poetry th French literature: contended with the impact of two cataclysms: World War I (1914-1918) and World War II (1939-1945) beliefs that came into question: the faith in human nature inherited from the Renaissance, the faith in material progress bequeathed by the Enlightenment, and the worship of technology passed on by the Industrial Revolution French writers live in a new world of nuclear energy, computerization, and increased media influence. Belle Epoque early years of the 20th century: the belle epoque (beautiful epoch) in France th an exhilarating period of economic prosperity and progress poems of Guillaume Apollinaire (1880-1918) made bold experiments in form and style, eliminating punctuation and juxtaposing seemingly unrelated images Calligrammes: most important collection of verse The poems took the shape of the image they described. Some writers continued using the 19th century forms. playwright Edmond Rostand and his classic play, Cyrano de Bergerac Dada and Surrealism After the outbreak of World War I, many French writers and artists fled to neutral Switzerland. th Dada Movement founder: Tristan Tzara (French essayist and poet) dada: a childs word for hobbyhorse The meaninglessness of the name represented the assault they launched on reason. slogan: "Plus rien, rien, RIEN, RIEN, RIEN" (Nothing more, nothing, nothing, NOTHING, NOTHING, NOTHING) Dada and Surrealism th Surrealism an artistic and literary movement that explored and celebrated the realm of dreams and the unconscious mind through the creation of visual art, poetry, and motion pictures headed in the beginning by Andr Breton, and included such poets as Paul luard and Louis Aragon automatic writing: surrealists wrote down whatever words came into their minds two factions in 1938: one led by Andr Breton and the other led by Philippe Soupault th Between the World Wars The novel remained the dominant literary genre. novelists: Colette, Jean Cocteau, Raymond Radiguet, and Franois Mauriac four great novels of the period Andr Gide's Les faux-monnayeurs (1926; The Counterfeiters, 1928) Louis-Ferdinand Clines Voyage au bout de la nuit (1932; Journey to the End of the Night, 1934) Andr Malrauxs La condition humaine (1933; Man's Fate, 1934) and L'espoir (1937; Mans Hope, 1938) th Between the World Wars The novel remained the dominant literary genre. Marcel Proust (1871-1922), French writer greatest novel of the period: the 16-volume la recherche du temps perdu (1913-1927; Remembrance of Things Past, 1922-1931) explored the depths of the human psyche, subconscious motivations, and the irrationality of human behavior, particularly in relation to love vivid portrayal of France before and after World War I Proust's claim to conquer time and mortality through memories th Between the World Wars Theater was characterized by a return to the themes of ancient myth. Playwrights sought universal and timeless values and truths to counteract the nihilism of their own times. the forgers of myth: a group of playwrights that included Jean Anouilh, Albert Camus, and Jean-Paul Sartre th Existentialism Much literature after World War II was in reaction to the German occupation of France during the war. Jean-Paul Sartre, Andr Malraux, Simone de Beauvoir, Ren Char, and Albert Camus philosophical movement or tendency, emphasizing individual existence, freedom, and choice writers in the resistance movement: considered heroes after the liberation of France philosophy of existentialism Camus, Sartre, and Beauvoir continued to dominate the novel and theater after the war. Other Postwar Developments th Many poets of the postwar period came out of the surrealist movement or were deeply influenced by it. the most important postwar development in the theater in the 1950s mid- and late 20th century: modern poetry in France became increasingly personal, obscure, and hard to understand thtre de labsurde (theater of the absurd) pointed out the inadequacy of language for communication and the absence of meaning in everyday life employed illogical situations, unconventional dialogue, and minimal plots to express the apparent absurdity of human existence masterpieces: Eugne Ionescos La cantatrice chauve (1950; The Bald Soprano, 1956) and Samuel Becketts En attendant Godot (1952; Waiting for Godot, 1954) Other Postwar Developments nouveau roman (new novel) th a group of novels written in the 1950s common characteristics fragmentation of plot, chronology, and characters Samuel Becketts Molloy (1951; translated 1955), Nathalie Sarrautes Le plantarium (1959; The Planetarium, 1960), Alain Robbe-Grillets La jalousie (1957; Jealousy, 1959), etc. the use of innovative narrative techniques the blurring of boundaries between poetry, drama, and the novel the theme of the incommunicability of language Other Postwar Developments modern French poetry, theater of the absurd, and the new novel th a deep skepticism and even pessimism about the possibility of knowing reality, especially through the use of language 20th century literature moved toward silence. Poetry lost much of its audience. The theater of the absurd left few alternatives for the future. The new novel proposed to put an end to the novel as a method of storytelling. Oulipo (for OUvroir de LItterature POtentielle; in English, Workshop for Literary Potentiality) led by Raymond Queneau suggested that strict form and rules (often mathematical) be applied to literature, all inspiration be sacrificed to calculation, and literature become a sort of intellectual game Literary Criticism th The crisis in literature (evident in the 1960s) resulted in a crisis for those who study it. New Criticism: methods and conceptual schemes from linguistics and the social sciences la nouvelle critique (New Criticism, led by Raymond Picard) vs. academic or university criticism (led by Roland Barthes) university criticism: importance to biographical, historical, cultural, and literary historical information Literary criticism moved through a series of schools of thought in an effort to use literature to examine the world in new ways. structuralism, poststructuralism, semiotics, deconstruction, feminist theory, and so-called queer theory The leading exponents of these movements have become the prominent literary figures of France. Contemporary Fiction The general reading public in France still likes a good novel, ensuring the continued vitality of French literature. th Marguerite Duras' L'Amant (1984; The Lover, 1985), Michel Tournier's Le roi des aulnes (1970; The Ogre, 1972), Jean-Marie Gustave Le Clzios Diego et Frieda (Diego and Frida, 1993), and Patrick Modianos Vestiaire de l'enfance (The Cloakroom of Childhood, 1989) characteristics of the late 20th century novels a return to traditional narration, allusions to other literary works, a focus on the problem of identity in the postmodern world, and the themes of multiculturalism and ecology Sources: Garcia, C. U., Rosales, P. G., & Dimalanta, O. A. (2001). An anthology of continental literature (13th century 20th century). Manila: UST Publishing House. Microsoft Encarta 2006. 1993-2005 Microsoft Corporation.