From Abd al-Malik to Hisham

Islamic History: the First 150 Years

Session Plan

1. Unity Restored

2. Umar ibn Abd al-Aziz

3. Hisham and the End of Expansion

4. Rumblings of Thunder

5. Readings

Section I: Unity Restored

Unity Lost• During the first 3 sessions, we looked at the

evolution of the early Muslim community• We saw that the central question facing the Muslim

state was that of leadership• In sessions one and two we looked at the differing

responses to these questions under Abu Bakr, Umar, Uthman and Ali

• We then looked at the break down of the patriarchal caliphate

• The first fitna: Ali & Mu’awiya• The second fitna: Umayyads, Husayn and Abdullah

ibn al-Zubayr• We also saw the emergence of a fourth trend, if

you will, that of the ‘neutrals’

Unity Restored• As we saw last week, with the death of Ibn al-

Zubayr, Abd al-Malik ibn Marwan became the undisputed caliph

• The reign of Abd al-Malik is an important one for a number of reasons

• Firstly, it is with him that the Umayyad empire takes its concrete form

• Secondly, his twenty year rule allowed relative peace and stability to return

• Thirdly, a number of important religious developments occur in his reign

• Fourthly, his reign (and that of his son Hisham) mark the effective zenith of the Umayyad empire

Unity Restored• However, despite his importance, we will not

be exploring his reign in fine detail• I intend to explore a number of key

elements, which, it is hoped, will paint a representative picture

• These include:• Relationships with Religious Notables• Iraq• Jerusalem• Further reading: C.F. Robinson Abd al-Malik

Relationships• Abd al-Malik’s relations with the religious elite are marked by ambiguity• Unlike earlier caliphs, Abd al-Malik had grown up in Islam• As a young man, he had shown a particular interest in the study of

Prophetic Traditions and in the biography of Muhammad• Some reports also state that he had memorised the entire Quran (hafiz

al-Quran)• Tradition, however, relates that his accession brought about a change• He is said to have subordinated everything to policy• That is, he seems to have taken the running of the empire seriously• Raja ibn Haiwa al-Kindi, an early religious figure, seems to have been

influential under him• Moreover, he also patronised ibn Shihab al-Zuhri, the early hadith

scholar and historian (whom we met last week)• Despite this, it is from his reign onwards that we begin to see learned

Muslims effectively staying away from involvement with the government• In other words, it was considered somewhat disreputable for a religious

scholar to be associated with the state• This may well be due to the increasingly negative view of the Umayyad

dynasty

Iraq• In Iraq, Abd al-Malik’s drive for stability and order

effectively meant the repression of rebellious elements

• His governor, al-Hajjaj ibn Yusuf al-Thaqafi, was infamous for his use of naked force

• His command began with what Hodgson describes as ‘terrifying violence’ in which 1000s are said to have died

• A major Kharijite revolt was also defeated• However, his harsh measures eventually prompted

sections of the army itself to revolt under ibn al-Ash’ath

• Al-Hajjaj also built a number of canals and irrigation channels

Other Measures• Abd al-Malik also reformed the coinage• The earlier method of using existing Byzantine and

Sassanid coinage was replaced• A new Islamic coinage was introduced• They were of a standard weight and metal standard

and helped stabilise the economy• They also carried ideological/religious messages• They were aniconic• Contained passages from the Quran and

statements of Islamic belief• They were so successful that they quickly became

the standard form of Muslim coinage

Post-Reform Coinage

Mecca & Jerusalem• The Ka’ba at Mecca the central shrine of Islam• Islamic tradition describes the sanctuary as being built by

Abraham and Ishmael• The Arab tribes who inherit the site eventually fall into

paganism• Key idols of Mecca:• Manat: literally meaning ‘fate’, this ‘deity’ was widely

worshipped throughout Arabia• Al-`Uzza: literally meaning ‘the mighty one’ (feminine)• Al-Lat: ‘the Goddess’• These three goddesses are the ‘deities’ named in the

Satanic Verses story• Believed to have power of intercession with Allah

Mecca & Jerusalem• Islamic tradition holds that Allah was recognised by

the pagan Arabs as a ‘High God’• Hubal: an imported ‘deity’ originally from Palestine• The tradition holds that on the conquest of Mecca,

Muhammad cleared the Kaba of some 360 idols• A suspiciously round number• Not impossible of course, but seems to represent a

‘god’ for every day of the solar year• The Meccan shrine, according to the tradition, was

thus the ritual centre of Islam from the beginning

Mecca & Jerusalem• Indeed there are numerous references to the ‘House’ in the

Quran• Some modern authorities, however, understand this

development differently• Crone and Cook – Hagarism• Within the Islamic framework, Mecca holds a particular

importance• During the early period of Islam (and indeed the whole of

Islamic history) control of the Meccan shrine was politically important

• Within our context, Abdullah in al-Zubayr’s control of Mecca enabled him to claim a large degree of legitimacy

• That is, God Himself, the ‘Lord of this House’ (surah quraysh), had given control of his sanctuary to ibn al-Zubayr

• Important propaganda value

Mecca and Jerusalem• Once in control of Umayyad Syria, Abd al-Malik began to

develop the Temple Mount area of Jerusalem• The Temple Mount had been empty for quite some time• Abd al-Malik built the Dome of the Rock• This is a deeply fascinating building • It is not a traditional mosque: it’s a hexagonal building built

around a central mount• This is believed to be the spot where Muhammad ascended

to heaven• Al-Zuhri cites a report in which Abd al-Malik allegedly built

the Dome of the Rock to compete with Mecca (then under Zubayrid control)

• A somewhat defaced inscription on the Dome of the Rock reads: ‘The servant of God, Abd al-Malik, the Amir al-Mumineen, built this Qubba in the year 72 hijri’

• Al-Ma’mun (an Abbasid Caliph) had Abd al-Malik’s name removed and his own put in its place

Mecca and Jerusalem• The most interesting question regarding the Dome of the

Rock is why?• Why build such an unusual sanctuary there, at this time?• The Dome is also adorned with Quranic calligraphy and is

one of the earliest uses of the Quran on architecture• The Quranic texts used on the Dome are also interesting

and probably point towards Abd al-Malik’s actual intentions• They quote passages from the Quran which refer to the

Islamic understanding of Jesus Christ• Specifically, they refer to Islam’s understanding that he was

not divine, but a human prophet• In other words, the Dome is thus part of a wider theological

debate• It was also probably meant to physically assert Islam’s

religious, theological and political superiority over both Judaism and Christianity

The Dome of the Rock

The Dome of the Rock

The Dome of the Rock

The Dome of the Rock

Questions?

Section II: Umar ibn Abd al-Aziz

Umar ibn Abd al-Aziz• Abd al-Malik had a large family and because of this four of his

children became caliphs after him• However, the most famous ruler after him was not actually his

son, but his nephew Umar ibn Abd al-Aziz• Umar is an interesting character and is the only Umayyad caliph

to be viewed positively by later Muslim tradition• Indeed, some even felt that he was the fifth ‘rightly guided caliph’

after Muhammad• Although there are a number of reasons for this, perhaps the most

significant of them is the perception of Umar’s motives• In other words, Umar is perceived to ruled through adherence to

Islamic norms• Or, again, he ruled in accordance with what our sources felt were

Islamic norms• In assessing Umar ibn Abd al-Aziz, we must therefore take our

sources’ biases into account• Nevertheless, it does seem that Umar was personally committed

to his religious principles and seems to have attempted to rule by them

Umar ibn Abd al-Aziz• Wellhausen, an early 20th century writer, has this to say:

‘Sulaiman was a luxurious profligate, Umar almost an ascetic; to the former the ruling power offered unlimited means of enjoyment; upon the latter it imposed a a weight of responsibility. In everything he did judgement loomed before his eyes, and he was always afraid of coming up short of the requirements of God’ (p. 268)

• Umar’s Policies…• Almost all outward expansion stopped and most advanced outposts

withdrawn• However, the Narbonne region of southern France was fortified under Umar• Although he used existing men, Umar seems to have appointed provincial

governors for their ability and honesty (Tab. 3. 1383)• Thus Abd al-Hamid ibn Abd al-Rahman of Umar I’s family became governor

of Kufa• He also brought the emerging Islamic religious scholarly elite into the

business of government• In a letter to his provincial governors, he is said to have named the pillars of

government as:1. The Wali (Executive Governor)2. The Judge (or Qadi, i.e. someone learned in Islamic law)3. The Tax Administrator4. The Caliph

Umar ibn Abd al-Aziz• He appointed the famous Hasan al-Basri Qadi (judge) of Basra• Hasan is an important early ascetic and ‘mystic’• Umar also reformed the tax system• Although his changes were rather complex, in essence we can say that

he attempted to make taxation conform to Islamic ideals• Thus the mawali were given automatic entitlement to their Quranically

allotted privileges• Land use was also reformed: common land was to be used for the

communities to which it was originally intended• The sources report that Umar was an eager ‘missionary’• He is said to have invited the rulers of Sind (in modern Pakistan) and

various Berber tribes (in Morocco and Algeria) to accept Islam• Umar also wrote to the Byzantine emperor Leo II, in an apparent attempt

to convert him• He prohibited the cursing of Ali, which Mu’awiya had introduced• He is also said to have ordered the collation of Prophetic Traditions, in

order to ensure their authenticity• This last measure presumably sprang from two motives…• A desire to preserve/record Muhammad’s words• A desire to preserve a key source of Islamic law (the Shariah)

Umar ibn Abd al-Aziz• However, despite all of these energetic reforms,

Umar’s reign was a short one• He died after a mere 2 years in office (715-717CE)• In some senses, this is another important factor in

his enduring popularity• That is, had he ruled for longer, he may not have

been able to maintain his momentum• Hisham, Umar’s effective (but not actual

successor), undid all of these reforms and restored Umayyad dominance on its pre-existing lines

• And, as we shall see, although he reigned for a long time in relative peace, his caliphate saw the beginnings of the end for the Umayyad dynasty

Questions?

Section III: Hisham and the End of Expansion

Hisham ibn Abd al-Malik

• As his name suggests, Hisham was a son of Abd al-Malik

• He ruled the Muslim empire from 105-125AH (or 724-743CE)

• His 20 year rule thus brought stability after another period of turmoil after Umar II’s death

• Essential Readings for Hisham• K. Y. Blankinship The End of the Jihad State• J. Wellhausen The Arab Kingdom and its

Fall

Internal Opposition• Kharijite groups, spread to North Africa• Shiite discontent continued to manifest itself• In 740CE, Zayd ibn Ali revolted at Kufa against Hisham• Zayd ibn Ali (Zayn al-Abidin) ibn Husayn ibn Ali• Brother of Muhammad ibn Ali al-Baqir• Despite popular support, the revolt was soon crushed• However, despite its failure, Zayd’s revolt was significant in

a number of ways• Firstly, it underlines continuing opposition to Umayyad rule

from the Alid family and its supporters• Secondly, Zayd became another martyr to the Shiite cause• Thirdly, his rising marks the emergence of a new trend in

Shiite thought regarding the nature of the imamate (more on this in a moment)

• Fourthly, the Abbasid revolution (which we will come to in the next session) styled itself as vengeance for Zayd (and all other Shiite martyrs)

Zayd’s Refrom Manifesto1.Apply the Quran and Sunnah2.Wage jihad against oppressors3.Defend the weak4.Provide for the deprived5.Equally divide the income from Muslim

property by right of conquest (fay’) among those deserving it

6.Satisfy complaints7.Bring back those held in the field

campaigning for more than one year8.Support the Alids against those resisting or

denying their rights

The Concept of Imamate in Early Shii Thought• As you might expect, during the century of Umayyad rule, the

Shiite concept of Imamate underwent some development• Although charting the development in detail would take too long

here, we can look at some key features• Those interested in this subject should consult…• S. H. Jafri The History and Early Development of Shia Islam• A. Lalani Early Shii Thought: the Teachings of Muhammad al-

Baqir• M. Hodgson ‘How did the Shia become sectarian?’ (This is a

journal article; I own a copy)• Ali as Imam and Amir al-Muminin• In other words, temporal and religious functions combined• The fact that his descendents did not hold power was

problematic at first• However, probably first under Zayn al-Abidin, Shii thinkers

began to separate these two aspect• That is, the authority of the imam did not depend on his holding

power

The Concept of Imamate in Early Shii Thought• Muhammad al-Baqir and later his son, Ja’far al-Sadiq, began to

articulate this idea clearly• Thus although they were not involved in politics they still seem to

have understood themselves to be the rightful imams of the Muslim community

• They put forward two main arguments• Firstly, after Hasan’s death, the imamate could only run through

Husayn’s line• Secondly, an imam could only be appointed by the explicit

designation (known as nass in Arabic) of the incumbent• Essentially, this stabilised the charismatic leadership of the Alid

house• As we saw last week, moreover, there were some within the Shia

milieu that believed the imam to be more than human (we will look more at this in the next session)

• However, this was not the only viewpoint• Zayd (Muhammad’s brother) seems to have strongly disagreed with

this idea• He argued, in common with al-Baqir, that an imam can only come

from the house of Ali

The Concept of Imamate in Early Shii Thought• However, he did not restrict this to the line of Husayn• Rather, any suitably qualified Alid could be a potential imam• Two things were required to actualise this1. Religious Knowledge2. Public Declaration of Imamate• According to Zayd, the Imam had to arise ‘sword in hand’• These differences eventually led to the development of two

different schools of thought within Shia Islam• Those who followed Muhammad al-Baqir’s ideas became known

as the Imami Shia• From the Imami school of thought later emerged the Twelver

Shia of Iran, as well as the Ismaili (and thus Druze) Shia – i.e. those who follow the Aga Khan

• Those who followed Zayd became known as Zaydi Shia• Because they did not accept ‘designation’ as such, there were

many small groups of independent Zaydis• During the course of time, Zaydi Shiites established imamates in

northern Persia (on the shores of the Caspian Sea) in the Daylam region and in Yemen

The Twelver Shia Line1. Ali ibn Abi Talib2. Hasan ibn Ali3. Hussein ibn Ali4. Ali ibn Hussein5. Muhammad ibn Ali (known as al-Baqir, or ‘He who splits

open [religious knowledge]’ and Zayd’s brother)6. Ja’far ibn Muhammad (known as al-Sadiq, ‘the Truthful’)7. Musa ibn Ja’far (al-Kazim)8. Ali ibn Musa (al-Rida, or the ‘Chosen’)9. Muhammad ibn Ali (al-Taqi, ‘the Godfearing’)10. Ali ibn Muhammad (al-Naqi)11. Hasan ibn Ali (al-`Askari)12. Muhammad ibn Ali (al-Mahdi, the ‘Rightly Guided One’

or the Messiah)

External Opposition• Hisham’s rule was also challenged by a number of external

foes• As we saw, Hisham reversed Umar’s policy of

disengagement and initiated an aggressive expansionist policy

• At first this appeared to be largely successful• However, the strains caused by this expansionism soon

began to show• Muslim armies met with a number of serious defeats in

many of its main theatres of war• Moreover, new fronts also opened up• The effect of all of this was to place a serious burden on the

Muslim empire’s available manpower• A brief glance at a map will help make this clear…

The Muslim World

External Opposition• Anatolia: war against the Byzantines continued throughout

this period• Caucasus: Muslim forces suffer a number of serious

setbacks against the Khazar confederation (in alliance with Byzantium)

• Khazar forces manage to raid Armenia and threaten Mosul (northern Iraq)

• Central Asia: the Turgesh confederation inflicted a number of defeats on Muslim forces

• Sijistan: a number of expensive campaigns against the Zunbil

• Sind/India: Muslim forces faced a number of resurgent Hindu kingdoms and were effectively driven back

• Khurasan: at the Battle of the Defile, Muslim casualties are reported to have been approximately 20,000 dead

• Mediterranean Area: Sicily and Sardinia attacked• Spanish Frontier: Frankish attacks drive Muslims out of

southern France (Narbonne)

External Opposition• These defeats swallowed up much of the available

manpower• Moreover, they also placed a great strain on the Syrian

forces• Because these were, in some senses, ‘crack’ troops they

had been used to keep the peace in Iraq and other places• With these defeats, more Syrian contingents began to be

sent to different frontiers• This weakened the internal hold of the Umayyad dynasty

significantly• Indeed, this only exacerbated the problem as Syrian troops

became too thinly spread to prevent further revolts• The Great Berber Revolt: 122-125AH (740-743CE)• Excessive taxation and the illegal removal of Muslim

Berbers as slaves seem to have been the immediate causes• In any case, an enormous rebellion eventually proved

successful and Umayyad control of the Maghreb region was lost

External Opposition• This also considerably weakened the government’s hold of

Spain• However, a fugitive Umayyad eventually took control of the

province in the aftermath of the Abbasid revolution• Hisham dies in 125AH (743CE)• Yazid III• His revolt soon crushed, but, his apparent programme is

interesting• A self-conscious return to the past?• Main points include…• Not to build any buildings of brick or stone, nor to dig any

new canals• Not to hoard wealth• Not to give wealth to wives or children• To transfer wealth to other provinces only after first is fully

taken care of• Spend any surplus in nearest province

External Opposition• Not to keep troops in the field for more than 1 year• Not to lock out petitioners• To reduce non-Muslim taxation• To give all Muslim troops equal stipends• To acknowledge the right of Muslims to reproach

the Caliph should he stray• In some senses, this is reminiscent of Zayd ibn Ali’s

programme• And, is probably best seen as an attempt to

address the perceived social ills of the day via a return to Islamic norms

• As Blankinship says, ‘This program is redolent of irritation with the policies of Hisham…’ (p.227)

Section IV: Rumblings of Thunder

Rumblings of Thunder• As we have seen, by the time of Hisham’s death the

Muslim empire had reached something of an impasse• It had suffered several important military defeats• Moreover, these defeats meant a significant drop in the

level and amount of booty• In many ways, it was this drop in income which caused

the most significant problems for the Umayyad regime• Large scale war booty had effectively masked the

underlying difficulties of the period and with their removal, they began to surface

• Firstly, Hisham’s death saw another return to civil war, as a number of factions fought for control

• This resulted in the accession and death of a number of candidates

• This led to military revolts and provincial insecurities, further exacerbating the economic situation

Rumblings of Thunder• Secondly, this period again saw the re-emergence of a

number of Shia uprisings• However we will look more closely at that in the

following session• Thirdly, this political instability was made worse by the

continuing feud between the Quda’a and Qays tribal groupings

• Fourthly, during Hisham’s reign, the scholarly class (ulama) had once again begun to withdraw from public office

• This effectively removed an important support for the Umayyad regime

• And, indeed, became the breeding ground for active opposition

• There were, furthermore, a number of Kharijite revolts

Section V: Readings

Readings

• Your reading packs contain a number of readings

• P. Crone Meccan Trade and the Rise of Islam

• Oleg Grabar Ceremonial and Art at the Umayyad Court

• Oleg Grabar The Formation of Islamic Art

• Pre-Islamic Poetry (The Hanged Poems)

• A short passage attributed to Hasan al-Basri