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FROM RELIGIOUS DISPUTE TO RELIGIOUS WAR. Lutherans and Catholics made peace in Germany in 1555, but the following developments aggravated religious tensions: The Catholic revival led by the Society of Jesus (Ignatius Loyola) and the Council of Trent (1545-1563). - PowerPoint PPT Presentation

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  • FROM RELIGIOUS DISPUTETO RELIGIOUS WARLutherans and Catholics made peace in Germany in 1555, but the following developments aggravated religious tensions: The Catholic revival led by the Society of Jesus (Ignatius Loyola) and the Council of Trent (1545-1563). The spread after 1550 of John Calvins Reformed strain of Protestantism from Geneva to southern France, Scotland, the Netherlands, and the Rhineland. The French Wars of Religion, 1562-1593. The Dutch War of Independence from Spain, 1572-1609.

  • THE CONFESSIONAL PARTITION OF EUROPE BY 1560

  • Militant Anabaptism was destroyed in 1535, when Jan of Leyden was executed in Mnster, but pacifist sects endured:Mennonites followed the teachings of Menno Simons, who renounced any use of violence (there are 1.5 million today worldwide; the Amish are an offshoot)Hutterites followed the teachings of Jakob Hutter and formed communes where all goods were held in common (there are now 45,000 in North America)Unitarians: Several radical writers challenged the Nicene Creed and taught that Jesus was simply human, an exemplary teacher and prophet (the UUA now has 160,000 members in the USA).Such radicals were often compelled to flee to Poland, Hungary, Transylvania, or the New World to avoid persecution.

  • Ulrich Zwinglilaunched the Swiss Reformation in Zrich in 1521and agreed with Luther on 14 of 15 Points at the Marburg Colloquy of 1529(chaired by Landgrave Philip I of Hesse)

  • Rubens, The Miracles of St. Ignatius LoyolaLived 1491-1556:Spanish soldierFounded Society of Jesus in 1540 (Jesuits)If the Church commands it, I will believe that the white object I see is black.Peter Canisius founded new universities in Ingolstadt & Munich in 1550s.

  • St. Teresa of Avila(1515-1582):Her portrait by Rubens and her Ecstasy as sculpted by BerniniHer theological writings earned her the title, doctor of the Church, and she founded a reformed branch of the Carmelite Order

  • The Council of Trent,1545-1563The Vulgate is the authorized BibleGood works are the prerequisite to salvationTradition remains as important as ScriptureImprove training & supervision of clergy!

  • The Pope blesses pilgrims in St. Peters Square, ca. 1580

  • The New St. Peters Cathedral in Rome (completed 1626)

  • Baroque altar of the Jesuit Church in Rome, built 1695-99

  • King Francis I with Erasmus and Alberto Pio (1526): Francis ordered the execution of 20 Protestants in 1534

  • The young John Calvin (1509-1564), who became chief pastor in Geneva in 1541

  • CALVINISTS DIVERGED FROM LUTHERANS REGARDING SALVATION AND PROPER CHURCH GOVERNMENTCalvin opposed Luthers doctrine of salvation by faith alone with the doctrine of predestination nobody could know why God decreed that some were elected for salvation and others damned.Calvin rejected Luthers model of church government based on cooperation between university faculties of theology and government officials who administered church property.Calvins Reformed church was based on elected councils of elders (presbyters) in each congregation and regional synods.

  • This Lutheran satirist has a Calvinist preacher say, Take, eat, in memory only. Below the Devil says I, Satan, am also among the Calvinists.

  • Bloody Mary (r. 1553-58), who exiled John Knox to GenevaElizabeth I (r. 1558-1603) allowed the exiles to return

  • The International Calvinist Conspiracy of the 1560s

  • A Huguenot (Reformed) service in Lyon, 1564

  • Pieter Brueghel, The Sermon of Saint John the Baptist (1566):The Reformed movement spread to the Low Countries through open-air revival meetings

  • The iconoclasm of Dutch Calvinists, ca. 1570

  • An austere Calvinist church in the Palatinate, ca. 1600

  • The Unitarian Michael Servetus (1511-1553) was executed in Calvins Geneva

  • Dominant and minority confessions in Europe, ca. 1560:Huguenots converted only 1/6 of the French people but around 1/3 of French nobles and merchants

    **SOURCE: http://www.physics.unlv.edu/~jeffery/astro/kepler/europe_religious_situation_1560.jpghttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Marburg_ColloquyHans Asper, (14991571), Portrait of Ulrich Zwingli after his death 1531Deutsch: Der Zrcher Reformator Ulrich Zwingli auf einem Portrt von Hans Asper, entstanden nach dem Tod Zwinglis. l auf Pergament. 35 x 24.5 cm. Rechts Monogramm HA, oben beschriftet mit OCCUBIT ANNO AETATIS XLVII 1531 - er verstarb im 47. Altersjahr 1531Painted circa 1531, now in the Winterthur Museum of ArtSOURCE: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/d/df/Ulrich-Zwingli-1.jpg**Peter Paul Rubens, "The Miracles of Saint Ignatius Loyola,"SOURCE: http://hackensackhigh.org/~rkc/jesuits.htmlhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Teresa_of_%C3%81vila*Pasquale Cati da Iesi, "The Council of Trent" (painted in 1588).Fresco in the Church of Santa Maria in Trastevere, RomeThis fresco was painted by Pasquale Cati da Iesi, a pupil of Michelangelo. The represented Council is sometimes called the Tridentine Council, after the Latin name for the city, Tridentum. The coat of arms on the left wall behind the cardinals in red is that of Pius IV, the pope at the time of the closing of the Council. Long after the closing of the Council of Trent its importance was underscored in a didactic and journalistic fresco painted as part of an otherwise elegant and classicising decorative program for a chapel in Santa Maria in Trastevere for one of Rome's leading churchmen, Cardinal Marco Sittico Altemps. Participants in the Council session are spread row upon row across the top of the composition, their faces directed forward or turned in profile as if to record as completely and accurately as possible the individual members. At the lower right, allegorical personifications of the virtues crown a figure representing the Roman Church with a papal tiara. A globe at the lower left shows Europe, Africa, and parts of Asia. Thus the Church appears not only victorious, but extending far beyond Europe, where Protestantism had recently made such dramatic inroads.SOURCE: http://www.wga.hu/index1.html**The Pope blesses the crowd from the balcony of the Vatican in the old St. Peter's Square, with Michelangelo's unfinished dome in the background. This is an engraving by Claude Duchet published in Antoine Lafre'ry, _Speculum Romanae Magnificentiae_ (Rome, 1575-83).SOURCE: A.G. Dickens, _Reformation and Society in Sixteenth-Century Europe_ (New York: Harcourt, Brace & World, 1966), p. 24.**POZZO, Andrea(b. 1642, Trento, d. 1709, Wien)Altar of St Ignatius Loyola1695-99Marble, bronzeIl Ges, RomeSOURCE: http://www.wga.hu/The most important sculptural commissions of the late seventeenth century in Rome came from the Jesuits, who embarked upon the transformation of the Ges and sant'Ignazio in the full flood of triumphalism in the 1680s and 1690s. The stimulus came from a gifted Jesuit lay brother with a flair for illusionistic painting and design, Andrea Pozzo. In 1695, Pozzo obtained the commission for one of the most splendidly extravagant of Baroque altars, that of the Jesuits' founder, St Ignatius Loyola, in the church of the Ges.

    Embracing the whole of the left transept, the altar assumes the form of an undulating aedicule which breaks open to reveal a statue of the saint (actually a stucco copy of the original, silver and gilded copper statue, destroyed in 1798) beneath a representation of the Trinity; this central group is surrounded by gilt-bronze and marble reliefs illustrating scenes from Loyola's ministry as well as large marble tableaux of the triumphs of Faith and Religion. The whole is further enriched by the profusion of rare marbles and lapis lazuli as well as gold and silver, all intended to evoke admiration and wander.

    Some one hundred artists and artisans worked on the altar, and the most important commissions went to two Frenchmen. Jean-Baptist Thodon (1645-1713) and Pierre Le Gros the Younger (1666-1719). Thodon executed the over life-size marble group of the Triumph of Faith over Idolatry and Le Gros the Religion Overthrowing Heresy and Hatred, both archetypal images of the Church Triumphant. The initial conception for each sculpture would have been supplied by Pozzo, whose earlier fresco in Sant'Ignazio essayed similar themes, but the sculptors must have been given a fairly free hand in realizing such abstract ideas.*The French King Francis I depicted as a patron of humanist culture with Erasmus and Alberto Pio, the French ambassador to Rome, miniature painting by Pio from 1526, in the National Library in Paris.SOURCE: A.G. Dickens, _Reformation and Society in Sixteenth-Century Europe_ (New York: Harcourt, Brace & World, 1966), p. 98.*Anonymous portrait of the young John Calvin, painted ca. 1534, now in the Museum for the History of the Reformation in Geneva.SOURCE: Robin Winks et al., _A History of Civilization_, 9th edn (Upper Saddle River, New Jersey: Prentice Hall, 1996), p. 243.A Lutheran satire on the Calvinist interpretation of the Lord's Supper; engraving by Johann Krell, published in Emile Doumergue, _Iconographie Calvinienne_ (Lausanne, 1909). The Calvinist celebrant, pumped full of hot air by the Devil, is made to say, "Take eat, in memory only." Below the Devil proclaims that "I, Satan, am also among the Calvinists."SOURCE: A.G. Dickens, _Reformation and Society in Sixteenth-Century Europe_ (New York: Harcourt, Brace & World, 1966), p. 161.**Queen Mary I of England, painted in 1554 by Antonius Mor (Prado Museum, Madrid).The daughter of Catherine of Aragon, "Bloody Mary" reigned from 1553-58 and did her best to restore Catholicism.SOURCE: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Image:Mary1England.jpg;Queen Elizabeth I of England (reigned 1558-1603), portrait by Darnley in the National Portrait Gallery, London.SOURCE: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Image:Elizabeth_I_Darnley_Portrait.jpg*The spread of the Protestant Reformation in the sixteenth century.SOURCE: http://home.uchicago.edu/~vfalbrit/Reformation%20map.jpg*A Huguenot service in the Lyon Temple, called "Paradise" (anonymous painting from 1564). Note that the sexes are segregated, and that wealthy merchants definitely enjoy better seating than do ordinary workers. The attendance seems sparse, but this was one of the oldest and strongest congregations in France. SOURCE: A.G. Dickens, _Reformation and Society in Sixteenth-Century Europe_ (New York: Harcourt, Brace & World, 1966), p. 170.*BRUEGEL, Pieter the Elder(b. ca.1520, Breughel, d. 1569, Bruxelles)The Sermon of St John the Baptist1566Oil on wood, 95 x 160,5 cmMuseum of Fine Arts, BudapestSOURCE: http://www.wga.hu/A number of copies of this picture, both contemporary and dating from the seventeenth and eighteenth centuries, have come down to us, and many of them are in museums in Flanders (Antwerp, Bruges, Brussels), as well as in Bonn, Schwerin, Leningrad, Munich and Cracow, mostly produced with the co-operation of his sons, Pieter and Jan, and his workshop employees. This suggests that the picture remained in Brussels for a long time, or was in a collection in another town in the Netherlands which was easily accessible to the public.

    The numerous copies and variants of this painting with its theme of the Holy Baptism can also be explained by the widespread growth of the Anabaptist movement in those years of religious turbulence and strife. The date of the painting coincides with a period of iconoclasm in the Netherlands.

    This picture is probably identifiable as that known to have been in the collection of the Infanta Isabella Clara Eugenia, Governor of the Netherlands, in 1633. In this, the preaching Saint John the Baptist is virtually lost in the colourful throng of peasants, cripples, gipsies, mischievous children climbing trees, and trees painted with astounding realism. Even the river in the background and the distant church take a more prominent role in the whole than the impersonal figure of the saint in his hair-shirt.*Iconoclasm in the Netherlands; Calvinists are shown toppling church statues, smashing stained glass, and smashing clerical casks in Baron Eytzinger's _De Leone Belgico_ (Cologne, 1583).SOURCE: A.G. Dickens, _Reformation and Society in Sixteenth-Century Europe_ (New York: Harcourt, Brace & World, 1966), p. 169.*A Calvinist church in the Palatinate, ca. 1600 (engraving in the German National Museum in Nuremberg). Nothing is allowed to distract the worshippers from the contemplation of God. (Some reformed churches did allow simple stained glass windows and a wooden cross, but no crucifix.)SOURCE: Donald Kagan, Steven Ozment, and Frank Turner, _The Western Heritage_, 5th edn (Englewood Cliffs, New Jersey: Prentice Hall, 1995), p. 445.*Michael Servetus, depicted in an Anabaptist gallery of modern prophets by C. van Sichem, _Het Tooneel der Hoofketteren_ (Middleburgh, 1677). In bhe background we see his execution as a heretic in Calvin's Geneva.SOURCE: A.G. Dickens, _Reformation and Society in Sixteenth-Century Europe_ (New York: Harcourt, Brace & World, 1966), p. 131.

    *The division of Europe on confessional lines, c. 1555.SOURCE: http://wps.ablongman.com/wps/media/objects/262/268312/art/figures/KISH_13_309.gif