from scrolls to hypermedia

8/13/2019 From Scrolls to Hypermedia

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From Scrolls to Hypermedia

Books, scrolls, papyrus rolls, clay tablets, manuscripts, maps all materials and forms

that carry human thought and understanding have long been the province of archives or

libraries, both private and institutional. These repositories have functioned to collect,

preserve, document, and make available to a diverse public such items as government

records, books, manuscripts, music, film, and realia among other knowledge bearing

objects (Given and McTavish 8). Librarians have invented classification schemes,

bibliographic systems, and educational programs. They have provided sensory space, a

site for exploration and inspiration where librarians collaborate with patrons and further

inquiry (Aurand 13). The physical space architecture, furnishings, art invites readers

to ponder and transcend their immediate lives. The hermeneutics of libraries nurtures

imagination and thought (Slyck 523).

Libraries and archives have been wondrous gifts passed from one hand to another, one

spirit to another, one generation to another. They communicate. Libraries traditionally

contain texts that encapsulate technical and scientific observations, the stark facts of

recordkeeping, and creative texts expressive of human experience. As soon as one person

created a mark intended to communicate, human awareness was manifest and

represented. Had an innate, electronic means of creating texts been realizable, our history

our story, its multilayered, labyrinthine complexity would reach back further than we

can now imagine. Or so we would hope.

Libraries and archives inspire such hope. We understand that libraries and archives

select, preserve, represent, organize, and provide access in varying ways to diverse

documents, providing an account of the human story imperfectly, yet still productively.


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Complex political, social, and cultural restrictions have often shaped collections and

access privileging and censoring, or distorting information through an imprudent

balance in collections. Wars and natural disasters have destroyed much. However, despite

cultural and political constraints, a librarys higher mission preserves the human record,

contains knowledge required of its users, and thereby educates as well as fosters

individual growth as well as the growth of knowledge (Swanson 113).

Therein lies the crux. The librarys higher mission not only provides calming space for

personal reflection, it provides materials to further knowledge work. Thanks to Father

Busa and his use of computing to produce the Index Thomisticus , automation and itsmethodologies and tools joined the humanities (Hockey Electronic 5). We were ready.

With the advent of electronic tools and texts, cyberspace, and networked systems, library

space has gradually moved beyond physical walls. From its genesis, digital

humanities...has remained in touch with the goals that have animated it from the outset:

using information technology to illuminate the human record, and bringing understanding

of the human record to bear on the development and use of information technology

(Schreibman 1).

Humanities scholars whose lives have straddled the analog and digital will have a

keen awareness of what electronic textuality has brought to our understandings of not

only the humanities, but also scientific discourse. Stanford Universitys Spatial History

Project includes studies of insect and animal populations. Using visualization

technologies to map spatial and demographic history of such populations, scientists hope

to examine familial collective behavior as well as migratory behavior. Hard science has

been slow to adopt or perhaps associate its digital tools with those of digital humanists,


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but this may have less to do with the tools than the unfortunate and perpetual schism

between the two cultures.

So, what is digital humanities? Digital scholarship or digital humanities is

fundamentally an outlook or awareness of and attentiveness to the interpretive

potentialities and innovative research that electronic tools and methodologies bring to

humanities studies. Unsworth poses a key question, ...what new opportunities for

scholarship are presented by the existence of digital primary resources? (2). Warwick

recognizes the role that digitization plays in expanding research horizons; however, she

views digital tools "to think with" as the most exciting aspect of digital humanities orhumanities computing (378).

McGann also underscores the primacy of digital tools and states, "What we have now

is not so much a new world as a new set of tools for certain purposes, by certain people

(Reimagining 22). Galey and Siemens offer the most comprehensive, yet succinct

description of humanities computing and digital humanities. They state, "The field of

humanities computing deals with computational tools and methods that intersect with

humanities research; digital humanities, a more recent development, names the broader

context of disciplinary interactions that look to digital culture and technology to prompt

new modes of humanities scholarship -- and, in turn, to reassert the humanities' value in

those traditionally science- and business-dominated domains" (204).

Background and Historical Roots

Digital humanities or humanities computing, as the interdiscipline was initially

conceived, emerged during the mid twentieth century when humanities scholars initiated

a series of diverse projects requiring computational methodologies and tools. These early


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electronic projects involved large-scale efforts aimed at automating linguistic textual

analysis, organization of information, textual or data representation, authorship

investigation, data retrieval, and data storage (Hockey History 3). Father Roberto Busa, a

Jesuit priest, is widely credited with initiating the foundational project in humanities

computing (Svensson 3). His groundbreaking project, Index Thomisticus is a lemmatized

concordance of every instance of eleven million words from St. Thomas Aquinas and

related authors works (Hockey Electronic 5). This immense accomplishment in

humanities computing earned him the credit as pioneer of humanities computing

(Hindley 2). Available now, online, Busas Index Thomisticus is fully searchable inEnglish along with several other languages.

Busas project, his imagination, commitment, and resourcefulness moved humanities

research from the linear constraints of paper-based technologies, manually managed, to

electronic technologies. By automating a process previously anchored in print, Busa

transformed the scale of projects, possibilities, and knowledge construction. Humanities

scholars could now envision projects requiring a spatial working space. When the codex

no longer confined textual analysis, humanities scholarship along with scholarship in

any field using textual media was re-invented. McGann emphasizes this point, stating,

...electronic tools in literary studies dont simply provide a new point of view on the

materials, they lift ones general level of attention to a higher order (Rationale 55). This

conceptual shift in attention changed the perception of materials, the types of questions

researchers ask, and the ways to go about answering these questions.

Father Busa may not have foreseen his projects inherent potentialities and far-

reaching implications. Nonetheless, he set off a fundamental shift in the use of archives


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and libraries as well as specific issues that concern information science particularly the

use of descriptive, administrative, and preservation metadata. During the 1960s, pre-

eminent humanities scholars recognized the research opportunities intrinsic to digital

humanities. Successive conferences ensued, the first humanities computing association

was established (Association for Computers and Humanities) along with the first journal

(Computers and the Humanities ). The 1960s inaugurated centers for humanities

computing. These centers developed suites of programs to address humanities questions,

particularly those that related to the production of critical editions. The problems

technologists and humanities scholars faced then variant spellings, variantalphanumeric characters, multiple manuscripts, data representation, and description

continue to be key concerns.

The late 1970s and 1980s brought about a momentous change and direction in

computing humanities. Oxford University founded the Oxford Text Archive (OTA) thus,

establishing an embryonic digital archive (Hockey Electronic 14). An early problem

facing archivists at the OTA was the extent of undocumented, undescribed material.

Archivists recognized the necessity of instituting a descriptive schema, but information

science was not yet participating in computing humanities. The various levels of

metadata so important in representation, discovery, provenance, and preservation

were barely emergent, particularly with respect to archives and electronic texts.

Nonetheless, the OTA had broken ground; the first digital library was unfolding

other centers emerged at universities and corporations. Governments also weighed in,

sponsoring electronic textual initiatives. At this point, digital archives (or databanks)

specializing in Old Greek, Old English, and Latin emerged. The benefits of creating an


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electronic archive or databank for these rare texts became abundantly clear. They are

fragile, scarce, requested, and need preservation. One such document is the Nowell

Codex (Beowulf), dated around the first millennium clearly a fragile, scarce, requested

fragment that, despite substantial loss in fire, remains invaluable (Hockey History 9).

During 1980s and early 1990s, scholars increased their use of personal computers and

as soon as Macs emerged, humanities scholars recognized the value in the graphical user

interface. Such an interface could display non-standard characters such as those in Old

English. Importantly, the Mac-based program HyperCard made it possible to create a

network of hypertext. And, for the digitally inclined, hypertext and its capability to linkfiles was momentous.

Previously, electronic texts brought humanities research into a non-linear, spatial

realm where textual extractions engendered imaginative research opportunities such as

structuring concordances and textual comparisons. Now with hypertext, words could link

within an electronic concordance. Hypertext provided the means by which a complex

network of hyperlinks created information databases. The nascent digital archive

(databank) grew with an intricate, non-linear, networked scheme. Digital archivists could

map digitized text to digitized images and an authors notebook or sketches could be

mapped to the text, as the rhizomorphous Walt Whitman Archive does today.

Intersection of Libraries and Digital Humanities

Electronic text enabled humanities scholars to approach texts and drive their

resources "to their limits and beyond" (McGann Reimagining 4). Not only would

electronic texts introduce new research interests and questions, they would also change

the way users read and interact with materials (Todorov 67). Both the use and the users of


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electronic texts would change. Shillingsburg states, ...electronic representations of

written texts have as much capacity to change the readers or users as they have of

changing the texts (Gutenberg 4). As a result, Shillingsburg, like McGann, claims that

electronic texts have altered textuality itself. This textuality embraces Darntons textual

communication circuit as well as a texts initial context, its current reception and

understanding, and the interpretive discourse surrounding a text or textual artifact

(Darnton 12).

The merits of electronic texts, digital archives, or editions for scholars are numerous,

yet the question of who creates the model, rationale, and construction arises. Closelyrelated to these challenges, and paramount, is who edits the electronic text, archive, or

edition? (Price 3). We have two distinct camps. One camp favors the digital humanist as

collection developer; the other camp emphasizes the digital archivists and librarians

role as collection developer. Price is firmly camped with the digital humanists. Still

another view and probably the view closest to a consensus -- relates to the deeply

collaborative nature of large-scale digital archives (Pitti 473). Collaborative efforts would

not only involve digital humanists and digital archivists, but also textual scholars, literary

scholars, disciplinary scholars, librarians, archivists, information scientists, and

technicians to name only a few.

Certainly, it seems Price's division between humanities' scholars and librarians is

artificial. Scholar librarians and archivists are trained not only in the humanities and

textual transmission, but also in the selection, organization, and representation of material

in a collection. This is not to say that a digital humanist should not endeavor to develop

an electronic digital collection. Kirschenbaum offers a view of the digital scholar in


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relation to librarian or archivist. He believes,

Literary scholars need to play a role in decisions about what kind of data

survives and in what form as bibliographers and editors have long been

advocates in traditional library settings, where they have opposed policies that

tamper with bindings, dust jackets, and other important kinds of material

evidence (Approaches 4).

While Kirschenbaum's perspective is understandable, painstaking training in

bibliography is essential for special collections librarians and, regardless of what

expertise bears on a digital archive, edition, or collection, without punctilious metadata, both efficient information retrieval and archival or digital preservation is at risk. Ideal

conditions would unite the disciplinary scholar, the scholar librarian, and the scholar

information scientist as collaborators.

Price also raises the issue of terminology -- he objects to the current usage of digital

humanities as well as the terms archive, edition, database, and thematic research

collection (1). With regard to digital humanities, he feels the term inadequately

describes digital textual studies. He is equally unhappy with the terms archive,

edition, database, or thematic research collection (1-10). Of all terms, he is

inclined toward thematic research collection, but states that it is insufficiently pithy

(6). His points are fair. Throughout the literature, scholarly digital archives are known by

many other names, including electronic text, digital media (Rieger 5), electronic media,

digital representations, among numerous other names.

I am inclined toward the term scholarly digital archives or thematic research

collection. Both terms, digital archives and thematic research collection, imply the


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digitization of primary source material as well as books different editions, versions,

copies, of a particular text along with other texts, including sound and video by an

author or authors where texts are contextualized, logical, indeterminate, and thematic

they organize how we investigate our cultural heritage, rather than focusing exclusively

on one particular text (McGann Electronic 5). Documents can be related and can be

"studied and synthesized to make new knowledge" (Smith 312).

Palmer defines a thematic collection as digital aggregations of primary sources and

related materials that support research on a theme (1). She is interested in both the

digital humanist and digital librarian building collections jointly (Thematic 350). Hercurrent research addresses the needs of humanist scholars, their information seeking

behaviors, and thematic collections. In addition, the concept of a scholarly thematic

collection suggests an interdisciplinary approach that is located in space and

concentrated in time (McGann Electronic 4). Prices recent Civil War Washington

project or Radcliffes Lord Byron: His Life and Times collection employ a hypermedia

model that integrates disparate documents, forming dynamic, de-centered archives that

take emphasize the role of culture and society in the production, transmission, and

interpretation of texts (McKenzie Bibliography 62).

Conclusion

Library science, information science, and digital humanities have or should have a

synergistic relationship. Each discipline or field brings requisite skills in constructing

digital collections whether one refers to them as digital archives or thematic research

collections. Library science brings formal collection development strategies that include

statements of mission, policy, selection, acquisition, organization, and representation. In


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dealing with a rare and scholarly collection, special collections librarians understand

bibliography, scholarly editions, textual criticism, and digitization among other

specialized skills.

Information science establishes standards of representation and metadata as well as

information architecture, encoding, and website usability. Finally, the digital humanities

scholar brings in-depth knowledge of a particular subject area and the information habits

of scholarly users. As McGann has argued, digital humanities or digital scholarship is an

outlook and includes a new set of tools for specific users. Creating digital thematic

collections or archives is a multidisciplinary enterprise that requires communication andcollaboration among all professionals involved in a digital project or endeavor.


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Questions

1. How have electronic or digital archives altered they ways in which humanitiesscholars both read and research?

2. What editorial principles relate to constructing a scholarly digital archive?

3. What is a thematic digital archive, how does it differ from a traditional archive, andwhat kinds of questions and research does it enable a scholar in any field to conduct.

4. Describe the workflow in constructing a thematic research collection or digitalarchive. For example, FSUs Strozier SC Library holds a substantial collection of LoisLenski Papers, if one were to develop a thematic research collection, what procedureswould need to be established?

5. What metadata should a digital archive include in order to ensure discoverability,accurate description, and optimal interoperability?


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