Ft5176 (AO314)

DEVEWPMENT OF METHODS 'TO REDUCE THE ENERGY REQUIREDTO CONSERVE MEAT WITJflOUT COMPROMISING ITS QUALITY.

Natural Resources Institute

Central Avenue

Chatham Maritime

('~tham

K:ent MFA 4TB

Period: 1st Apri11992 -31st March 1995

Livestock Prodl~Cts Quality and Processing

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Contents

Summarypage1

1.

2. 556

Introduction.2.1. Background.2.2. Project objectives.

3.

Project activities. 7

4. 8881011

Assessment of production a.ndl energy requirements.4.1. Hot boning practices.4.2. Electrical stimulation t~=hnology.4.3. Microbiological aspec:ts of hot boned meat.4.4. Energy costs associated with refrigeration of meat.

5.

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Project resuI~.5.1. Plate freezer perfOnnilnc:e.5.1.1. Modelling indus1riall>erfonnanc:e.5.1.2. Small-scale perfonnaJllc~~.5.2. Effects of hot boning and conventional ~ application.5.2.1. Development of a hot bc,ning ~-side schedule.5.2.2. Hot boning yield and pelfonnance of H¥F£.5.2.3. Effects on meat quality.5.2.4. Summary of effects ojf hot boning5.3. Effects of hot boning ;and ~ applied to hot excised

muscles.5.3.1. Development of a hot boning primal-~ schedule.5.3.2. Electrical stimulation perlonnanc:e.5.3.3. Hot boning yield.5.3.4. Effect on meat quality,.5.3.5. Microbial assessment.

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A survey of meat processin~: illidustries in three Africancountries.6.1. Background.6.2. Tanzania.6.3. Malawi.6.4. Namibia.

7. Conclusions. 39

8. References. 41

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Tables and FiguresAppendix 1. Comp~n of coo:ling rates in industrial freezers.Figure 1.1. The effect of differe:nt c:arton types on chilling

and freezing rate using blast freezing technology.43

Figure 1.2. The effect of differe:nt (~arton types on chillingand freezing rate using plate freezing technology.

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Figure 1.3. Comparative freezing rates in FQ and HQ primalmuscle blocks in a sJrnall plate freezer.

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Appendix 2. Development of conve:ntional hot boning procedurefor small stock.

Table 2.1. The effect of hot boIling and HVES applied to carcaseson recovered meat y:ield.

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Table 2.2. 47The effect of hot borUnjg and HVES applied to carcaseson pH in primal FQ, 10m and HQ muscles.

48Figure 2.1. The change in respol1Se to localised FS with timeover FQ and HQ muscle areas.

Table 2.3. The effect of hot botLing andsides on meat qualitJr ml FQ.and retail packs.

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50Table 2.4. The effect of hot boI1ting and HVES applied to carcasesides on initial colour development in FQ, loin andH Q retail packs.

Table 2.5. The effect of hot boI1ting and HVES applied to carcasesides on colour stabilitJ, in FQ, loin and HQ retail

packs.

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Appendix 3. Application of electrical stimulation to hotexcised primal mus,cles.

The perfonnance of :ES applied to primal packs. 52Table 3.1.

53The effect of hot bol1tinJ~, ES applied to sides orprimal muscle, and r;apid and slow chilling rate on

pH fall in FQ primal muscles.

Table 3.2.

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HVES applied to carcaseloin and HQ primal muscles

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Table 3.3. The effect of hot boning, ES applied to sides orprimal muscle, and rapid and slow chilling rate onpH fall in loin primal mtlScles.

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Table 3.4. The effect of hot boning, ES applied to sides orprimal muscle, and rapid! and slow chilling rate onpH fall in HQ primal :m1JtSCles.

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Table 3.5. 56The effect of hot boning and HVES applied to sides orprimal muscles on rec:overed meat yield under slowchilling conditions.

Table 3.6. The effect of hot boning and HVES applied to sides orprimal muscles on recovered meat yield under rapidchilling conditions.

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Table 3.7. The effect of hot boning. ES applied to sides orprimal muscle, and ra]pid. and slow chilling rate onmeat quality in FQ priim~ll muscles and retail packs.

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Table 3.8. The effect of hot boning. ES applied to sides orprimal muscle, and ra]pid and slow chilling rate onmeat quality in loin primal muscles and retail packs.

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60Table 3.9. The effect of hot bonillg. ES applied to sides orprimal muscle, and ra]pid and slow chilling rate onmeat quality in HQ primal muscles and retail packs.

The effect of hot boning, ES applied to sides orprimal muscle, and ra]~id and slow chilling rate oninitial colour development in FQ retail packs.

61Table 3.10.

The effect of hot boning, ES applied to sides orprimal muscle, and ra]?id and slow chilling rate oninitial colour development in loin retail packs.

62Table 3.11.

The effect of hot boning, ES applied to sides orprimal muscle, and ra]pid and slow chilling rate oninitial colour development in HQ retail packs.

63Table 3.12.

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The effect of hot borung, ES applied to sides orprimal muscle, and rapict and slow chilling rate oncolour stability in FQ re1:ail packs.

64Table 3.13.

65Table 3.14. The effect of hot boning. ES applied to sides orprimal muscle, and rapid! and slow chilling rate on

colour stability in loirl retail packs.

66The effect of hot boning. ES applied to sides orprimal muscle, and rapid and slow chilling rate oncolour stability in HQ retail packs.

Table 3.15.

67Table 3.16. The effect of hot boning. ES applied to sides orprimal muscles, and slovv or rapid chilling on aerobicmicrobiological coun1: in thawed primal muscles.

68Table 3.17. The effect of hot boning. ES applied to sides orprimal muscles, and slo~v and rapid chilling onpresumptive coliform and Staphylococcus aureus count

in thawed primal musc]e:s.

69Table 3.18. The effect of hot boning, ES applied to sides orprimal muscles, and slow or rapid chilling on aerobicmicrobiological coun1~ in. retail packs.

70Table 3.19. The effect of hot boning, ES applied to sides orprimal muscles, and slo\v and rapid chilling onpresumptive coliform an,d Staphylococcus aureus count

in retail packs.

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Abbrevations used in text

AABFAQISADFATPauCIEcscCSIRODFDE. coliESEUFQGDPhHQHVESLHSLVESM.MeatcoNCAPPSPSERHSRRARSAt't'SADCCvVCF

Automated air blast m~2:erAustralian Quarantine and Inspection ServiceMricm Development FU:lldAdenosine triphosphate

Colony forming units/lcm2Commission Internationale de 1 'EclairageCold Storage Compan;.." (of Malawi)Commonwealth Scien1tifi1= and Industrial Research OrganisationDry, firm, dark (muscle)Escherichia coliElectrical stimulationEuropean Union

ForequarterGross Domestic ProducthourHindquarterHigh voltage electrical st:imulationLeft hand side.Low voltage electrical stimulationMuscleThe Meat Corporation of NamibiaNorthern Communal }.reas (Namibia)Pulses per secondPale, soft, exudative (mu.c;cle)Right hand sideRapid Rural AppraisalRepublic of South Afr:icametric tonsstudents t test (statistics)Southern African Develo:pment Coordination Committee

voltsVeterinary Cordon Fence

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1. Summary.1. The movement of animals for ur1ban slaughter can result in considerable economicloss through injury. mortality and red"uction in carcase weight. The development of peri-urban or more rural slaughterhouses to service larger urban markets would requireinvestment in additional facilities for refrigerated conservation of fresh meat.

2. Peri-urban abattoirs tend to OIlenite hot meat production and hot meat distributionsystems. One option would be to produ(~ frozen meat. which is somewhat less 'timetemperature critical' in transit than th~~ c:hilled product, particularly where theinfrastructure is poor. Energy costs can be minimised by direct freezing hot boned meat;investment costs could be lowered by reducing the need to chill 'bone-in' carcase meat.

3. The initial carcase chilling prc>Cess can account for about 30% of the totalelectrical energy used to operate conventional abattoirs where chilled bone-in or bone-outmeat leaves the premises at 48 h post mortem. Almost 30% of a bone-in beef carcase isinedible material (bone, sinew, exces~; f~lt); energy savings in not chilling this fraction areincreased by the need for less energy in ire-heating the material during rendering. Hotboning will reduce energy COnsumptiCE in the chilling procedure by more than 50%,

since better means of cold transfer caJll be established.

4. Hot boning followed by more eft:icient, accelerated chilling can result in themuscle being more susceptible to rigc.r shortening due to the loss of the muscle-boneattachment This can result in severe de,creases in meat tenderness and darkening due tothe compaction of meat fibres reduCirLg 1he light scattering effect of the fresh cut meatsurface. One option being pursued in Omada consists of hot boning lower value cuts,leaving the remainder (largely HQ) c]1illed in a conventional carcass fonn.

5. Prevention of cold-toughenin!~ ~iused by rapid chilling is usually achieved by the

use of electrical stimulation (ES) J aP1=~lied conventionally to the animal after slaughter J or

to eviscerated body or carcase side dtlrirlg dressing. FS accelerates the onset of rigor

mortis, but its conventional application 1:0 whole carcases may reduce the processors

flexibility to exploit the pre-rigor prOJperties in lower grade meat. Rapid boning after

slaughter may allow the option of applyiing FS to excised muscles depending on end-use.

The effectiveness of FS is related to the individual responsiveness of each muscle and

factorS such as stress and changing Cllm~nt density across the carcase. FS tends to be less

effective in older animals. The appli(:atiion of FS to excised muscles might offer the dual

advantage of giving a more homogenOO1JS effect between animals and allowing

processors increased flexibility of end use.

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6. Hot boning represents an increased opportunity for surface contamination of the

hot, sticky muscles. Reports by workeJ~ in Australia, Canada, and Europe indicate thathot boning carried under good conditio:ns of hygiene has no effect on the extent or type of

microbiological proliferation, providled that hot meat is cooled quickly after boning.

Australian practice tends to favour tile ,~ of pre-chilling procedures prior to boning and

strict temperature control during the boning and packing operation. Current Australian

regulations require hot boned meat tc:> be cooled to +SOC within six hours (h) of boning inorder to control microbiological proliferation.

7. This rate of temperature reductil:>n requires the use of blast chillers, or more

commonly blast or plate freezes. Jnclustrial air blast freezers can only achieve this rate ofcooling if the meat enters the freezing cycle at 25°C. Carcase pre-cooling procedures

prior to and during hot boning are m:anclatory, adding significantly to energy use and the

investment costs of temperature controlled facilities. Plate freezers are able to reduce the

temperature of hot meat to sac in 8 }L (or less), working with initial meat temperatures of

35°C prior to freezing.

8. Plate freezers or contact cold traLnsfer uses 60% less energy than blast freezers, but

chilling rate is sensitive to surface contict effects. Attempts to mechanise the loading and

unloading operation have not been Sllccessful, and there is an added element of additional

handling costs in their use, although this can be minimised by good line layout. The

ability to achieve high rates of COOlirlg in hot meat (>4°C per h) make them suitable for

hot boning, although this could sugglest that an element of cold-shortening would still

occur in electrically-stimulated (ES) m{~t.

.9. The research programme exa:miJrled the effectiveness of applying FS to hot

excised primal muscle blocks in cornpaJrison with high voltage ES applied to whole

carcase sides from culled ewes. The efj~ects of rapid hot boning. FS systems and rapid

cooling on meat quality were investilgated in combination with an assessment of the effect

of different rates of subsequent chilling on the microbiological integrity of the product.

10. A field visit was undertaken 1:0 three countries in sub-Saharan Africa toinvestigate the potential for the application of new technologies in their meat industries.The potential for the introduction of :ne'~ technology into the meat processing systems inTanzania, Malawi and Namibia was ,de1:ermined; these countries were selected as beingrepresentative of poor, medium and '~e]ll developed meat processing industries.

11. A model boning system develofled for culled ewes removed 6 primal muscleblocks from an individual carcase side ,within 30 minutes of slaughter. Hot boning

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increased the yield in primal meat (ov'er cold boning practice) by 3.8% and 4.8% oforiginal carcase weight compared witJ!l c:arcases that were cooled at 2.0 and 4.5°C per hrespectively. Recovered meat yield, ~vhj~ch consisted of primal muscles and meattrimmings from the bones, was increaseci by 2.7 and 3.8% of original carcase weightcompared to cold boned carcases cooled under slow and rapid chilling conditions. Theproportion of boning meat trim in the total of recovered meat was 10% less than thatobtained for cold boning, reflecting th:e ~~ of the hot boning schedule on small-stock.The application of FS to hot excised Irirnal muscles had no effect on the extent of theincrease in meat yield due to hot boniJrlg.

12. ES was applied conventionally tcl carcase sides at 0.25 hours post mortem. Thisresulted in a reduction in average musclE~ pH of 0.22 pH units (over non-stimulatedcontrols) at one hour post mortem, and ~ras able to reduce primal muscle pH to <6.2 pHunits at ten hours post mortem in carc.iSes chilled at 4.5°C per h. Variation in the rate ofpH fall between muscles was unaffected" but inter-animal variation was increased by ES.

13. ES was applied to hot excised primal muscles under partial confinement in amodified wine press within 0.8 h of slaulghter. Stimulation at 120 and 380v resulted inthe primal muscles undergoing an imrne<iiate loca1ised contraction, which was partiallysustained over the two minute stimulation period. The application of high voltage ES toprimal muscles could be made intrinsicaJl1y safer for workers than the application of ES tocarcase sides, although both technolo!~e:) are required to be isolated from operationalpersonnel. The design of primal musc:le stimulators must take account of the possibilityof cross contamination between primal muscles.

14. ES applied to primal muscles I'eSlJlted in an average reduction in muscle pH (overnon-stimulated controls) at one hpost 1n()rtem of 0.20 and 0.16 pH units for 120 v and380 v applications, respectively. The ac<~eleration in muscle pH fall tended to be mostrapid in primal muscles receiving a 38:0 v stimulus; all stimulated primal muscles, exceptFQ muscles stimulated at 12Ov, achie,red pH < 6.2 at 10 hpost mortem.

15. Conventionally-applied FE Call protect against the effects of toughness resulting

from the rapid cooling of muscles from tower grade animals. The application of FE to

excised muscles may offer similar protec:tion, although it did not reduce the variability of

response between muscles and animals. The localised application of electric fields did

not affect the extent of water-holding :properties of retail meat, retail colour development

and colour stability or reduce variation.

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16. Application of FS to hot ex,:iS4~ muscles. including the additional handlingoperation in a hot boning system. had no effect on the level of microbiologicalproliferation when carried out under good slaughter and rapid cooling conditions. Hotboning. followed by slow cooling. J.ed to an unacceptable proliferation of microorganismsin retail storage; the addition of a P:1mlal FS processing step had no effect. CurrentAustralian regulations. requiring hG.t meat to be reduced to goC within 6 hours ofboning in order to retain microbiol(Jtgical integrity, remain appropriate to small hot-processing facilities.

17. ~ could be successfully ap:pli~oo to hot excised muscles from culled ewe carcases,although it did not offer any advantag(~ in performance. within the electrical parameterstested. over existing conventional ES. Direct freezing of hot boned meat would avoidcarcase chilling. although it would be important to assess the microbiologicalimplications under field conditions.

18. A survey was carried out in three African countries to establish the demand for

accelerated processing technology in I1elation to the potential developments of their

respective meat-processing industriles. Development in the meat sectors in Malawi and

Tanzania is likely to be limited and" in the short-temt, will not be concerned with

improvements in meat quality. There :may be longer-temt potential for addressing meat

quality issues in relation to marketiJ.1g ,export meat in Tanzania.

19. Developmen~, which might make use of some of the outpu~, are currently takingplace in the Meat Corporation of N~lmiibia (Meatco) abattoirs operating in the NorthernCommunal Areas. Local facilities ~lre being upgraded to produce hot boned plate-frozenblock meat, from cattle produced fcc)m smallholder based cattle producers, for export toexisting marke~ in South Africa. lInnlediate assistance was requested by Meatco on theapplication of conventional ~ technoJlogy to the carcases of poorer grade animals. Theexploitation of pre-rigor properties of Jlower value muscles, i.e. the application of ~ tohot excised muscles to increase prociuc:t flexibility, is somewhat ahead of their current

requiremen~.

20. The technical potential and Jna:rket demand for exploiting the pre-rigor propertiesin low grade or improved tropical C41ttle is unknown. The communal areas in Namibiamay provide a useful model for assE~jing the potential of the future development of hot

boning practices in the region.

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Introduction.2.

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2.1. Background.21. Livestock destined for slaughter in urban abattoirs tend to originate withinextensive catchment areas or from distant agJdcultural zones. Movement of animals tourban slaughter can result in direct losses :in lmimal value through injury or loss in carcaseweight, and expose livestock to consideralt>le stress through mixing or changes inenvironment. The effect of long-term stress associated with animal movement, will havegreater consequences in poorer grade aniIJtlals, reducing the retail value of carcase meat

which may extend to a decrease in microbliological integrity.

22. Rapid expansion of urban popuiatj.ons in developing countries is beginning toexert environmental and operatjonal pressun~ on urban abattoirs. The siting, age andcondition of many of these facilities restricts the opportunity for the structural investmentnecessary to lessen their environmental in1pact. This problem may also extend to thewide range of support services, e.g. tannetie:;, that tend to be associated with urbanslaughterhouses. Environmental restrictions in developed countries have forced theclosure of many urban slaughter facilities, t1Jleir role being replaced by cold stores

distributing a higher volume of refrigeratE~ ]product.

23. The development of peri-urban or ml)fe rural facilities, which are often sited

nearer to the source of animal production. mlay offer a more viable option for future long-term investment. Rural abattoirs tend to f;ervice sma11loca1 markets through low-cost hot

meat distribution systems and, as such, would have to introduce extensive improvementsin the transport and storage of carcase m~:at in order to service more distant urban centres.

This could be met by the introduction of lreflrigeration, although the transfer of chilledmeat requires the establishment of an extl~ru;ive and reliable cold chain, and the need to

address new methods of wholesale mark~~ti11lg.

24. Freezing has been a useful technil:tUE~ in the development of many meat industries,

particularly where producers were faced wi1th large distances or difficult distributionpractices. Frozen meat is somewhat more l1esistant than chilled meat to the danger of

spoilage caused by short-term temperatUJre il.buse. A number of countries in the SADCC

region make use of freezing as a means ()f [neat and offal distribution. The disadvantage

of freezing lies in the energy cost associ~Lte<l with the production and distribution system.

Production costs of freezing can be redu(~l through the introduction of contact freezing

technology and would appear to be most beneficial when combined with hot boning (theremoval of meat from hot carcases), th~i reducing the investment costs associated with

the refrigeration and handling of chilled CaJ.cases.

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25. Hot boning has had little repDrted effect on the quality of meat from higher grade,feed-lot animals, although these findlings are based on experience from operations whereboning is carried out under temperat~~controlled conditions. Electrical stimulation (ES)technology is often applied to prev~rt }>re-rigor toughening associated with a more rapidremoval of heat associated with these bot-boning operations.

26. Less infonnation is available OIl the effectiveness of F$ technologies on poorer

quality meat or on the implications of J:K:>Or temperature con1ro1 within the overall

slaughter and hot boning process. Under these conditions the handling of hot meat would

be expected to have a considerable iJrnp'act on the microbiological quality of the final

product. particularly where product ]ly~~ene is compromised by poor slaughter and

boning practices.

2.2. Project objectives.27. This project investigated the op:tion for extending existing hot meat practices,

where all or part of the carcase coulcl b~ diverted to a shelf-stable, frozen product. It

examined the implications of hot-bo:nin.g, freezing, and other technologies in relation to

the subsequent effects on meat quali'ty 1rom lower grade animals.

The objectives, set out in the project memorandum, were as follows:28.

To assess production and ene:rg~ requirements of hot meat processing and

conservation practices.a.

To determine the effects of fJ~:zjng, hot boning and electrical stimulation on thequality of meat from lower q,uaIity animals.

b.

To reassess microbiological <::riteria in small-scale hot meat processing practices.c.

To conduct an RRA-type surve~r of current meat processing practices and

constraints to change and markE~t potential in three African countries.d.

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Project activities3.

29. The following is a synopsis o:f a.::tivities over the project life.

30. April 92 -March 93. Revie'~ were undertaken of recent progress in thetechnologies of hot boning and electrical stimulation. applied to small stock. Anexperimental horizontal plate freezer WClS commissioned at NRI. Background informationon the practical aspects of industrial pla:te freezing technology was obtained during a visitto CSIRO. Australia. Discussions WEre held with meat works engineers and CSIRO staff.A number of simulations were carrie<i out on the CSIRO mathematical model profilingfreezing performance in both blast an.d plate freezers. Two meat processing studies wereundertaken in collaboration with the lUniversity of Nottingham. examining the effects onyield and quality of a hot boning protoo)l. where HVF$ was conventionally applied tothe carcase side of culled ewes. This rec~uired the development of a rapid hot-boningprocedure for small stock. and the ad.!ption of standard tests for measuring qualitychanges in smaller excised muscles.

31. April 93 -March 94. The pI1~vious studies were extended to evaluate theperfonnance of conventional method:; fc)C evaluating quality changes in ES meat.Revisions were made to the hot bonir:lg ~;chedule and safe operational procedures weredeveloped for the application of high voltage electrical stimulation technology to primalcuts. A preliminary study was undeI1aklen to examine the application of ES technology tohot excised primal cuts. A survey was lJ[lade of the commercial meat producing sectors inTanzania. Malawi and Namibia. reprE~[lting low. medium and high levels ofdevelopment. This addressed the like:ly uptake of FB. hot boning and plate freezingtechnologies over the short and long 1enn.

32. April 94 .March 95. A stud:'Y ~ras undertaken to examine the effectiveness of ES

technology applied to hot excised priInat cuts from culled ewe carcases in comparison to

the conventional application of high vol1tage ES applied to carcase sides. Experimental

trials were canied in collaboration with 'the University of Nottingham. and were extended

to include a linked assessment of the ]mi~:robiologica1 implications of a process. where hot

excised primal muscles were subjected to additional handling operations.

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4. Assessment of production al1ld energy requirements.

4.1. Hot boning practices.33. Conventional meat processing practices involve the slaughter, dressing andchilling of carcases, followed by mltchering into carcase primal cuts, packaging andshipment. All stages su~uent to carcase dressing are carried out in a cooledenvironment; primal cuts from bee1~ slides are conventionally removed from carcasespreviously chilled to deep muscle t4~mperatures of <5°C over the previous 24 or 48 h

period.

34. Hot boning procedures diffE~ iJrl that primal cuts are removed from the hot carcase

within three h of slaughter, packagE~, and chilled as primal muscles or cartonned as

manufacturing meat pieces (typically .~1 DOmIn in one dimension) over a 24 h period or

less. (N.B. Hot cutting is a distinct prC)Ce5S, applying most often to smalI stock, where

the hot carcase is sectioned into 'bone.oin' joints for freezing).

35. Hot boning lines for beef currently operate in New Zealand, USA, Canada and in

Botswana. Three Australian meat-~vOlXs operate hot boning systems (one beef and two

sheep hot cutting (bone-in) plants) :bu1: the uptake of the technology has been very low.

Existing cold boning operations CaIJlnot be adapted to hot processing, since this would

require extensive changes in product flow. Hot boning procedures are an extension to the

slaughter line and require the introduc1:ion of rapid chilling systems using forced airtunnel chillers, blast or contact (plat:e) freezers. These systems are more efficient in terms

of the rate of heat transfer, since less fi-ee air is required in providing convection.

Contact freezing makes use of conduction thorough the bottom supporting plate, and

depending on carton fill, utilises condtlction or convective heat transfer to the top plate.

36. Hot boning has little effect on I>roduct quality although wholesale customers havedifficulty with the alteration of musc:le shape. This may downgrade certain cuts (e.g.hindquarter rump) and upgrade othe:rs (e.g. forequarter chuck). Hot boning enablesprocessors to take advantage of the Jpre-rigor properties of lower value meat, which isnow being advocated as a maj or advantage for the process (Aalhus ~ ~ 1994). Pre-rigor meat has superior functional c]:laracteristics, including greater water-holdingcapacity and better emulsifying proI>erues (West, 1982). Aalhus.e1 al (1994) havedevised a hybrid processing system, in which forequarters are hot boned whilst makinguse of existing facilities to conventioruilly chill and cold-cut higher value 'bone-in'

hindquarters.

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37. Hot boning allows for more J~pid and unifonn chilling, although this can increasethe risk of cold-induced toughening (Follett.e:1 ~ 1974). This reaction, termed ' cold

shortening', results from the super-oon1raction of muscle prior to the onset of rigormortis; a related process, tenned 'th,lW rigor', can induce toughening if the muscle isfrozen in the pre-rigor state. Electric:al stimulation (&5) technology can reduce theproblem of toughening, by accelerating the onset of ngor mortis, although this procedurewould lessen the processing advantajges: associated with muscles in the pre-rigor state.

4.2. Electrical stimulation technol(~.38. ~ is applied to accelerate post J7tOrtem muscle biochemistry, which it does in thefOnD of 'immediate' and longer tem1 effects. The stimulus initially activates muscleshort-tenn energy reserves (e.g. crea1ine phosphate), which remain available afterslaughter. Activation leads to rapid muscle glycolysis, leading to a reduction in musclepH. This initial process is followed by ,! more gentle acceleration of muscle glycolysis,through mobilisation of glycogen res,en'es. The loss in the glycolytic reserve in muscleprevents a cold-induced contraction ~LS its temperature is reduced below 1 DoC.

39. ES is conventionally applied to 1he slaughtered animal or dressed side. Low

voltage technology (typically <10Ov) is applied within four minutes of death and inducesa contraction in muscles via the motor-end plates through the still functioning centralnervous system. Low-voltage ES (L'VES) must not be applied until bleeding has finishedin order to comply with animal welfare Jrequirements.

40. The metabolic response of inclivi.dual muscles to L YES will vary across the

carcase, depending on nerve integrity aIJ,d muscle reactivity. The immediate metabolic

response is difficult to control in extensively-reared livestock, particularly where the

animals have been highly stressed. U]tldE~r normal circumstances muscle reactivity relates

to type of muscle, breed, longer term strless and immediate pre-slaughter stress. Over-

stimulation can induce a very rapid falll in muscle pH (at >35°C) , leading to heat-induced

toughening or to a type of PSE (pale !;oft exudative) condition in slow-chilled deepmuscle. L VFS is however a low-cost: arld relatively safe technology.

41. High voltage ES (typically>450v) is applied later in the dressing process,

typically to the eviscerated carcase or split carcase side, and acts by direct depolarisation

of muscle end-plates. Circumstances l~lding to the PSE condition are avoided since ES

is canied out when the temperature aJ.1d ,oxygen tension have been reduced. The response

to the stimulus will decline with time" although this can be compensated for by increasing

the applied voltage.

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42. The avoidance of reliance on a nervous pathway gives better overall control of theonset of rigor mortis in muscles that aJ:e directIy in the current pathway. The use ofadditional electrodes can reduce the variability of muscle response to HVES over thecarcase side, by applying more loca~~ electric fields (Solomon, 1988). High voltageapplication requires higher capital exp~diture for reasons of safety.

43. The application of F$ technolo,gy to the animal or carcase side, to avoid coldshortening in higher value primal musc:les, reduces the opportunity to optimise some ofthe meat-processing characteristics iin lower grade meat. Binding and emulsifyingproperties in pre-rigor meat are inCCl~ed by the high availability of phosphate (as A TP)immediately post mortem. F$ procll1ceS a rapid reduction in A TP levels and isdisadvantageous in low value muscles since the subsequent reduction in active phosphatemoieties lowers the potential bindinjg characteristics in processing meat.

44. ES will accelerate the rate of~ pH fall in muscle but has no effect on ultimate

muscle pH. The technology has no I~ffloct in Dill (Dry Finn Dark) meat, where stress

typically results in muscle with a hi!~ 1111timate pH, leading to a much-shortened shelf-

life. Accelerated processing can lea,d to the problem of identification and separation of

DFD meat, in order to ensure that the n1eat is not held under extended vacuum chill

storage. The dark colouration is a pc:>or initial indictor of Dill in older stock, which tends

to exhibit deeper pigmentation due to tJ1e increased levels of muscle myoglobin with age.

The Danish Meat Research Institute (Hald -private communication 1992) has used the

absence of an effect on muscle pH aJftel~ the loca1ised application of ES (on the loin

muscle) to identify potentially dark-i:utting animals prior to hot boning operations.

4.3. Microbiological aspecU of hot: boned meat.45. Inadequate cooling can lead to the uncontrolled growth of mesophilic andpsychrotrophic enteric pathogens, w]Mch are currently regarded as one of the most serioushealth risks associated with fresh me:at (Lee ~ ~ 1985). Hot boning per se has littleeffect on the microbiological integri1:y of primal or retail packed meat, although muchdepends on the rate of initial chillin~; (Oblinger, 1983).

46. Key work in this area was cam(~ out in re-heated meat by Herbert and Smith atCSIRO in the 1970's (reviewed by Herbert and Smith, 1980). These authors suggestedthat excised meat at 30°C should be t=oc>led to +SOC in six h (equivalent in a hot beefprocessing operation to eight hpost l'nortem) in order to limit the increase inmicrobiological growth over this periocl to less than 10 generations. The work carried outby Herbert and Smith still forms the b~sis of the temperature specifications currentlyrequired by the Australian QuarantiIJie amd Inspection Service (AQIS) for hot meat

10

packers.

:B

47. Work in the USA in the 1970s Sll1ggested that hot boned beef primal cuts could beheld at an elevated temperature (e.g. :hoJlding at 16°C for eight h after excision to promotepH fall and thus avoid cold shortening) and still limit the growth of mesophilic andpsychrotrophic bacteria to less than 10 !~enerations. Fung.e1.BL (1981) claimed to be ableto hold primal cuts at 21°C for up to 1:en h post mortem without unacceptable changes inwholesale or retail product safety. 111is claim has been disputed, particularly in respect ofthe growth of potential pathogens. Reichel.e1 ~ (1991) have recently re-specified thequality requirements in hot beef proo~sing with respect to E. coli. They suggested that80% of the calculated values for prolilfel:ation should not exceed 10 generations, withnone exceeding 14 generations.

48. It is necessary to differentiate th~~ potential for microbial growth between whole

primal muscles and that in trimmings, t1Jle latter having a higher surface area to weight

ratio and, therefore, assumed to offer a tletter overall substrate for microbial growth.

Kotula (1981) reported that total aerobic: count at SoC and 2SoC was significantly

increased in hot boned beef trimmings, ]>ut this was not accompanied by an increase in

the counts for selected pathogens (fec:al ,coliforms and E. coli).

49. Primal muscles from sheep and ~~oats would be smaller than those from beefcarcases and would be expected to be exposed to the risk of higher surface contaminationthrough greater handling contact. Evjldence of this problem is somewhat inconclusive; insome boning trials counts for psychrotrophic and lactic acid bacteria were similar for hotor cold boned primal muscles. Field ~~ ~11 (1974) reported that microbial counts in hotboned mutton carcases were 10 times lo'wer than those from chilled carcases.

:;

50. There is no evidence that ES 1:l3S any significant effect on the proliferation of

micro-organisms in beef or lamb carc~:s (Mrigudat ~.BL.. 1980). Some claims have

been made for an inhibitory effect in 4~xI>eriments which were conducted under rigorous

control (e.g. Slavik .e1.BL.. 1991), but t:!le~;e have not been substantiated. There has been

no work on the effect of subjecting hc)t, 4~xcised muscles to further handling abuse prior to

chilling if, for instance, F$ were to bE~ applied subsequently to excised muscles.

4.4. Energy cos~ associated withl tI1le refrigeration of meat.51. Refrigeration has been estima1ted to account for 35% of the energy used in

conventional meat processing (Colletlt BIld Gigiel. 1986). Conventional chilling of beef

carcases to a deep muscle temperatur«~ o:f +5°C requires a minimum of 140 KJ of energyper kg carcase meat over a fourty eigllt tl cycle. with 30% of the energy use being

11

~

equivalent to the basal load associa:ted with facility cooling. Many of the recentdevelopments in new technology have concentrated on increasing the rate of heat loss,where relatively higher energy deru;iti«~ are applied over shorter times in order tominimise the weight loss in the pro«iuc:t due to evaporation. The detailed analysis byCollett and Gigiel (1986) suggested that the economic cost of the weight loss was 25times that of the potential energy e~:penditure under rapid chilling conditions.

52. Henrickson (1982) has calCtua1ed that hot boning offered a 67% energy saving

over conventional chilling of beef carcases. This advantage was derived from the use of

more efficient chilling procedures, ,wh4~e more efficient heat removal could be combinedwith a reduction in basal load by tht~ w;e of tunnel chillers and the fact that bone and fat

(30% of carcase weight) are removed from the chilling process. A more practical series

of trials was carried out by the CSlltO. Australia, in the mid-1980s; unpublished

commercial data put the overall eneJrg}' saving due to hot boning nearer to 50% over that

used in conventional carcase chillinjg practice, owing for the need to operate various

carcase pre-chilling options prior to hot boning.

53. The rate of heat removal from c:artonned hot meat demanded under the AQISspecification requires the use air blast or contact (plate) freezing technology. Blastfreezers have been largely automatel:i and feature commonly in larger meat works; up to40% of their energy requirement is 1.lseld in creating the air blast. Plate or contact freezersare more efficient in terms of energ}' w;e, but require additional labour for the loading andunloading operation. An automated plate freezer plant, featuring automatic cartonloading and unloading, was installed! as: a development unit in Australia (Visser, 1986).This was troubled by mechanical failure and has now been returned to manual operation.

54. Plate freezers have the advaIJ.ta~;e of being low maintenance technology in

comparison to blast freezers; the cap,iml cost of blast freezers and plate freezers is broadly

similar (e.g. capital equivalent cost of £:50,000 for 12t per day plant), since plate freezers

typically operate sixteen to twenty ~vo h duty freezing-cycles compared to the normalthirty eight to fourty six h freezing-cycJles operated in most blast freezers. Adoption of

plate freezer technology is most wid1eSJ:lfead in Australia, where there is a ready market

for frozen meat for manufacturing p1JTpOses. Plate freezers have been installed as

successful replacements for old chaIJ[1~~ freezing facilities in meat works in South

Africa, Namibia and Botswana.

55. Plate freezing of boned chill~d meat requires 25% of the energy demand ofconventional bone-in carcase freezers and is claimed to offer a 45% saving in energy useover blast freezers (Visser, 1977). V~:er (1986) identified further savings in freezing hot

12

"'"~

boned meat due to the reduction in cJillJ.er meat handling and an increase in boningproductivity. The extent of the clailrled savings over conventional chilling and blastfreezing technologies (amounting to 120 US dollars per ton frozen carcase meat from anew purpose built abattoir) are consider.ed to be an accurate assessment of the practicaladvantages offered by the technologies (Powell, CSIRO -private communiation). Theregularity of shape in plate-frozen bl(rl~ represents a significant handling advance, sinceit permits greater loading factors during storage and transport and can reduce the energyneeded to extract in1ruSive heat.

56. The coupling of hot boning techllology and plate freezing offers the lowest energyoption for the production of frozen mlea1t blocks. The implications of changes in qualityin lower grade meat have not been w:idely reported; there is little information of thepractical advantages of rapid tem~ltw~ fall on the microbiological integrity of hotboned primal meat from small stock. TJ!le use of FS technology may assist in themaintenance of some quality attribut~~ ~md act against others. The localised applicationof ~ to excised primal cuts may pro'vidle an opportunity to exploit the manufacturingproperties of lower grade muscles or increase the overall response of some musclescompared to that in conventional FE 'technology.

57. The costs of processing meat :for frozen blocks are comparatively high and are site

specific. The process is essentially OJrle of supply to urban markets over medium

distances, e.g. 150 -200 km, on relial)le roads replacing the movement of livestock by

that of meat. One animal occupies 4 m3, whereas the meat can be reduced to four cartons

occupying 0.lm3. About 10 vehicles of 10 heads of cattle are required to transport

sufficient animals to make up a meat lo~ld of 6250 kg which can be canied in one animal.

Further benefits include the avoidance of loss of weight and stress related quality

reductions due to travel without a follO'l.ving period of rest. Rural slaughter retains more

income within the community, allowl; tl1le exploitation of the byproduct resource and

reduces environmental damage in urban areas.

13

~

Exp erirn en taJ findings.

5.

5.1. Plate freezer performance..

5.1.1. Modelling industrial perfon11lance.58. A number of simulations WE:re carried out at the CSIRO Meat Laboratory,

Brisbane, using a chiller freezer model to evaluate the comparative perfonnance of

current freezing technology in the u~m]perature reduction of hot boned meat. The model

makes use of a number of algOrithrrlS based on those developed in New Zealand (Cleland,1990) for freezing of conventional1~r-c]hil1ed cold-boned meat in large scale industrial

freezer units. Data on the freezing ]Jerformance of hot meat was obtained by CSIRO staff

during a number of serni-commerci,il trials in the late 1980s, arising from the original

work on the comparison of blast and plate freezing technology using re-heated meat

reported byRerbert (1980). The working approximations for hot meat freezing serve to

identify the extent of variations in coolling rates with respect to carton size, carton type

and cooling practice.

59. The model was used to com]pare the likely performance of industrial blast andplate freezers, cooling meat packed in standard 27 kg (150 mm product internalthickness) corrugated cardboard bo" aJld lid meat cartons which are used for localdistribution or in the more durable solid laminated walled box and lid cartons. Laminatedcartons are increasingly favoured for export, since the corners of the cross-banded carton

stand up better to poor handling pra,cti(:e.

60. The comparative performan<:e of air blast freezers working at their most economic

temperature (-400C) is given in Appen:iix 1: Figure 1.1. The cross-hatched areasrepresent the extent of the variation of achieving the -ZOC freezing point throughout the

carton. Indus1rial automatic air blas;t fi~eezers (AABF) were able to reduce the internal

temperature of hot (30-35°C) meat in c:orrugated cardboard cartons to +8°C in eight h;

this is extended to nine h if solid boardl cartons were used. These cooling rates were

slower than those stipulated by AQ]:S, with 50% or less of carton mass achieving a

temperature of 8°C in six h after hO1: meat enters the freezer at 30-35°C. Air blast freezers

could be operated on hot meat within the AQIS threshold by increasing the severity of

cooling conditions e.g. decreasing t1~e air temperature to -55°C or by reducing carton

thickness; both would impose a sevlere increase in cost

61. An alternative strategy for A~F operations is to reduce meat temperature to

<30oC, prior to it entering the freezjing cycle. In the USA, hot beef processing systems(Henrickson, 1982) include carcase pfl~-chilling stages (for up to 60 min post dressing),

14

""~

followed by boning in a +1 DoC environment. This can result in a reduction in the

temperature of the deep muscle to <~OOC prior to packing at two hpost mortem. The

need for a carcase pre-chilling stage ad(is considerably to investment costs, particularly in

situations where chilling is not curre]tltl~r practised. Carcase pre-chilling will decrease the

yield advantage of hot boned meat o',/er conventional cold boning practice; pre-chilling of

high grade beef reduced the yield ad"aIJltage of hot boning by 50% (Powell -personal

communication 1992).

62. Simulations indicated that C()()Wlg rates to OOC in ABBF operations varied

considerably across the thickness of the carton. ranging in the rate of temperaturereduction from 5.4 to 2.ZOC per h. nUs variation was carried forward and accentuated asmeat entered the freezing cycle. The ra1:e of freezing is conventionally expressed in tennsof the time taken to reached meat temperature from 0 to -100C and block depth. i.e. coldpenetration rate. Penetration rates in cOJrrugated cartons ranged from 0.11 crn per h at24% of slab interior depth to 0.47 cm peT h intema1ly. reflecting the variation intemperature profile across the carton ,and the reduction in specific heat (and cold transfer)as meat freezes.

63. Corresponding data for the chillillg perfonnance of cartoned meat in plate freezers

working at their conventional operatiomll threshold (-35°C) are given in Appendix 1:

Figure 1.2. The use of contact or plate flreezing technology would achieve the specified

AQIS rate of cooling, since internal nlt~) of cooling from 35 to 8°C were achieved in

corrugated or solid board cartonswit1JLin six h, equivalent to a minimum cooling rate to

O°C of 4.5°C per h. Differences in coc:>rnlg rates (illustrated as the hatched area under the

-'JOC isothenn) across the carton thickne~)s were considerably narrower than those

obtained under AABF simulations. Coo:ling rate showed some sensitivity to type of

carton, where slower cooling rates in c=orrugated cartons reflected higher material

insulation value. Cooling perfonnance tI:> AQIS specification will reduce >90% of the

hot meat (loaded at +35°C) to a temperature of +10°C at six hpost mol1em, at which time

beef muscle pH could be anticipated t:> be higher than pH 6.2, thus exposing muscles to a

severe risk of cold-shortening.

64. Plate freezing limited the differerlce in freezing rates across the carton. Freezing

rates (penetration from 0 to -10OC) in loolTUgated box cartons ranged from 0.78 cm per h

at 24% of slab interior depth to 0.65 cm ]per h internally; penetration rates were faster in

solid board cartons ranging from 1.67 cnl per hat 24% of slab interior depth to 0.94 cm

per h internally. The advantages of faster freezing rates in solid board cartons would not

justify their additional cost. Australiarl I.Jrleat processors, using plate freezers for freezing

cold boned beef, reported less problenlS 'with corner failure in solid board cartons, caused

15

by meat expansion as it freezes between -2 and -ISOC.

65. The CSIRO model is unab:le 10 predict changes in rates due to variation in contact

effects in partial carton loads, e.g. cartons containing individual primal muscles in

comparison to cartons containing 1ruIJi boxed loads of 10Omm size specification

manufacturing meat. There is an assumed homogeneity in cooling rates between cartonscontaining meat of different visible lE~, although this difference may be minor.

5.1.2. Small-scale perfonnance.66. Actual performance 1rials ~VeI'e carried out on the smallest commercially availableplate freezing unit (capacity 120 kjg; 83mm plate gap). currently installed at NRI. Theseand other exercises were used to d~etermine the sensitivity of freezing rates to contacteffects. and were designed to simulatle mould freezing. i.e. where meat blocks arepackaged after freezing in metal 1r;ay~:. An example of the variation in freezingperformance is given as Appendix 1: Figure 1.3; the hatched area in the figure representsvariation in freezing rates between different muscle blocks at the -10°C isotherm.

.~

~

67. Penetration rates to -10°C ill ewe primal muscle blocks removed from theforequarter varied from 1.5 to 2.2 (~ per h, which was approximately equivalent to theperformance from industrial (160 rnrnl plate gap) models. Freezing in the forequarterpacks was predominantly through c:orLtact with the bottom plate, since the gap betweentop and bottom plates after hydrauJic ,clamping was in excess of average musclethickness, resulting in limited contict with the top plate. This had the effect of extendingthe freezing cycle time and increasin~: the variability in freezing rates between muscles.Penetration rates in primal hindquarter muscle blocks ranged from 2.4 to 2.6 cm per h,since these muscles were larger, promloting higher surface area contact with both plates.

68. Performance monitored OVE~ the subsequent research programme gave overallaverage penetration rates in the FQ primal muscles of 1.0 to 1.8 cm per h and in the HQmuscles of 1.5 -2.8 cm per h. Cellul~1r damage associated with freezing of beef isdecreased as freezing rate in~;t and is minimial at freezing rates in excess of 3.33 cmper h (Grujic.e! ~ 1993). Slow fr'ee~:ing rates encourage the growth of large intracellularice crystals which physically disrupt c:ellular integrity and lead to an increase in weight(drip) loss on thawing. Industrial pla1:e freezers will be unable to offer energy-efficientfreezing rates in excess of 3 cm pel~ h and an element of increased drip loss due tofreezing seems inevitable under normal operating conditions.

69. Hot boning and plate {reeZ(~ operations are most energy efficient when freezingfull cartons of cubed manufacturin,g meat (hot or cold boned). FS technology, which can

16

""

.-,.

.'..(

'~;;.;

...",;:'1

~;J be applied to reduce the risk of colc[- s;hortening, may be compromised under very rapid

chilling conditions in he exterior rejgio'ns of the cartons. Attempts to apply sufficient F£to prevent cold-shortening in the thilnn.er FQ or loin muscles under rapid chilling

conditions would expose deep mUS(~le regions to high temperature and low pH conditions

prior to freezing, which may act to I~Uce the overall value of the cartoned product.

5.2. Eff~ of hot boning and conventional FS application.

5.2.1. Development of a hot bonil1g ~ide schedule.70. Culled ewes (mostly Leicest,er) were selected as the most appropriate model for

use in the experimental programme, rejpresenting highly variable, low quality animals.

Animals were full-mouthed, bacren t~w,es, and were purchased as complete lots (12 to 16

animals) from a local market. The UlSe of culled ewes presents problems of widespread

carcase variability and differences ill tble susceptibility of these animals to the stress of

handling prior to slaughter. Some elenlent of selection for size and condition was made

during the latter stages of the progralIlI1r1e.

71. Slaughter and boning operati.oru; were carried out within 1.2 hours of slaughter.Hot and cold carcase side weights wlere recorded after slaughter and prior to boning inorder to detemline evaporation losse;s during chilling and over the boning operations.High voltage ES (45Ov, 12.5 pulses l>er second (pps); 30 seconds positive polarity, 30seconds negative polarity) was applic~ 'to individual carcase sides at 0.25-0.35 hpost

mortem, using electrodes embedded :in 1~e distal region of the Ai biceps femoris muscle(HQ) and in the Ai lateral head tric~ps,.

.:~~"""""'

'-in.:IIi

72. An initial hot boning procedure was developed which maximised the size of

primal cuts that could be removed from vertically suspended carcase sides. Boning lines

followed conventional cold cutting sep~lration practice, although individual muscle seams

were followed where possible. Prim:a1 (~ts were removed in the following order:

HQ flank to 6th rib.a.

b.

Neck (and shin); neck piece removed by cutting at the 5th cervical

vertebra, boned and C()mbined with FQ and HQ shins.

FQ primal cut (a); thi~; C()nsisted of muscles superior to the

scapula and demarca~~d iby cuts made at the 6th rib and 5th

cervical vertebra.

c.

17

:E

d FQ primal cut (b): :FQ! muscles inferior to scapula and demarcatedas in (c) and includin~: brisket

e. Loin; Loin muscle.. from 6th rib extended to 6th lumbar and sacral

junction and includin~: the fillet.

f. HQ primal cut; sepiiration at cranial junction of rump andloin/fillet and inCOIjporating topside. silverside. top rump. andrump primal musclE~ 8I"eas.

73. Primal cuts were packed in synthene bags, vacuum-packed after removal of pH

samples and cooled for 24 h as a single layer in baskets in air at -1 or +3°C and 3 metres

per second. Primal cuts were then plate-frozen as a single layer from 0 to -35°C over a

12 hour cycle.

74. Corresponding carcase sides ~'ere cold boned after chilling in similar airconditions for 24 hours. Data for tJ1e 'trial are tabulated in Appendix 2; Tables 2.1 to 2.5.Animal size during these initial1rials varied between the 1rial groups, reflecting thevariety of finish in animals over thE~ mlid-sumrner period. The effects of hot boning andES were examined statistically by 2lpplying students 't' tests to grouped mean LHS andRHS data.

5.2.2. Hot boning yield and perfonnance of HVF$.75. Killing, dressing, ES and hclt boning procedures were completed over an eight h

processing day (killing at 1.2 hour intE~IVa1s) by a single specialist slaughterman /boner, inorder to retain a consistent cutting schlooule and level of trim. Hot boning was completedwithin 0.95 hpost mortem, whilst c,oldl boning was undertaken at 22-24 hpost mortem;yield data are given in Appendix 2: Ta.ble 2.1. Conventionally chilled carcase sides lostan average of between 3.9 and 4.70;;, of hot side weight over the chilling cycle. Chillerweight loss was increased in higher firrished carcases, although higher fat levels morethan offset additiona11osses during co]ld boning, resulting in average losses of 5.8 and8.7% of hot side weight for high anld low finish carcase sides respectively.

~"'"""

76. The hot boning schedule of .lov~ finish carcases did not produce an increase in

primal weight or recovered meat yield over that from the corresponding cold boned

carcases. Hot boning of high finish carcases was more successful. confining the overall

weight loss to 3.1 % of hot side weiJ~t. and leading to significant (p<O.OOl) reductions in

overall weight loss in the overall trial. Small increases in hot boned primal cut weight

and in the weight of bone trimming:s a:>ntributed equally to an average overall increase of

18

~~

~]

.ill

77 .The boning schedule was ao~},erated in a further trial on high finish carcases, by

reducing the extent of secondary tritnnring of primal muscles after removal from thecarcase side. Operations were completed within 0.8 h post mortem. Hot boning underthese circumstances proouced a 2% ,ad'rantage in the weight of recovered meat overconventional cold boning, the weight gain being accounted for by an increase in theweight of meat trimmings removed from the bone.

78. Application of ~ to carc:asle sides causes a physical contraction, which

accelerates glycolysis in respon~ to thE~ energy demand by the muscle. Glycolyticactivity in muscle is most convenien11y measured by monitoring the fall in muscle pH.Muscles differ in their biochemical rc~onse to ~, depending on fibre type and in theirlocation with respect to the CmTent pathway (Asghar and Henrickson, 1982). Theeffectiveness of HVES was assessed in 'this and subsequent trials by measuring the pHfall in samples taken from selected m,us~=les of the H Q

(M. semimembranosus -deep muscle), the loin (M. longissimus dorsi at the 10th rib) andFQ (M. triceps hrachii).

79. Considerable variation was recorded in the effectiveness of HVES (as judged by

pH fall) between different muscles aIJld l>etween individual animals (Appendix 2: Table2.2.). HVES accelerated the fall in rnusc=le pH over that recorded in non-stimulated(corresponding) carcase sides. This r.estuted in significant (p<0.01) differentials betweeneach at one h post mortem ranging over 10.24 to 0.34 pH units in the FQ muscles of thevarious animals tested, 0.17 to 0.43 p:H tmits in the loin and 0.47 to 0.54 pH units in theHQ. The differential was partly retall.ted[ at 24 hpost mortem.

80. Cooling rates in both the carC~LSe sides and primal packs were influenced bymuscle conformation (flaccidity) and vaJiation in fat cover. Rapid chilling conditionsresulted in a wider variation of coolin,g r:ate values in excised muscles (FQ 4.5°C per hcompared to HQ 3.0°C per h) than in I:arcase sides (FQ 4.8°C per h compared to HQ4.2°C per h). Initial muscle pH value:; w'ere consistently higher in the heavier highetfatcover primal packs and carcase sides; mlJSCle pH values at twenty four h post mortemwere lower than those from correspondirlg low fat cover carcases reflecting more rapidpH fall bought about by a slower coolin~: rate.

81. The physical and biochemical r~Lction to HVES declines rapidly with time, which

would be important in circumstances ~wh'ere ES were to be applied to hot excised muscles.

The physical reaction to a local ~; w'as monitored over between 30 and 135 min post

19

mortem in both FQ and HQ primal muscle areas (Appendix 2: Figure 2.1.). The

contractional force induced by RYES in FQ muscle was reduced rapidly with time,resulting in 50% loss of its 0.5 h post mortem activity at 0.92 h post mortem; reduction in

HQ reactivity was somewhat sloWf~, :loosing 50% of its 0.5 hpost mortem value at 1.1 h

post mortem. The difference between the rates of decline in physical response may havebeen largely influenced by fall in n.1us~le temperature, since 50% activities in both

muscles occurred at between 33 and 3~oC.

82. Earlier work by Chrystall ~t ~., (1980) had indicated that the biochemical effectof the direct application of HVFB to I1lind legs of young lambs persisted for only 30 minpost mortem. The extent of retenticm in the physical response in culled ewes suggestedthat HVES might be applied su~;sfu11y to excised muscles over a longer time-frame.

5.2.3. Effects on meat quality.83. A number of quality indicators were measured on thawed samples prepared fromprimal cuts; methods were adapted from those conventionally applied to the study of thechanges in meat quality in high val1ue beef primal cuts. These indicative methods relatedto water loss (primal drip loss, retail drip loss, water holding capacity, cooking loss), tophysical damage to muscle structure (idrip protein content, myofibrillar protein solubilityand myofibrillar fragmentation indE~x) and to consumer acceptance (cooked muscletoughness, retail colour stability).

.-

;~:84. The application of HVES arid ]~ot boning had little overall effect on the waterholding characteristics of either prlJl1al cuts or retail packs (Appendix 2: Table 2.3.). Thiswas consistent with normal finding:) ill beef and lamb carcases e.g. Taylor§Al. (1984);Rashid.e1.al (1982). Hot boning had no significant effect on meat toughness (shearvalue). HVES applied to carcases ~;igI1ificantly (p< 0.05) reduced objective toughness incold boned H Q primal muscles; there 'was little overall effect on toughness in FQ and loinprimal muscles.

85. Results from other quality llldicators, such as myofibrillar fragmentation index(MFI) and muscle protein solubilit}', did not appear to reflect changes in toughnessbetween samples. This may have beetl due to the higher component of age-related non-myofibrillar factors, such as decreaJ;edl collagen solubility, which may influence muscletoughness. Analysis of drip protein, which has been considered useful for evaluating theeffects of FS in freezing (Sacks ~~1. 1993), appeared to be of little value in this instancein primal meat from culled ewes.

20

~%

86. The extent of colour developm~:nt. or colour stability over time was unaffected byHVES (Appendix 2: Table 2.4 and Table 2.5.). Loss of colour stability in ovine muscle ischaracterised by a rapid reduction in thle CIE a* or "redness" value. as oxy-myoglobin israpidly oxidised to met-myoglobin. H"/F$. in association with hot boning. appeared toresult in an acceleration in the dec1iI1le of the CIE a* value in the HQ and loin packsassessed after three days retail displalY. BYES did not appear to reduce consistently thevariation in colour values between aJUnla1s.

.!]

",.:

5.2.4. Summary of effecB of hot tJ.ol1ling.

87. Hot boning of culled ewes W:iS c:ompleted successfully. although a boning

schedule incorporating extensive seaming appeared to be of limited benefit in increasing

weight recovery. The conventional appUcation of RYES to carcase sides appeared tooffer protection against cold-shorteru[ng, in some muscles but its performance varied

considerably between muscles and aJUn.1als. Hot boning and conventional HVES had

little effect on other meat quality attribtLtes.

5.3. Effec~ of hot boning and ES applied to hot excised mmcles.88. Preliminary work indicated filat hot excised muscles would respond to the directapplication of ~, although the extent of the variation in performance was unknown. Theresearch programme was directed to~vaI'ds a comparison of the effectiveness of applyinglow (120v) or high (38Ov) voltage E~; to hot excised primal cuts. These treatments werecompared against cold boned primal cu1:s taken from alternate sides which had receivedeither no stimulus or conventional (4:5o,f) HVFS. An additional variable, chilling rate,was added to the programme matrix in (>rder to distinguish the effects of slow «2.5°C /h)and rapid (4.5°C /h) chilling on the mia'obiological quality of hot boned primal muscles.

5.3.1. Development of a hot boninJ~ p,rimal-FS schedule.89. The need for speed in applying HVES to excised primal cuts led to are-appraisalof the cutting regime given in paragnlp}]l 67. The neck, from the atlas to the 5th cervicalvertebra, was removed as a bone-in piec~ and was trimmed after completion of all otherboning procedures. The rump was e):cu;ed as an additional primal pack by its horizontalseparation from the silverside. Killing, Idressing and primal hot boning operations werecompleted within 45 min post morten%.

90. ES was carried out in a modified: wine press, with primal muscles being locatedbetween wire mesh electrodes fitted to fhe inward facing surfaces of high densitypolyethylene insulator plates. Primal cw were clamped in the press between the

21

~

electrodes, giving an electrode separation distance of between 20 and 30 cm, dependingon primal muscle mass. E5 characteristics were similar to those used for whole carcasestimulation (pulse width 10 Insec, pulse frequency 12.5 pps), except that voltages of 120and 38Ov were applied over a two ;min duration. Partial restraint of the primal musclesduring ES was achieved by the application of a 45N turning moment (by torque wrench)to the press.

91. Individual primal muscles were consolidated and stimulated as two batches perLHS carcase side as follows;

Primal Stimulation (a): The FQ (above scapula) and FQ (below scapula) primal

muscle block were placed on the la,wer electrode, so that cut muscle surfaces from both

primal muscles made direct electric:a1 contact. The excised loin primal muscle was laid

over the FQ primal muscle blocks, dorsal side downwards, so that the interior face of the

M. longissimus dorsi muscle was ill direct contact with upper electrode.

Primal stimulation (b): The HQ primal muscle block was placed in contact with

the lower electrode, ensuring that tile M. semimembransosus muscle made direct

electrical contact; the rump and fillt~t muscles were laid over the HQ primal muscle block

and covered by the flank, which was laid so that its interior face made direct contact with

the upper electrode. ..,.~,: ::,,:c:.;

92. Muscle pH samples were removed immediately before primal-ES and after

holding primal muscles for 30 rnin ;iftE~r stimulation under ambient temperature (20OC)

conditions. Primal cuts were weighed. placed in folded synthene bags (to allow for

further pH samples to be taken at 4, 10, and 24 h post mortem) and loaded as a single

layer into 50 I perforated baskets. ~~apid chilling was carried out in air at -1°C; slower

chilling was achieved by holding primal muscles for 10 h at 21°C, followed by chilling at

+3°C for a further 14 h period. Hig]1 voltage ES was applied alternately to RHS carcase

sides; these were chilled under sirniJlar regimes and cold boned at 24 hpost mortem.After chilling, primal cuts were held at -1°C for a further 24h, before being plate frozen

as a single layer from 0 to -35°C OVE~r a twelve h cycle.

93. A microbiological assessment was made by swabbing thawed primal muscle cutsimmediately prior to retail butchery ani:! by swabbing retail cuts after 3 days retail displayat +soC. Primal (thaw) drip and retail drip losses, objective toughness (shear) and colourstability were assessed as previously' described.

22

94. Results relating to these trial,s aJre tabulated in Appendix 3 (Tables 3.1. to 3.19)

and discussed below. The significarlce of differences between treatments were analysed

using student 't' tests applied to treatmlent means; coefficient of variation was used to

compare variation within corresponclinjg data sets. Relationships between data sets were

analysed where appropriate using fuLeaJr regression (least mean squares).

5.3.2. Electrical stimulation perf(]~mlance.95. Culled ewe carcases (RHS) v~ere given conventional HVES (45Ov) after splittingat 0.25 hpost mortem; hot boning of th~~ corresponding LHS of each carcase commencedwith excising FQ muscles and was o:>mpleted within 0.7 h post mortem. Excised FQ andHQ muscles were stimulated (120 or 4:;Ov) for 120 seconds; electrode polarity wasreversed after the first 60 seconds of stimulation. Stimulation data are given in Appendix3: Table 3.1. FQ and HQ were stimtllated at an average of 0.55 h and 0.65 hpost mortemrespectively. Muscle temperature at primal stimulation differed significantly (p<O.OOl),averaging 34.7 °C in the FQ and 37 .~~oC in the HQ, reflecting the faster rate of heat loss inthe thinner FQ muscles.

96. Application of both 120 and ~~8Glv stimuli resulted in a localised contraction,

which appeared to lessen in intensity ov'er the stimulation period. Muscle response was

stil1 evident at 380v when electrical I>ol:mty was changed after stimulation for the first

minute. The packing effect caused b:r the application of pressure under no applied

voltage was marginally larger in FQ Jprimal muscles, since these were comparatively

smaller and were more able to defornl1 tJIrough tearing along intermuscular seam lines.

The application of ES to hot excised :primal muscles resulted in an inconsistent increase

in packing effect. The packing effec1: was marginally greater at 380v but is likely to be oflittle practical value. .

97. Energy inputs were calcu1atec! 011 the basis of indicated current, and the use of a

12.5 pulse per second, 10 msec pulse width electrical cycle. Variation in energy

application, calculated in relation to j(:g weight, was similar for muscles and voltage

tested, giving coefficients of variation ranging from 31 to 33%. Regression analysis

suggested that there was no relationsllip between energy applied (KT /kg), muscle

temperature and post mortem time. 1'he effect of temperature showed the highest relativecorrelation to energy, although this ac=counted for <20% (regression coefficient = 0.423; P

-not significant) of the variation in al'Plied energy. Intermuscular fat level, animal age,

path continuity and length of pathwa)r (~lS opposed to muscle mass) would be expected to

effect resistance and drawn current. (}r~~ter understanding of the factors contributing to

the variation in energy input and then: effects, if any, on meat quality would be necessary

if the process were to be developed ftlrtller.

23

z

98. The stimulation of confined primal muscles represented a considerable

improvement in safety procedure C()mpared with the stimulation of free carcase sides.

There were smaIl losses in measurablE~ drip from the primal cuts as they reacted to FS

under pressure. These amounted tal less than 0.1% of primal mass weight based on drip

measurement over the processing opeJ:ation. The cross-transfer of exudate between

muscles in a commercial process would require the introduction of appropriate sanitising

measures.

99. The effectiveness of FS applied to excised muscles compared to FE applied tocarcase sides was assessed by determining changes in muscle pH (Appendix 3: Tables3.2. to 3.4). Conventionally applie<i HVES (450 v) reduced muscle pH at one hpostmortem (over that in the non-stimulated control carcase sides) by an average of 0.16 pHunits in the FQ (M. triceps brachii) over a mean pH value of pH 6.48 in the control.HVFB reduced loin (M. longissim.U.!> dorsi) pH by 0.24 pH units (mean pH 6.45 in thecontrol) and by 0.20 pH units in the: HQ (M. semimembranosus) muscle (mean pH of

6.48).

100. Slow chilling permitted rapid pH fall in untreated control carcases, giving pHvalues of <5.9 at ten h post mortem in the three muscles tested. HVF$ under thesecircumstances had little advantageous effect, although it did reduce the variation inmuscle pH fall between animals, reciuc:ing the coefficient of variation from 23 to 14%.

101. Rapid chilling significantly (p<:0.01) reduced muscle pH fall over the first ten h

period in carcase sides. The averag'e muscle pH in the untreated control carcases was

<pH 6.2. at!en hpost mortem in thE~ three muscles tested. Muscle pH in HVES-treated

carcase sides was reduced to <6.2. ~lt tI~ h post mortem, although HVF$ appeared least

effective in accelerating pH fall in tJlle loin (M. longissl"mus dorsi) muscle. HVES,

applied to carcase sides, did not apFeaJ~ to reduce variation in muscle pH between muscles

or animals under rapid chilling conclitilDns.

102. The application of ES to exc:ised muscles produced an immediate reduction in

muscle pH (over the 30 min period ;aft4~r stimulation), although this was not consistent

between muscles. Average muscle :pH in the loin was reduced by 0.20 and 0.21 pH units

(compared to an average pH of 6.63: in the non-stimulated controls) using 120 and 380v

respectively. A similar level of pH rec:luction was measured in HQ muscles, pH being

reduced by 0.25 and 0.19 pH units (coJmpared to a mean pH of 6.63 in the non-stimulated

control) at 120 and 380 v, respectiv~~ly. The application of ES had less effect on the

immediate pH fall in FQ muscles, ~'ittl average pH reductions of 0.06 and 0.09 pH units

(mean pH 6.70 in the control) for 1~~0 :and 380 volt treatments. There was some variation

24

in the initial pH reduction within eac:h primal muscle treatment group (average coefficientof variation for all muscles ranging from 1.7 to 3.6%). which was not directly related tothe energy input described earlier.

103. The extent of the initial pH n!d\Jlction to primal FS in the M semimembranosusmuscle was lower than the 0.32 pH \Jmi1: reported by Chrystall ~ ~ (1980), in the directapplication of a 20Ov stimulus for 12:0 s:econds to entire lamb legs at 30 minpost mol1em.Newbold and Small (1985) showed tha1: the extent of the initial muscle pH reductionunder localised 12v FS application irllaLInb M semitendensosus muscle was related topre-stimulation pH. Data from Newl)()ld and Small (1985) suggests that localised FSwould reduce muscle pH in M. semit.~ntienosus muscle at a pre-stimulation pH of 6.7 by0.2 pH units, which is similar to that re<:orded here for primal E'S applied to Msemimembranosus muscle in culled E:WE~.

104. The application of primal ES under slow chilling conditions had no significanteffect on the subsequent rate of muscle :pH fall over that in non-stimulated hot bonedcontrol muscles. All hot excised mw;cl~~s achieved a pH of 6.2 units or less at ten h postmortem; the rate of pH fall was not si:gnificantly faster at higher ES voltages. Rapidchilling reduced the rate of muscle pH fall in all hot boned treatments, with the effect offaster temperature fall remaining sigrrificant (p<O.O5) in non-stimulated hot bonedmuscles at 24 hpost mortem. The ap'plication of primal ES at 12Ov, followed by rapidchilling conditions, was unable to intJroCluce sufficient acceleration in pH in FQ primalmuscles in order to achieve an averaf:e pH of <6.2 at ten h post mortem. This thresholdwas achieved in all other primal ES tI~eatments, and was equivalent to the performance ofHVES applied to the carcase side.

105. The application of ~ to primal ]muscles had no effect in reducing inter-animalvariation in the rate of subsequent mLLScle pH fall. The electrical parameters used in thispreliminary study may not necessaril:'Y be the most appropriate in terms of theacceleration in the rate of muscle pH fall or in the reduction in inter-animal variation.

5.3.3. Hot boning )ield.106. Yield data for the modified hot tK)ning and primal stimulation procedure,compared against cold boning perfonn8Jtlce under both slow and rapid cooling protocols,are given in Appendix 3: Tables 3.5 amd 3.6. Separate calculations, based on differencesbetween corresponding lliS and RH~; carcase pairs, were made to determine the yieldadvantage of hot boning. Non-stirnu1at~~ and H~-treated carcase sides lost an averageof 3.6% of hot mass weight due to eva~)ration over a 24 h slow chilling cycle, withfurther losses on boning amounting to an average of 4.3% loss on hot mass weight

25

Rapid chilling confined the equiva1~t to an overall loss of between 3.5 and 3.9% of hotmass weight. HVES applied to car(~se sides had no significant effect on evaporation orboning losses over non-stimulated c:ar(~se sides.

107. Overall weight losses durin~~ the hot boning and primal restraint procedureaveraged 1.4% of carcase mass. CaICtJllations based on paired data indicated that hotboning, followed by rapid or slow chilling, increased primal muscle weight by 4.8 and3.8% respectively over that recoven~ :from the corresponding cold boned sides.Similarly, hot boning increased recc)vered meat (primal meat plus bone trimmings) by 3.8and 2.7% over that from rapid and s:lo~v chilled cold boned carcase sides. Hot boningsignificantly (p<0.05) reduced the proI>Ortion of meat trimmings in the overall yield ofrecovered meat compared to that frc)m rapidly chilled carcases.

108. The application of FB to priInaJl muscles did not significantly affect weight loss on

boning or hot excised primal weigh1:. R~ecovered meat weight was not significantly

effected by primal stimulation at 1210 air 38Ov. Hot boning and primal ES treatments

consistently returned lower proportioru; of meat 1rimmings, reflecting the ease in excising

whole muscles from the carcase. Die mean proportion of meat trimmings in the total of

recovered meat over all hot boning 1recltments was reduced by 12.0 and 10.4% compared

to the respective proportions produced from cold boning rapid or slow chilled carcases.

Hot boning was generally quicker tl:lan conventional cold boning operations. although the

extent of this advantage was more a:pp,lrent when the fat temperature in the cold boned

carcase was below 5°. A recent s~'ey has been completed in Australia. analysing

occupational health in the beef boniJrlg industry (Caple and Barrow. 1992). The findings

indicated that hot boning operations have a lower incidence of occupational injury. Hot

boning is considered to be both quic:keJr and more efficient. leading to less boner fatigue.

These advantages appear to be directly transferable to small-stock boning.

5.3.4. Effect on meat quality.109. The effect of the application of ES to primal muscles on thawed drip loss, retaildrip loss and objective toughness is given in Appendix 3: Tables 3.7. to 3.9. Hot boningincreased the overall extent of prim~u dlrip loss, when compared to cold boning, althoughthe increases were only significant (p<IO.05) for rapidly chilled unstimulated muscles.Weight losses for these hot boned ~lpi(ny chilled muscles ranged from 0.9 to 1.6% oforiginal primal pack weight, and woluld probably not be apparent to a wholesaler.Smaller increases in drip loss, averagiI1Lg 0.4 to 0.9% of original pack weight. wererecorded in slow-cooled hot boned muscles compared with the cold boned primal

muscles.

26

110. Hot boning alone had no sigrJtifi,cant effect on retail drip loss, although there was atendency for increasing retail drip lo:sses to reflect previous increases in primal drip loss(regression coefficient = 0.85; p<O.0:5). Inter-animal variation in retail drip was

decreased under slow cooling conditilons. Hot boning produced an overall increase inaverage muscle toughness (shear value). when compared to non-stimulated cold bonedcarcases. Shear value was significantly (p<0.05) increased in rapidly cooled FQ muscles,amounting to a 21% increase in obje<~ve toughness over rapidly-cooled cold bonedmuscles. Inter-animal variation was increased in FQ muscles under both chillingregimes. Hot boning had no signifi~mt effects on the toughness of other muscles, but didappear to decrease inter-animal varia'tiO]tl in loin and HQ muscles.

111. Rapid chilling had no effect on thaw drip loss over any of the treatments. Itwould be expected to increase primal drip loss. due to the increased presence ofcondensate at the bagged muscle surfaa~. but this effect was overwhelmed by subsequentlosses in intracellular fluid. Rapid chilling significantly (p<O.O5) increased retail driploss in packs from unstimulated cold boJrled primal HQ muscles but had no effectelsewhere. Rapid chilling alone inCff~~~ FQ toughness as described earlier but had nosignificant effects in other treatments"

112. HVES applied to carcases maJ~giJrlal1y increased primal thaw drip in all treatments,

with actual increases ranging from 0.~~1 'to 0.39% of original muscle weight over both

chilling regimes. The effect on inter-iwrnal variation was variable, with HVES acting toincrease variation in all muscles unde:r nlpid chilling conditions and to decrease sample

variation under slow cooling. HVES ap]~lied to carcases significantly (p<O.OS) decreased

retail drip loss in the rapidly cooled loin muscle; inter-animal variation in retail drip was

increased under rapid chilling and dec:re~iSed under slow cooling.

113. BYES applied to rapid coolin!~ Olfcases significantly (p<O.O5) reduced meanobjective toughness (shear value) in loin muscle, amounting to a 14% reduction intoughness over muscles from non-stinl1u1ated carcases. The reduction in loin toughnesswas accompanied by a reduction in inter-animal variation. HVFS applied to carcasesappeared to slightly toughen FQ and HQ muscles which were cooled slowly. Low andhigh voltage ES can induce muscle to'UgJ!1ness through a rigor-shortening reaction whichmay result from the induction of a very rapid pH fall in muscles which are attemperatures above 300C (Marsh, 1983).

114. ES applied to primal muscles ]!laC[ no effect on thaw drip loss in muscles cooledslowly or rapidly. Inter-animal variatiOI1l was reduced under rapid chilling conditions;average coefficients of variation for FQ. loin and HQ muscles were 40.2. 23.4 and 24.1%

27

:@

for non-stimulated hot excised prirnaJ muscles, primal ES-12Ov and primal ES-380v

treatments, respectively. VariatiOI1l UIlder slow chilling regimes was largely unaffected.

115. Primal ~ had no significaJlt ~:ffects on retail drip, other than that introduced byhot boning. The application of ~ to excised muscles did not appear to alleviate theincrease in toughness due to hot bclniIlg. Primal ES-12Ov had some effect in reducingtoughness, although this amounted to a 13% reduction over the unstimulated hot bonedmuscle; it had no effect on toughness in other muscles, either under rapid or slow coolingconditions. The application of a 38Ov' stimulus did not reduce toughness significantly inany treatment; there was a tendenc;~ to lower comparative values in muscles under rapidchilling conditions. Primal ~ appear'ed to introduce a small increase in toughness due toheat rigor under slow cooling conditions; primal 38Ov FS reduced inter-animal variationin the majority of treatments.

116. The effect of FE on the devt~lopment of initial meat colour for FQ, loin and HQretail sections is given in Appendix 3: Tables 3.10 to 3.13. Colour values in these tableshave been determined as CIE cylincific:al co-ordinates of lightness (L j, chroma (C*)[derived as «a*)2+(bj2)-2], and hue (HO) [derived as tan-I (b*/a*)]. Hot boning had alimited effect on the development of initial colour, significantly (p<0.01) increasing L *

values in rapidly chilled FQ muscles compared with cold boned non-stimulated FQmuscles. Hot boning had little oveI'all advantage in L * value in other treatments, and had

no effect on redness (chroma cj or colour depth (hue HO). FQ muscles from culled ewestend to be marbled (contain high le,re!:; of intermuscular fat), and hot boning may haveincreased the reflectance of this coI1t1p<>nent rather than increase muscle oxy-myoglobincontent.

117. Rapid cooling of the carcase: resulted in a significant (p<O.OS) reduction in initial

L .values in the majority of cold bo][lecl treated muscles, compared with those that which

were cooled slowly. This trend was: al:so present to a more limited extent in non-ES and

primal-ES hot boned loin and HQ muscle treatments. Rapid cooling tended to result in

lower C' values over all treatments, al1hough this was only significant in HVFS cold

boned FQ muscles, non-stimulated c:old boned loin muscles and non-stimulated hot

boned FQ muscles. Rapid chilling 1:ended to increase comparative Ho values, although

this was only significant in primal ES :L2Ov treated loin muscles.

118. The application of HVES to caJ~case sides had no effect on L. value, but didreduce C' value in HQ muscles coo]led slowly. Slow cooling resulted in small increasesin Ho value. H~ is generally clajmErl to enhance meat colour development andstability (Smith, 1985) although this: fu1ding is most noticeable in the loin of high-grade

28

:~,j'

beef carcases. HVF$ did not offer arJlY J~duction in inter-animal variability in colour

development.

119. The application of primal ES :l2()v had no effect on muscle L ., C' or Ho value.Primal 38Ov ES signjficantly (p<O.OS,) ulcreased muscle e value in the loin, although itis doubtful if changes of this order wc~d be evident to the majority of consumers. Therewere no effects in other 1reatments and I>rimal F$ had no effect on inter-animal variationin muscle colour.

120. All retail packs were reassess~d ~ifter three days storage at 5°C; data for colour

stability are given in Appendix 3: Ta1:,I~; 3.13 to 3.15. The initial advantage in L. valueshown by rapidly chilled hot boned FI~ muscle was maintained (p<0.01), as was a smaller

advantage in L .and Ho value in other halt boned 1reatments. Inter-animal variation wasnot affected within the 1reatment groups.

121. Rapid chilling of the initial prim~u muscles resulted in consistently lower L.values in the majority of treatments, although this was only significant (p<O.O5) in coldboned HVF$-treated loin and HQ mwsc1es, non-stimulated hot boned loin muscles andprima138Ov FS treated loin and HQ mwiCles. The variation in L. value in all treatmentswas unaffected over the three day diSf)la~y period. Average coefficients of variation for L.fell marginally over the three day, from ~).6 to 5.3% in the hot excised treatment groupsand from 6.7 to 5.3% in the cold boned treatment groups respectively.

122. Reductions in the c* were record,ed over the three day period for alltreatments,although these were only significant (];><O.Ol) in cold boned slow chilled RYES treatedFQ, loin and HQ muscles. Reduction of this order in the C' value, which equates to theloss in surface redness due to the deepening of the sub-surface met-myoglobin layer,would be apparent to consumers. A vE:raJ~e coefficients of variation for C' increased overthe three day period from 6.0 to 9.8% in the hot excised treatment groups and from 7.0 to8.7% in the cold boned treatment grO\JlpS. respectively.

123. The change in the W value OV4~ 1he display cycle was more widespread. althoughsignificant effec~ were limited to slov'l c:hilled primal ES-120v loin muscles and slowchilled primal F$-380v HQ muscles. Slow cooling of primal muscles led to a largeincrease in the variation in Ho value iIll the retail packs from all hot and cold bonedtreatments. Average coefficients of v.irlation for W increased from 5.8 to 17.4% in thehot excised treatment groups and from 5..9 to 13.7% in the cold boned treatment groupsrespectively. Some ~ of W val1Jle '~ere probably influenced by microbial

proliferation.

29

~

124. Both HVFS applied conventio:l1ally and FS applied to excised muscles had limited

effects on the quality of meat from ,culled ewes. The application of more direct electricalfields by stimulating primal muscles e:nhanced muscle pH fall, and offered a small

advantage in reduction in meat tou~;hness induced through hot boning. Primal ES did not

reduce the inherent variability of Fl; tE~hnology when related to its effect on meat qualityfrom lower grade animals. HowevE:f E:S applied to primal muscles produced no adverse

effects on the water-holding propenies: of muscles under investigation or on retail colour

development and loss in colour stablili1y over time. The ES variables applied to excised

muscles, e.g. pulse characteristics, voltage and application time, were based on those usedin the conventional application of ES to whole carcases and may not necessarily be

optimal for stimulating primal musc:les:.

5.3.5. Microbial assessment.125. Aerobic microorganisms (pl.ate count at 5, 25 and 3?OC), presumptive colifonnsand presumptive Staphylococcus aureus were deterrnmed in primal muscles prior to retailbutchery; data are given in Appendix 3: Tables 3.16 to 3.17. Mean aerobicpsychrotrophic and mesophilic COUIJlts :in rapidly chilled cold boned primal musclesranged from log 2.7 to log 3.4 cfu (c:olony fonning units) /cm2, which are within the log 5level of product acceptability. Therl~ was a considerable spread of results within eachtreatment group, reflecting variations ll1 microbiological load over the different primalmuscles sampled. The presence of ~~a)'hylococcus aureus, which is a microorganismwhich tends to reflect poor product 1laI1ldIing, was within an acceptable log 2.0 level;presumptive coliforms, which can b4~ a gross indicator of poor personal hygiene, wereabsent.

il

126. Slow initial cooling in carca~;es resulted in a general increase in aerobicpsychrotrophic and mesophilic micrc:>QI'ganisms recovered at 25°C. There weresignificant (p<O.OS) increases in the level of Staphylococcus aureus suggesting higherlevels of environmental contamination during chilling. The level of mesophilicorganisms recovered at 35°C. which call generally indicate human contamination. and thepresumptive coliform count were lar'ge:ly unaffected. since carcase muscle temperaturewas less than 5°C at boning. HVES applied to carcase sides had no effect on theproliferation of microorganisms or on the variation within treatment groups. regardless of

chilling regime.

127. Hot boning, followed by rapid c:hilling, had no effect on the level ofpsychrotrophic or mesophilic microc>rganisms recovered at 35°C, but did significantly(p<O.O5) reduce the aerobic mesopruile count recovered at 25°C. This finding, whichappears to suggest that hot boning was carried out in good environmental conditions, may

30

~:?O"

y~'

more appropriately reflect the short tI~l protective effect offered by antibodies in hotmuscle (Gill and Penny. 1979).

128. Hot boning, followed by slo'\1i' chilling, did not significantly increase the level of

microbiological proliferation in p~~ muscles when compared to those from slow

chilled carcases. However more valild comparisons must be made to 'best practice', i.e.

to levels of contamination on rapidly chilled primal products. Slow chilling resulted in

significant (p<0.05) increases in mesc:>pl1ilic microorganisms recovered at 25 and 35°C

and for Staphylococcus aureus when co1mpared to levels recovered from rapidly chilled

hot boned primal muscles. The previous advantage of hot boning in the reduction of the

mesophile count recovered at 250 w~; lost. The extent of the overall increase in aerobic

count at 5, 25 and 350 (log 2.08, log ]..O~~ and log 0.67 cfu/cm2) in slow chilled hot boned

primal muscles indicates that the envilroJrlment may have contributed a more significant

effect on a reduction in microbial accep1:ability than the hot boning process itself. The

extent of increases in coliforms and StaJ'hylococcus aureus (log 2.81 and log 1.28

cfu/cm2) were greater than the 10 geIJlenLtions recommended under AQIS regulations if

thawed primal muscles were taken to be the end of the overall chilling process.

129. The application of primal ES. followed by rapid chilling, had no significant effecton the level of microbial proliferation o~rer that introduced within the hot boning process.There were no significant differences due to applied voltage. Primal E5 had nosignificant effect, above that due to hot l>oning, on the proliferation of microorganismsunder slow chilling conditions, althotJlgh the extent of proliferation would come within

AQIS guidelines.

130. Microbiological growth was dete:nnined in retail packs after three days storage at5°C (Appendix 3: Tables 3.18 to 3.19). :Mean levels of aerobic psychrotrophic andmesophilic microorganisms from rapidly chilled cold boned primal muscles ranged fromlog 3.00 to 1.51 cfu/cm2 (recovered o'ver the incubation range of 5 to 35°C). Slowchilling of carcases increased the leve:l of aerobic psychrotrophic and mesophilicmicroorganisms by more than 100 ge][lerations, although this was not statisticallysignificant due to the large inter-sample variation. Aerobic mesophile counts of slowchilled carcases ranged from log 5.87 at 25°C to log 3.93 cfu/cm2 at 35°C.

131. Aerobic counts of log 6.5 to log '7.0 cfu/cm2 can be considered to mark the upperlimit of retail acceptability. Retail pac~; from slow chilled primal muscles have averageaerobic counts within this limit, altho'ugJ.1levels of log 3.0 cfu/cm2 for Staphylococcusaureus would indicate cause for conClern,. HVES applied to carcase sides had nosignificant effect on the extent of or v'ariation in microbial proliferation.

31

:53

132. Retail packs from hot bone,d rapid chilled muscles showed significant (p<0.05)

increases in aerobic psychrotrophi(~ count. with less significant proliferation in mesophilic

microorganisms recovered at 25 aIJld ~J5°C. The application of primal ES had no furthereffect on the extent of microbial growth over that associated with hot boning. although

the majority of muscle packs had leve:ls of psychrotroph counts that were at or in excess

of the limit in retail acceptability. Thle mean level of presumptive coliforms and

Staphylococcus aureus were 100 fold higher than retail packs from rapidly chilled coldboned muscles.

133. Retail packs from slow chilled. hot boned primal muscles showed significant(p<O.O5) increases in aerobic microbi.l1 counts compared with retail packs from rapidlychilled cold boned muscles. The application of primal ~ had no significant effect on theextent of microbial growth, althouf~ here was a tendency for mesophilic microorganismsrecovered at 25 and 35 °C to increase with increasing voltage. The average aerobicpsychrotrophic and mesophile (35°IC) count in these packs was in excess of log 7.2 andlog 3.84 cfu/crn2, respectively, whic:h were log 3.3 and log 1.9 higher than rapidly chilledcold boned packs. Levels of presUInptive coliforms and Staphylococcus aureus were log1.5 and log 2.0 cfu/crn2 higher than in cold boned retail packs; both counts are above thelevels conventionally set for retail acceptability, with some packs being consideredunsafe.

134. The results quoted here wer,e obtained within an organised hot boning system,operating to hygiene levels which equ:ate with good manufacturing practice. Data fromthese trials need to be re-evaluated 'wi1:hin growth models proposed by Gill § ~ (1991) inorder to more accurately describe nliCl~bial growth in selected muscles under hot meatregimes. Rapid chilling according 1to J\QIS specifications (cooling of hot meat to <sac insix h) was essential in maintaining ]rni(~obiological integrity over an extended retailingoperation. More stringent temperature-reduction requirements appear to be indicatedwhere hot meat, conserved for retail ~ue, is subject to early temperature abuse such asboning in ambient temperatures.

32

i::C""'

A survey of meat processing in~cI~es in three Mrican countries.

6.

6.1. Background.135. The project objectives called for an RRA type survey of producers to establish the

extent for the future uptake of hot boI1Iin~~ and plate freezing technologies. This was to be

undertaken within the context of a revie~v of future developments and demands in themeat industries of selected coun1ries. It 'was considered more appropriate to base this

assessment on an initial survey of con1m~al meat producers and their loca1jnational

government support agencies.

136. The visit was undertaken from 7-24 November 1993 by D.Silverside (MeatTechnologist) and M. Pritchard (Soci<)-economist), assessing meat-processing systemsand future technological demands in three African countries (NRI Visit Report No.R2119(S) Silverside and Pritchard, 19194). The countries were selected to reflect poorly(Tanzania), moderately (Malawi) and WE~n (Namibia) developed meat processing andmarketing systems. Discussions were focused on aspects of meat distribution practices,including plate freezing, the possibilities for the introduction of this or associatedtechnologies, and an identification of Iresearch priorities in the development of theirrespective meat-handling industries.

6.2. Tanzania.137. Agriculture occupies 80 per ce:nt of the population and accounts for 56 per cent of

gross domestic product (GDP). Cattlf~ pJ:oduction is largely made up of smallholder

producers in the pastoral and agro-pastoral sector. The national herd comprises 13.2

million head of cattle, of which appro:rimately 65,000 head are improved animals held on

the small commercial farms of the Na"tional Ranching Company. The main surplus

cattle-producing regions lie in the noIith Imd north-west of the country whilst the main

consumption and deficit areas are in tJle looastal regions and in the southern part of the

country .

138. Cattle trading is a private sector (mterprise, with traders competing to arrange the

purchase from producers or from prinlar:y markets, and consigning them to terminal

livestock markets for sale to butchers. The transport of livestock is mainly by long-

distance trekking or by rail. Both systj~ms have suffered from under-investment, with a

decline in the functional transport sYSltem, and disrepair in the dipping and holding

facilities that serviced the trekking rO1Jte:s. Both systems of transport result in injuries

and/or losses in condition en route. The unregulated and excessive use of long-distancetrekking through infOrIIlal routes results in 10-20 per cent weight losses and 7-10 per cent

mortality (Colby, 1994). The transpo:rt of animals to urban markets such as Dar es

33

~

Salaam can take four weeks and triW;port costs can form 80 per cent of marketing costs

(Silverside and Pritchard, 1994).

139. There is very little meat wl1lolE~aling and individual butchers control most of the

retail trade. The products are limiu~ 1:0 hot cuts of sliced primal meat or meat with bones,

with very little differentiation on tile basis of quality or into other products. A small

number of higher-income retail ou11ets service the restaurant and hotel-catering sector;

these make use of local freezing to store meat not sold on the day of slaughter. Consumer

preference is for fresh hot meat, with IDutlets limiting their daily turnover to one carcase.

Consumers in Dar es Salaam used 1~0 ]>urchase frozen meat but local butchers now thinkthat the prospect of selling frozen I1r1eat is low. There might be some potential in

servicing the meat markets in Mtwiifa and Lindi, although there would be considerable

problems associated with infrastruc:tUl"e, particularly in electricity supply.

140. The decline in transport infras1ructure is seen as a major constraint to the

development of commercial activities. There is a proposed Mrican Development Fund

(ADF) project to rehabilitate certaiIl stock routes, and there are other donor funds beingused for upgrading of rail and road links. Priority is to be given to the rehabilitation of

livestock markets and stock routes, veterinary support, repair to railway wagons and

vocational training. These proposaJls c:over minor rehabilitation work and appear not to

address the major structural problems 'within the present industry. A new model abattoiris to be built at Dodoma (under a sepaJ~ate project submitted to the ADF) which may

present a single opportunity for the introduction of appropriate boning and extended

conservation procedures.

141. Tanzania has a large national herd and considerable potential for the development

of livestock and meat industries. NI~w abattoir investment is being planned by a number

of institutions, although these facilities would largely provide hot meat for local urban

markets. Members of the meat indu:stry see the acquisition of market data as the key

priority issue in order to attract new in".1estment. Opportunities for the introduction of

accelerated processing technology ll.1 tile short-term are limited. There is longer-term

potential for export to neighbouring countries, which would require the introduction of

additional abattoirs (based on the D<:>doma model) operating chilling or freezing systems.

6.3. Malawi.142. Agriculture occupies 73 per Icent of the population, and accounts for 33 per cent of

GDP; only 13 per cent of householders keep cattle. Fifty per cent of cattle production is

concentrated in the central region wj[th the remainder evenly distributed to the north and

south of the country. Livestock pro<iuc:tion largely remains within smallholder mixed

34

,.°.,,,".,'.-.,~

fanners, with some ranching/ieed-I01: at:ld stall-feeding schemes in the central and

southern regions. The output from tile ~;mal1holders sector has been in decline, due to

disease and drought problems; population pressure leading to an inability to increase the

national herd; and the liberalisation of liivestock prices having a negative impact on the

supply response due to low price ela~;ticities.

143. The majority of animals are s:laughtered in very basic facilities. often at theroadside. Butchers ~oughout the CCluntry slaughter and sell hot meat in towns andvillages; small-holders get comparati'vely higher prices from these butchers since the

parastital purchase price penalises lower-grade animals. Twenty per cent of cattle areslaughtered in two parastatal abattoms. managed under the Cold Storage Company (CSC)and administered under the Agricultural Marketing and Development Corporation. TheCSC is not profitable. with annual ca1ttle: throughput having dropped from 24.000 in 1983to 16.000 per year in 1992. The para:sta:ta1 has problems in obtaining higher-gradeanimals in order to reduce its unit slaugllter cost.

144. The abattoirs at Lilongwe and BJlantyre have suffered from under-investment, and

are probably beyond realistic refurbishrrlent. The units currently take in higher-grade

livestock (from feed-lot and stall-feeClinjg units), taking advantage of the relatively good

infrastructure to access nearby produ(:tion areas. Chilled meat from the abattoirs is

distributed by road to major retailers c:atering largely to high-income consumers. Retail

prices for meat in the informal sector arE~ considerably higher than those for fish, which

still provides the majority of muscle-protein intake to most householders.

145. None of the conditions identified. in the project memorandum for the introduction

of accelerated-processing technology arE~ evident in Malawi. The potential for increased

livestock production is limited by the lac~k of available land for grazing or production of

feed. Losses in livestock during slau!~tler and processing are thought to be small.

Improvements in meat quality and the~ introduction of new technologies are seen as being

of low priority.

6.4. Namibia.146. Agriculture in relatively irnPOIt'taJ!lt, occupying 34 per cent of the population and

contributing 11.3 per cent of GDP. The beef industry dominates the agricultural sector of

Namibia, contributing 75 per cent of l~oSS agricultural income (Meat Board, 1992). The

meat industry in Namibia has similarities to that in Zimbabwe and Botswana, in that it

consists of highly-developed ranchin!~ enterprises and a communal sector based on

pastoral and agro-pastoral units. Cattle lire produced in two areas which are delineated by

a Veterinary Cordon Fence (VCF). C:attle production in the disease-free zone to the south

35

of the VCF consists of large-scale commercial farms, with some small-scale communalareas distributed amongst them. Pro<iuction in the zone to the north of the VCF is basedon communal production.

147. The commercial areas contribute the great majority of marketed livestock andhave historically received the bulk of government subsidies and support prices. The sub-sector produces high-quality livestock and is very profitable, due to the high priceattracted by these animals as slaughte:r-stock or for further fattening in South Africa.Production in the southern zone co,mrnunal areas is largely on a subsistence basis, withherd increases during drought-free years and 'offtake' i1i response to seasonal incomeneeds and as distress sales in drou~~t years.

148. Cattle production in the noI1h(~ communal areas is characterised by traditionalsub-Saharan pastoral and agro-past:onll systems, with herd sizes related to socio-culturalpractices. These reflect status withlin the community and the role of cattle in traditionalexchanges and rituals within precaJ:1ous agro-ecological zones. Offtake levels are lowand positive attributes are at variance with commercial slaughtering criteria, with oldmature oxen attracting higher prices. Disposal is usually regulated by social needs andannual cash requirements, such as ~;chool fees.

149. The majority of cattle are S(>ld to local butchers at rural markets, often through

traders, organised by traditional au1thorities such as Tribal Councils. These butchersslaughter in the bush and sell the mea1: 'off the bone' with no grading or weighing. Prices

paid for livestock at these markets jire based on weight.

150. The Meat Corporation of N;~mibia (Meatco), a private nationwide production and

marketing concern, operates three ,abclttoirs south of the VCF. These facilities havelicences to export meat to South Africa and the European Union (EU). Commercial beef

carcases are subjected to HVFS pri'Dr lto a chilling protocol (initia110 h chilling at 14°C;

remaining period at 1°C) designed 1:0 reduce deep muscle temperature to ZOC in 24 h.Loin muscle pH in export carcases m\JlSt be less than 5.9 at ten hpost mortem to avoid

shipping cold-shortened or DFD carcases. A vacuum-packed chilled product is supplied

to the EU, reaching the wholesale cUS1:omer by rail and sea in a minimum of six weeks.

Frozen manufactured meat, from folrecluarters, occasionally makes up some of the EU

export quota.

151. Low-quality manufacturing meat is produced from communal sector animals forexport to South Africa. Chilled mE~at is deboned. and frozen in 27 kg cartons in platefreezers. which have been purchased from Italy or Australia. The latter are more robust

36

but more expensive. Plate freezers have a minimum repay period of 2.5 years. Meatcoconsiders plate freezers are excellent v,alue and blast freezing is no longer considered aviable investment.

152. The Government of Namibia. h~tS increasingly tried to integrate communal and

commercial sectors of the livestock :prcduction industry. Meatco has expanded its

activities to operations north of the 'fCF. since the commercial areas in the south are

unlikely to be able to increase their production beyond current levels. Meat from

livestock procured in the Northern C~on1muna1 Areas (NCA) could only be used for

canned meat for export to South Africa. Recently Meatco has received approval for its

northern communal facilities to expc)rt :frozen cuts to South Africa. Animals must be held

in quarantine for 21 days prior to slaugJ~ter and meat must be held frozen in storage for 14

days prior to shipment. This has sigJrlifiicantly increased the potential profitability of the

northern operations. although Meatc'D \1r'ill have to increase and maintain the quality of

carcases that it procures from comm11m~1l famlers. Delivered livestock are currently in

such bad condition that Meatco uses its quarantine farms as short-term fattening stations.

153. Meatco are currently refurbishirlg two abattoirs in this area in order to comply toexport regulations, and is persuading fanners to sell animals to local procurement agentsacting on their behalf. Both abattoin; aloe being fitted with plate freezers; oneslaughterhouse will operate as a con,'en.tional chilling, cold boning and freezing plant,whilst the other facility will operate a hot-boning and direct freezing system. Meatcohave yet to adapt FS parameters to lc>cal stock and recognise that they will have majorproblems with carcase shrinkage (we:igllt loss),cold-shortening in low-grade animal~;, and meat colour, which mayor may be related toDFD, animal breed and age.

154. The NCA processing operatic)n I~xhibits all the assumed criteria necessary for the

adoption of the technologies under irlvestigation at NRI, i.e. losses associated with

transport, meat supply to distant marJkets. Distribution of meat is through a modern fleet

of refrigerated vehicles, along good roalds to markets in South Africa. Meatco uses un-

refrigerated, insulated vehicles for the IcJca1 transport of plate-frozen meat blocks.

Meatco uses HVES technology in its ab,attoirs south of the VCF for slaughtering high-

grade commercial cattle. Its main need relates to the effectiveness of ES on the quality of

meat from NCA communal cattle. The:r- were not convinced that stimulation of primal

muscles would offer any advantage c)ver ES applied conventionally to poor-gradecarcases, but could offer local facilities to NRI to carry out adaptive research work in

applying ES to poor quality animals, or more urgently, to investigate the reasons for

inferior meat colour.

37

"""'"0=;C-""'a

~

155. Expansion of livestock pro<luc:tion, in response to a market in South Mrica, would

be of benefit to poor communal farme:rs, particularly if they can be persuaded to sell

animals produced for meat or later paJ1icipate in a scheme for the improvement of local

livestock quality. The choice of halt boning and plate freezing would offer opportunities

to assess the operational implicatio:1lS ,of this type of operation for the benefit of other

producers in the immediate region. The limited availability of feed may restrict

opportunities for carcase fInishing. This and sociological factors may impede efforts atherd improvement that would be requiired to increase operational efficiency.

38

I

~-~;;

7. Concl~ol1S.

156. The development of peri-urban OJr rIlOre rural abattoirs may offer a better financial

and environmental option for the replacement of existing urban-sited slaughter facilities.

Rural abattoirs tend to operate low-cost hot meat distribution systems. The servicing of

more distant urban markets would requW~ tJle introduction of refrigerated conservation

practices, which could be adopted in addjiticln to existing practices.

157. Freezing has been a useful techniquE~ in the development of meat industries,

particularly where the intervening infrastJructure between the producer and consumer isextensive or poorly developed. Simulatic>DS confimled that industrial plate freezers couldreduce hot meat to <8°C within six hours of chilling, which is the current microbiologicalspecification for hot processing in Australia.. Hot boning and contact freezing, withoutcarcase chilling, would represent the most eJilergy-efficient option for the production offrozen meat blocks. An operation of this tYJ>e is proposed for the northern regions ofNamibia.

158. Rapid chilling in contact freezers 'would result in losses in product value throughcold-induced toughening. ES can be usedl tal protect muscles against this reaction byaccelerating rigor mortis. The conventional application of ES to carcase sides, usingelectrical parameters adapted to local anirnaJ. populations, may still result in a wide rangeof biochemical response in low-grade aniJ:nals. The application of ES to carcase sides infreezing operations has tlie disadvantage of not allowing processors to exploit the pre-rigor processing properties of currently low-.value muscles.

159. This programme evaluated the effl~ of applying localised ES to primal muscleblocks after excision in order to make the hot boning process more flexible. A rapid hotboning schedule, developed in culled ewes, increased primal meat yield by 3.8% oforiginal carcase weight compared with carcase chilling and cold boning operations. Hotboning reduced the proportion of meat triJrnn1ings (residual meat from bones) in the totalamount of meat recovered, in keeping with the higher efficiency of hot boning systems.

160. ES applied to hot excised muscles UI1lder partial restraint within 0.8 hour ofslaughter accelerated the fall in muscle pH, ~uthough this was more effective using a highvoltage 38Ov stimulus. Low voltage stim1111ation (120v) was partially ineffective inreducing pH to <6.2 at ten hours post mortem in muscles chilled at 4.5°C per hour.Localised ES did not reduce the variation in the subsequent rate of muscle pH comparedwith that recorded in conventiona1ly-stim1111ated carcases.

39

fJ;~:

";;,,

161. Localised ~ induced a contractile force in hot boned muscles although this hadno significant effect on muscle toughness compared to conventionally-stimulated

carcases. The application of ~ to primal muscles did not offer any improvement in theextent of or variation in meat quality irl muscles from culled ewes.

162. The application of ~ to hot boned primal muscle blocks, which represents an

additional handling step in hot bonirlg operations, had no effect on microbial quality

when muscles were chilled rapidly. Hot boning, followed by slow cooling, resulted in an

unacceptable proliferation of microc>rganisms in the retail product in all treatments.Australian regulations requiring hot mE~t to be reduced to SOCin six hours remain

appropriate to small hot-processing :facilities. Microbial specifications for hot boning atambient temperatures will need re-a:ppraisal under field conditions.

163. A survey of the meat industries in three Africa countries highlighted thedifferences in the development status of their respective meat industries. All are capableof considerable development, although there are major constraints relating to feedavailability, the supply of slaughter stock, and the development of an appropriate'transport/ slaughter/ retail infrastructure. The opportunities for the introduction of newtechnology in Tanzania and Malawi are limited; improvement in meat quality is not seenas a short-ternl issue.

164. Developments are taking place in the Northern Communal Areas of Namibia,

which are relevant to the concepts lllvestigated in the research programme. Local

facilities are being upgraded to supply hot boned frozen meat to markets in South Africa.

There is industry-led demand for th{~ r(~-assessment of F$ parameters applied to lower

grade animals in sub-Saharan AfriC~l.

165. The lack of a perceived adv~mt'lge in the stimulation of primal muscles will

prevent its further development in tile short-tenD, except perhaps as a tool for assessing

the variation in ES performance wh4~n it is applied to animals under stress. There is a

need to examine the potential for improving low-grade meat for processing, particularly

where the local constraints against improvement in animal quality will remain large. The

development of livestock productioJ1 in the NCA of Namibia could offer a model for

integrating farmers with distal market demand.

40

8. References.Aa1bus,J.L, McGinnis, D.s., Gariepy, C.,J,ooes, SD.M. and Too-E, A. K.W. (1994). A modified hot~sing strategy for beef; effects 00 fresh mE~ quality. Food ResearchInt. 27,513-518.

Asgi:Jar, A. and Henrickson, RL. (1982). P(lSt-llnortan stimulation of carcases: effects on biod1emistry~~~ysics, microbiology, and quality of meat. CRC Critical Reviews in Food Science and Nutrition. is,

Caple, D. and Barrow, R. (1992). q<x--upatiot1al health and safety plan for dle Australian Meat ProcessingIndustry. Report prepared for the Australianl Li'vestock Researdl and Development Corporatioo.

Cleland, A.C. (1990). Devel~ of mode:ls to desaibe freezing and chilling. In Food RefrigerationProcesses: analysis:, design and simulation. p 7..32. Else\'ier Science Publishers Ltd., &sex, UK.

Ouystall, B., Devine, C.E. and Davey, L (1980). Studies in electrical stimulation: post mortem decline inDa'VOUS response in lambs. Meat Sci 4, 69-j'8.

Colby, L. (1994). Tanzania: Livestock and Meat Export Study.

Collett, P. and Gigiel, A. J. (1986). Fnergy 11Jse4ige and wei~t loss in beef and oork chilling. In 'RecentAdva.nces ~nd Developm.ents in the. Refrigertuion of Meat by Chilling. P 171-177. International Institute ofRefrigeration; CommISSIon C2. Bnstol.

Field, RA, Riley, M.A., and O:>rbridge, M.lfI. (1974). Charactmsation of medlanically deboned hot andcold muttoo carcases. J; Food Sci 39, 282-284.

Follett, MJ., Nonnan, GA. and Ratcliff, P. ~V.I<~ (1974). The antr-rigor excision and air cooling of beefsemi-membranosus muscles at temperatures between -5 and +15°C. J. Food TechnoL, 9, 509-523.

Fung, D.Y.C., Kastner, CL., Lee, Chia-Yen, Hlmt, M.C., Dikeman, M.c. and Kropf, D.H. (1981). Initialdlilling rates of bacterial gro\\1h in hot b<x1ed beef. J; Food Protection. 44,539-544.

Gill, C.O. and Pmny, N. (1979). Survival ofbactmain ~es.AppL Envir. Microbiology. 37,667-669.

Gill, C.O., Hamson, J.C.L, and Phillips, D.J.\1. 1(1991). Use of a tem~ature function integration tedmiqueto assess the hygiene adequacy of a reef car(~~i cooling process. Food Microbiology. S, 83-94.

Grujic, R., Petrovic, L., Pikula, B. and Amidjc, L. (1993). Definition of optimum freezing rate -1.Investigation of structure and ultraStructure of beef Longissimus dorsi frozen at different freezing rates.Meat SCi 33, 301-318.

Henrickson, R.L. (1982). Hot Processin~ in 1he US. In Proc Int. Symp. Meat Sci. and Techno!, Lincoln,Nebraska. p.169-180. Publ. National Live~;tock Meat Board, Chicago,Illinois.

Herbert, L.S. and Smith, M.G. (1980). Hot )()ning of meat: refrigeration requirements to meetmicrobiological demarnds. CSIRO Fd. Qua/1. ~~O, 65-70.

Kotula, A. W. (1981). Microbiology of hot-l)()nl~ and electro-stimulated meat. J; Food Protection. 44, 545-549.

Lee, C.Y., Fung, D.Y. and Kastner, CL. (1985). ComRUter-assisted identification of micro flora on hot-boned and conventionaI1y processed beef: effeclt of mooerate and slow chilling rate. J; Food Sc. 50, 553-567.Marsh, B.B (1983). Effects of early ~st molrteJ1rl muscle pH and temperature 00 meat tenderness.Reciprocal Meat Conference Procooaings 3~;, 1:~1-137.

Meat Board of Namibia (1992). Annual Report.

Mrigudat, B., Smith, G.C., Dutsoo. T .R., Hall. I~.C., Hanna, M.O. and Vanderzant, C. (1980). Bactmologyof electrically stimulated and unstimulated r;ibbit, pork. Iamb and beef carcases. J; Food Protection. 43,

686-693.Newbold, RP. and Small, L.M. (1985). Ele~tri,::al stimulatioo of post mortem glycolysis in theSemitendinosus muscle of sheep. Meat Sci 12, 1-16.

Palumbo, SA. (1986). Is refrigeration enou,gh 1:0 restrain food bourne pathogens? J; Food ProL 49, 1003-1009.

41

Oblinga-, J.L (1983). Miaobiology of hot-ll>oned beef. Food Technology. May 1983. 86-94.

Rashid, N.H., Henrickson, R.L, As~ar, A. ;and ClaYP';>OI, PL. (1982). Biochemical and qualit):dlaracteristics of ovine muscle as affected b'Y' electrical stimulation and mode of dlilling. Proc. Europ.Meeting Meat Research Workers. NO 28, 2:13 p,494-499.

Reidlel, M.P., Phillips, D.M. and Gill, C.O. (1991). Assessment of the hygenic adequacy of a commercialbot bcning process for beef by a tem~tUrE: fw)ction integration technique. In!. J. Food Microbiology. 14,27-41.

Sacks, B., Casey, N.H., Boshof, E. and van ~~yl. H (1993). Influence of freezing method 00 thaw drip andlX'O:tein loss in low voltage electrically stimulate:d and om-stimulated sheeps' muscle. Meat Sci. 34, 235-243.

Silverside, D.E. and Pritchard, M. (1994). R'~port on a visit to Tanzania, Malawi and Namibia to identifythe ~ssibilities for the ap~lication of the tecM<llogies of bot boning, electrical stimulation and platefreezing to local meat pro<1uction. NRI Repc,rt J1.2119(S).

Slavik, M.F., Griffis, C., Li, Y. and Engler, P. (:1991). Effect of electrical stimulation on bacterialcontamination of chicken legs. J. Food ProJ:ection. 54,508-513.

Smith, G.C. (1985). Fifects of electrical stirnulation 00 meat quality, colour, grade, heat ring_and~alatabilit):. in Advances in Meal Research- Volume 1. Electrical Stimulation. pI21-158. A VI Publishing,Westport, Connecticut.

Solomon, M.B. (1988). Response of bovine mtlscles to direct high voltage electrical stimuli. Meat Sci. 22,229-235.Taylor, A.A., Down, N.F. and Dransfield, E.. (1 !~84). Fifect of high and low volta~ stimulation ontmdemess of muscles from slowly cooled bI~f sides. Proc. Europ. Meeting Meat~esearch Workers. No30,2:16 p 81-82.

Visser, K. (1977). The plate freezing and hclndling of pfe:-rigor and p<?:st rigor frozen hot boned meat.Proc. 19th Meatworks Convention, Country Me:atwocxs Association, Casino, NSW.

Visser, K. (1986). Automatic plate freezing of 1hot boned meats -an alternative to ~st slau~ter chilling?In 'Recent Advances and Deve7opments in file J;~efrigeration of Meat by Chilling. p 279-284. InternationalInstitute of Refriga-atioo; Commission C2. Bris:toL

West, R.L. (1982). Electrical Stimulation -United States. In Proc Int. $ymp. Meat Sci. and TechnoL,Lincoln, Nebraska. p.91-100. Publ. Natioolall~vestock Meat Board, Chicago, Illinois.

42

'~

Fiqure1.1.

The effect of different carton typea on temperature reduction in aanufacturinq

.eat usinq blast freezinq t8cl1Lnoloqy.

(Data derived using CSIRO modE!l. carton thickness 150 mIn, box load 27 kg, initial

meat temperature 3~C; bla~>t freezer operating at -4d'c on a nominal 48 freezing

(to -7~C) hour cycle. The shaded area represents the extent of the range of

chilling times to -~C).

Corruqated wall and lid carton.&.

.u...~....&Ito

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Figure 1.2. ~he effect of different carton t~~ on temperature reduction in sanufacturinq

.eat uainq plate .free:inq techn.olc>qy.(Data derived using CSIRO model. Carton thickness 150 III/!J, box load 27 kg,

initial meat temperature 3,sDC; ,platte freezer operating at -3~C on a

nominal 30 hour freezing (to -18',:) cycle. The shaded area illustrates

the extent of the range of chil.liJ'2g times to -i'C).

a.b.

44

Piqur.1.3. ~he effect of different au.cltl b:Locka on temperature reduction in aanufacturinq

..at u.inq plate freezinq tecb.no:Loqy.(Data derived using tray packE~ J,locks using NRI 120 kg capacity plate freezer.

Plate gap of 83 mIll, initial mE!at temperature :fc; plate freezer operating

at -3ifc on a nCXDinal 8 hour freetzing cycle to -2fc. The shaded area

illustrates the extent of the raJ1ge of freezing times to -1d'CJ.

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R

NRI PROJECT I~)MPLETION REPORT1. Basic Data:

Project Title: Development of methods to reduce the energy required to conserve meat withoutoompromising its quality

Contract value to NRI £187K-1Project completion date 31.03/95 =J

2. Ra1ing of implementation phase

I ~uts I Delivery ~ sched~ I Co~ I To;;al II 2 I 2 -, I 4 I 8 I

4. Comments and lessons for NRI: (continue overleaf if necessary)a. The practical aspects of the research programme were not completed within a suitable realtime frame: this led to a substantial accumulation, of data requiring analysis in the last half year of theproject. Outputs were thus delayed

b. Considerable emphasis was placed on the measurement of quality attributes (to align withother workers results). This level of detail is of little value and relevance to management in meatindustries in representative countries.

c. There was considerable difficulty in canying out the research programme where a highcomJX>neIlt of the work related to the practical application of the technology under development.This led to problems in maintaining momentum when experienced staff were unavailable.

2t

~ 1; ~~ z==: .E:::-=;.;S~.;:.'; ;::.';";E .~~ -::: ;:;:::::~ :::.=~::::::.~~.-- ~-- -"-"

Tedmologjea 8UCh u ~ and caltact freezing are of ~ imerest to die meat proce$Sing sectors in Tanzanja and Malawi, which will cootinue to beJXXXIy devel~ T.Io abauon m the N<Xthem ~unal Areas of Namibia are to use hot poocessing and plate freezing technology fcr diep'OOuctioo of bl<x:k ~t.

J. ContrD,ution ~ Outputs to Project GoalThe passibiliry of ltimulating excised muscles has been demclnSlraled, aldlough its comparative effeaiveness in beef carcases rompared withcalventia1aJ F.S is unknown. The relatively perfcrman~ fA l:a1vmuooal F.S 00 low qualiry animals is directly awlicable 10 MealCO suiwalion inNamibia; f\UtbeI" ~ m this area ~Id awajr die resuhs of dlejr f'Jrst attemps to inIrcxiu~ rapid processing ledlnology.

~ p._l!-licadons.Rep(¥t aI .visit to T~ia. Malawi and Nlmloia to identif)' die possibilities for die application d die teclUIologies of hot booing. eJearicalitUnu]aticMllIxi plate freeziDs to bca] meat frockIction. DoE. :SiJvl~ and M. Pritchard (1994). NRI ~ R2119 (5).

5. IDtemaJreports.The ptZfam&nl% of ~ 00 culled ewes (2); A pathfmeso e;cercise 00 die effect of ltimu)acjng excised muscles; Fmal TechnjcaJ Re}X)rt.

6. Othao diIICmInadon of !'Sults.Taro IcieDtjfic papers are m fKepentioo; first drafts are to be cOOIpleted by D«emba' 1995.a). The ~ of the applicatioo of ES to bot acised ~,rjm;il muscles.b). The effect of F$ applatK.! and cooling rate ~ d)e quality d bot ~ muscles.

7. FWlaw-up iDd1cat~/planned.Mearco (Namibia) ~ dle adaptiOll of CCXlVentiCNlal FS plRmeters 10 local cattle (and muscle rob1f in olrrr cattle) to be high priority problemsaIxl have requested tedm ~ ~ ISSiItaDce m dl- areas.

Signed ~ D. Heaor

RNRRS PROJECT COMPLETION SUMMARY SHEE'J' DATE sheet COOIpleted; 9dI Nov 1995TITLE OF PROJECI': D]~VELOPMENT OF METHODS TO REDUCE 'mE ENERGY USED TO

CONSERVE MEATwrnlOlrr COMPROMISING m QUALITY.RNUMBER: ~;176RNRRS PROGRAMME: U¥estI)ck Pr(XiJctiooPROGRAMME MANAGER aNSI11'UTION); Dr M. 'Gill (Natura] ~ InstiIute)SUB-CONTRACTOR: UDiVa'$jry of N<XtmgilamRNRSS PROGRAMME PURPOSE: Mldeling cI eggs. Milk, Meat fa' Urban PopuJations ImprovedRNRSS PRODUCTION SY~: Pai-UIUn InterfaceBENEF1C~: Meat P"cx:essocsGEOGRAPmC FOCUS: 51111 Sal18ran Africa

NRI PROJEC'Jr SUMMARY FORM

ij-

FOR COMPLEnON BY PROJEcrS OFF1CE

NRI Project Code IAO314 IPrevious Code/s IAOO28 I

Economic Sectoc CodeNRED Project Code

31110~11

::".:';;:~

PROJECT SUMMARY ,File # RAF 9294

630/639/002A1. Project Title

Short title

Development of methods of ndw::tion of the energy required to

cons~e meat without compn~sin~ its quality. .Freezin~ & processing meat -I (mar 2S chan%ctersJ

Source of Funding and Status: (ple4Se ring appropnille letters)

StatusGrog Div Research Strategy PDC CNRAC Other HQ non-ODA I

T AFX IJS DllI~NORV BQ CH AB

Client (1L HQ COMmi.u/t)ni1lg SOlQ't:e.' ['NREi> IIIOII-ODA Conlmct) 1-- I

MIS code 1793-629-066-YK 1 Previous MIS Codes 1793-629-002- YK I

2. Dates

Report due I 31-Mar-9SI

hlCeption. t ! (see guidmlce AOte$)Start ! l-Apr-92! F1nisb

3. Tenus of Reference I Project Objectives:

.To assess ene:-gy and production reqUirements of hot: m«~at processing and conservation procedures.

2. To relate effects of freezing and other procedw-es on meat quality from lower grade animals

13.

To reassess microbiological aiteria in small scale mc~ :processing operations.

1

4. To. conduct a RRA type survey of current meat processUlg practices constraints to change and market potential in 2

countrIes.

4. Project Outputs:

i 1. Recommendations on product handling procedures related to energy use aIld conservation.

12.

Recommendations regarding hygiene and process operations in small scale boning and processing of facilities.

3. A description of C\UTent practices and opportunities f(1t cbange.

5. Name(s) and ad~(es) of collaborating InstituteCs)

In the UKUniv~ity of Nottingham (Facility)

~="~

"Version 111/I'7~-;~')"/I

,,"

./

"",,1

~:i:;:

~

UAISON ARRANGEMENTS

10. Project Leader

.:,...I D Silverside I

I Livestock I

IThroudt Livestock Pro~e Manager to NRED I ,

~urce Centre

Reporting arrangements

FOR ODA PROJECI'S ONLY

ODA HQ/Development Di~on contact

ODA HQ Department /Dey Diy

ODA HQ Administrative contact

f. I

[ I

[ I

[- IODA HQ Department

PROJECT CLASSIF1CATIONI (To be co-.pleJed b.f Project UDder)

11. Project ~cation

Strategy Area

Manager

I~ IDrRCooke I

~estock Production I Dr M Gill I

l~estock PQP I Mr D Silverside I

Programme

Problem Area

12. Type of Project fple4Se tick nle~ boxJ.s)

Tec.hnology

DTransferA~ DSpeclf"1C

F.~ta1DeveJopnent

Service to

0Headquarters

Basic DDApplied

Strategic D

[!~stock I

lI~~!~k Production & Nutrition I

~~:a/South Africa I

ill'K:. I

13. Research Strategy Profile

Canmodity /Commodity group

Discipline14. Benefiting Countries or Regiom

15. Country where work will be undertaken

(p/csl tick rc1e)G1lt bcl.T./s)Benejlling agro-ec%gical Zone:

Sltb-humid I DsavannaIrrigated D Highlands DHumid tropical

DlowlandsArid/semi-arid 0

"" IIdd'IJI" Aota bqore "'bill nlelGllt bozIs)

Integrated C1 Relevant

16. Women in Development

Specific 0 00 Non-relevant

111

~I

-)1

d'[

PROJECf APPROVAL17. Environmental Impact 0

Date

Pooitive 0 Neutral

I J&~ett I

I RG~ble I

Negative U

I 27/11/921

I 3/12/921Signed

DateSigned18. SSG Support

I 19. Approval clproJect as part clNRI'1 work programme

I A. Problem Area Manage!' Signed I = I Date

Programme Manag~ Signed I M G~ I Date

Lead R C Manag~ Signed I M Gi I Date

B. Foc all JX'Ojects in excess of £10,000, and all NRD fur~1 JX'Ojoots, irrespe(:tive of value

Strategy Area Manag~ Signed I R Co~ I Date

I II 3/12/921

I 3/12/92!

Date

Date

I 3/1m21Date

I oonfirm that the MIS cocles quoted in this PSF are valid for this work

Signed I = I Date I IC. ODA Managet

(Where Q;prop~ IIOt NRRD)

-

20. Environmental Appraiser's ~mmenu

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