FUNDAMENTALS OF NOISE Dr. ASHISH K DARPE

ASSISTANT PROFESSORDEPARTMENT OF MECHANICAL ENGINEERINGIIT DELHI

Sound is a sensation of acoustic waves (disturbance/pressure fluctuations setup in a medium)Unpleasant, unwanted, disturbing sound is generally treated as Noise and is a highly subjective feeling

Sound is a disturbance that propagates through a medium having properties of inertia ( mass ) and elasticity. The medium by which the audible waves are transmitted is air. Basically sound propagation is simply the molecular transfer of motional energy. Hence it cannot pass through vacuum. Frequency: Number of pressure cycles / timealso called pitch of sound (in Hz)Guess how much is particle displacement??8e-3nm to 0.1mm

The disturbance gradually diminishes as it travels outwards since the initial amount of energy is gradually spreading over a wider area. If the disturbance is confined to one dimension ( tube / thin rod), it does not diminish as it travels ( except loses at the walls of the tube )

Speed of SoundThe rate at which the disturbance (sound wave) travels Property of the mediumAlternatively,c Speed of sound P0, 0 - Pressure and Density - Ratio of specific heats R Universal Gas ConstantT Temperature in 0KM Molecular weightSpeed of Light: 299,792,458 m/s Speed of sound 344 m/s

Sound MeasurementProvides definite quantities that describe and rate soundPermit precise, scientific analysis of annoying sound (objective means for comparison)Help estimate Damage to Hearing Powerful diagnostic tool for noise reduction program: Airports, Factories, Homes, Recording studios, Highways, etc.

Quantifying SoundRoot Mean Square Value (RMS) of Sound PressureMean energy associated with sound waves is its fundamental featureenergy is proportional to square of amplitude

Acoustic Variables: Pressure and Particle Velocity

Range of RMS pressure fluctuations that a human ear can detect extends from 0.00002 N/m2 (threshold of hearing)to20 N/m2(sensation of pain) 1000000 times larger

Atmospheric Pressure is 105N/m2so the peak pressure associated with loudest sound is 3500 times smaller than atm.pressureThe large range of associated pressure is one of the reasons we need alternate scaleRANGE OF PRESSURE

Human ear responded logarithmically to power difference Alexander Graham Bellinvented a unit Bel to measure the ability of people to hearPower Ratio of 2 = dB of 3Power Ratio of 10 = dB of 10Power Ratio of 100 = dB of 20In acoustics, multiplication by a given factor is encountered mostW1=W2*nSo, Log10W1= Log10W2 + Log10nThus, if the two powers differ by a factor of 10 (n=10), the difference between the Log values of two power quantities is 1BeldB SCALE

10Log10W1= 10Log10W2 + 10Log10nto avoid fractionsNow we have above quantities in deciBel, 10dB=1BeldeciBels are thus another way of expressing ratios

ElectricalPowerSoundPower20Log10V1= 20Log10V2 + 20Log10n(1/2)20Log10P1= 20Log10P2 + 20Log10n(1/2)r - acoustic impedanceDecibel

Sound Pressure Level20Log10P1= 20Log10P2 + 20Log10n(1/2)

20Log10(P1/P2) = 20Log10n(1/2)20Log10n(1/2) is still in deciBel, defined as Sound Pressure LevelSound pressure level is always relative to a referenceIn acoustics, the reference pressure P2=2e-5 N/m2 or 20Pa (RMS)SPL=20Log10(P1/2e-5)P1 is RMS pressuren: Ratio of sound powers

Corresponding to audio range of Sound Pressure2e-5 N/m2- 0 dB20 N/m2- 120 dBNormal SPL encountered are between 35 dB to 90 dB

For underwater acoustics different reference pressure is usedPref = 0.1 N/m2

It is customary to specify SPL as 52dB re 20PaSound Pressure Level

Sound Intensity

Sound Intensity A plane progressive sound wave traveling in a medium (say along a tube) contains energy and rate of transfer of energy per unit cross-sectional area is defined as Sound Intensity

For air, 0c 415Ns/m3 so that Hold true also for spherical waves far away from source

COMBINATION OF SEVERAL SOURCESTotal Intensity produced by several sourcesIT=I1+ I2+ I3+Usually, intensity levels are known (L1, L2,)

If intensity levels of each of the N sources is same,Thus for 2 identical sources, total Intensity Level is 10Log2 i.e., 3dB greater than the level of the single sourceFor 2 sources of different intensities: L1 and L2COMBINATIONS OF SOURCESL1=60dB, L2=65.5dB LT=66.5dBL1=80dB, L2=82dB LT=84dB

FREQUENCY & FREQUENCY BANDSFrequency of sound ---- as important as its levelSensitivity of earSound insulation of a wallAttenuation of silencerall vary with freq.

20000HzInfrasonicAudio RangeUltrasonic

Musical InstrumentFor multiple frequency composition sound, frequency spectrum is obtained through Fourier analysis Pure toneFrequency Composition of Sound

Complex Noise PatternNo discrete tones, infinite frequenciesBetter to group them in frequency bands total strength in each band gives measure of soundOctave Bands commonly used (Octave: Halving / doubling)produced by exhaust of Jet Engine, water at base of Niagara Falls, hiss of air/steam jets, etc

OCTAVE BANDS1= 11x2=22x2=44x2=88x2=1616x2=3232x2=6464x2=128128x2=256256x2=512512x2=102410 bands(Octaves)For convenience Internationally accepted ratio is 1:1000(IEC Recommendation 225)Center frequency of one octave band is 1000HzOther center frequencies are obtained by continuously dividing/multiplying by 103/10 starting at 1000HzNext lower center frequency = 1000/ 103/10 500HzNext higher center frequency = 1000*103/10 2000Hz

International Electrotechnical Commission

Octave Filters

Instruments for analysing NoiseConstant Bandwidth DevicesProportional Bandwidth DevicesAbsolute Bandwidth = fU - fL = fL% Relative Bandwidth = (fU-fL / fc) = 70.7%If we divide each octave into three geometrically equal subsections, i.e.,These bands are thus called 1/3rd octave bands with % relative bandwidth of 23.1%For 1/10th Octave filters,% relative bandwidth of 5.1%n=1 for octave,n=3 for 1/3rd octave

Octave and 1/3rd Octave band filters mostly to analyse relatively smooth varying spectra

If tones are present,1/10th Octave or Narrow-band filter be used

For most noise, the instantaneous spectral density (t) is a time varying quantity, so that in this expression is average value taken over a suitable period so that =< (t)>So, many acoustic filters & meters have both fast (1/8s) and slow (1s) integration times (For impulsive sounds some sound meters have I characteristics with 35ms time constant)INTENSITY SPECTRAL DENSITYAcoustic Intensity for most soundis non-uniformly distributed over time and frequencyConvenient to describe the distribution through spectral density is the intensity within the frequency band f=1Hz

DeciBel measure of is the Intensity Spectrum Level (ISL)If the intensity is constant over the frequency bandwidth w (= f2- f1), then total intensity is justI= wand and Intensity Level for the band is

Intensity Spectrum Level (ISL)If the ISL has variation within the frequency band (w), each band is subdivided into smaller bands so that in each band ISL changes by no more than 1-2dB

IL is calculated and converted to Intensities Ii and then total intensity level ILtotal is as SPL and IL are numerically same,PSL (Pressure Spectrum Level) is defined over a 1Hz interval so the SPL of a tone is same as its PSLCan be written asThus, when intensity level in each band is known, total intensity level can be estimated

Combining Band Levels and TonesSPL = PSL + 10 log w

For pure tones, PSL = SPLso, two SPL of the tones is 63 & 60 dB

For the broadband noise,SPL = PSL + 10 log w = PSL + 10 log 100SPL = 60 dB

Thus the overall band level = Band level of broadband noise + Level of tones= 60 + 63 + 60 = 64.7 + 60 66 dB

Sound PowerIntensity : Average Rate of energy transfer per unit areaSound Power Level:Reference Power Wref =10-12 WattdBPeak Power output: Female Voice 0.002W, Male Voice 0.004W, A Soft whisper 10-9W,An average shout 0.001W Large Orchestra 10-70W,Large Jet at Takeoff 100,000W 15,000,000 speakers speaking simultaneously generate 1HP

RecapSound Measurement Amplitude/FrequencySound Pressure, Intensity, Power, ISL, PSL

Radiation from SourceRadiates sound waves equally in all directions (spherical radiation)W: is acoustic power output of the source; power must be distributed equally over spherical surface areaConstant termDepends on distance from sourceWhen distance doubles (r=2r0) ; 20log 2 + 20log r0 means 6dB difference in the Sound Intensity Level

Inverse Square Law

Point Source (Monopole)

If the point source is placed on ground, it radiates over a hemisphere, the intensity is then doubled and

Line Source(Long trains, steady stream of traffic, long straight run of pipeline)If the source is located on ground,and has acoustic power output of W per unit lengthradiating over half the cylinderIntensity at radius r, When distance doubles; 10log 2 + 10log r means 3dB difference in the Sound Intensity Level

In free field condition,Any source with its characteristic dimension small compared to the wavelength of the sound generated is considered a point sourceAlternatively a source is considered point source if the receiver is at large distance away from the sourceSome small sources do not radiate sound equally in all directionsDirectivity of the source must be taken into account to calculate level from the source powerVALIDITY OF POINT SOURCE

Sound sources whose dimensions are small compared to the wavelength of the sound they are radiating are generally omni-directional; otherwise when dimensions are large in comparison, they are directionalDIRECTIVITY OF SOUND SOURCE

Directivity Factor & Directivity IndexDirectivity FactorDirectivity IndexRigid boundaries force an omni-directional source to radiate sound in preferential direction

Radiated Sound Power of the source can be affected by a rigid, reflecting planesStrength and vibrational velocity of the source does not change but the hard reflecting plane produces double the pressure and four-fold increase in sound intensity compared to monopole (point spherical source)If source is sufficiently above the ground this effect is reduced

EFFECT OF HARD REFLECTING GROUND

Free Field ConditionDiffuse FieldI=0Uniform sound energy density

Finding sound power (ISO 3745)MWL Lab, KTH Sweden

Measurements made in semi-reverberant and free field conditions are in error of 2dB

Noise MappingNoise Contours

Environmental EffectsWind GradientTemperature GradientHot Sunny DayCool NightVelocity Gradient (-)Wind & Temp effects tend to cancel outIncrease or decrease of 5-6dB

Environmental Effects

HUMAN PERCEPTION

The Human EarOuter Ear: Pinna and auditory canal concentrate pressure on to drumMiddle Ear: Eardrum, Small Bones connecting eardrum to inner earInner Ear: Filled with liquid, cochlea with basilar membrane respond to stimulus of eardrum with the help of thousands of tiny, highly sensitive hair cells, different portions responding different frequencies of sound.The movement of hair cells is conveyed as sensation of sound to the brain through nerve impulsesMasking takes place at the membrane; Higher frequencies are masked by lower ones, degree depends on freq.difference and relative magnitudes of the two sounds

Unless there is a 3 dB difference in SPL, human beings can not distinguish the difference in the soundSound is perceived as doubled in its loudness when there is 10dB difference in the SPL. (Remember 6dB change represents doubling of sound pressure!!)

Ear is not equally sensitive at all frequencies: highly sensitive at frequencies between 2kHz to 5kHzless at other freq.This sensitivity dependence on frequency is also dependent on SPL!!!!SOUND BITS

Equal Loudness Contours for pure tones, Free Field conditionsRESPONSE OF HUMAN EARLoudness Level (Phon)Equal to numerical value of SPL at 1000Hz0Phon: threshold of hearingLoudness Level (Phon) useful for comparing two different frequencies for equal loudness But, 60Phon is still not twice as loud as 30PhonDoubling of loudness corresponds to increase of 10Phon

Weighting CharacteristicsA-weighting: 40Phon equal loudness level contourC-weighting: 90Phon equal loudness level contour D-weighting for Aircraft Noise

BASIC SOUND LEVEL METER

LOUDNESS INDEXDirect relationship between Loudness Level P (Phons) and Loudness Index S (Sones)

8 Sones is twice as loud as 4 Sones

Hearing Damage Potential to sound energydepends on its level & duration of exposureEquivalent Continuous Sound Level (Leq)tj : Fraction of total time duration for which SPL of Lj was measuredTotal time interval considered is divided in N parts with each part has constant SPL of Lj

Integrating Sound Level Meter for randomly varying sounde.g., 60sec LeqSound Exposure Level (SEL)Constant level acting for 1sec that has the same acoustic energy as the original soundVehicle passing by;Aircraft flying over

Noise Dose Meters display Noise Exposure Measurements

Regulations:Basis of 90dB(A) for 8hr a day.ISO(1999): Increase in SPL from 90 to 93dB(A) must reduce time of exposure from 8 to 4 hoursOSHA: with every 5dB(A) increase, reduce exposure by halfOccupational Safety and Health Administration

Noise Rating Curves (ISO R 1996)Level of Noise Annoyance

Errors of the order of 6dB around 400Hz due to reflections

Sources:Vibration and Noise for Engineers, K PujaraFundamentals of Acoustics, Kinsler and FreyFundamentals of Noise and Vibration Analysis for Engineers, M Norton and D KarczubIntroduction to Acoustics, R D FordMeasuring Sound, B&K Application NotesSound Intensity, B&K Application NotesBasic Concepts of Sound, B&K Application Notes

TRANSFORMER NOISE CASE STUDY

SOURCESThe primary source of acoustic noise generation in a transformer is the periodic mechanical deformation of the transformer core under the influence of fluctuating electromagnetic flux associated with these parts. The physical phenomena associated with this tonal noise generation can be classified as follows:vibration of the core core laminations strike against each other due to residual gaps between laminations

The material of a transformer core exhibits magnetostrictive properties. The vibration of the core is due to its magnetostrictive strain varying at twice the frequency of the alternating magnetic flux. The frequencies of the magnetic flux are equal to the power system supply frequency and its harmonics.

When there are residual gaps between laminations of the core, the periodic magneto-motive force may cause the core laminations to strike against each other and produce noise. Also, the periodic mutual forces between the current-carrying coil windings can induce vibrations.

A core structure is a complicated stack of Si-Fe alloy laminations clamped together at suitable points. Clamping is essential to hold together the laminations. The clamping arrangement also influences the dynamic behaviour of a core.

As laminations do not have good matching flat surfaces and as they are not clamped together over an entire surface area, hence residual gaps between the laminations are unavoidable. Magneto-motive forces acting across these air gaps could set relative transverse motions between the laminations also with clamped constraint points in place.

Higher the core loss (eddy current loss, hysterisis, copper loss) greater the noise level.

Figure: Core overlap regionNoise level increases with increasing overlap length.

METHODSBy changing the conventional grain-oriented (grade M4) material of core with any of high-permeability (Grade MOH) and laser-scribed (grade ZDKH) material can reduce noise 2-4db because higher-grade materials have lower magnetostriction.

A method of controlling noise is to construct a wall with high sound absorbing bricks.

The most effective way to reduce noise is varnishing or using adhesive material inside transformer tank (Viscoelastic materials)Enclosing transformer inside an enclosure which uses two thin plates separated by viscous material.

The noise hits inner plate and energy is damped out by viscous material so that outer one does not vibrate.

This may change an efficiently radiating vibration shape into an ineffectively radiating shape resulting in a lower sound radiation ratio.

Active noise control (ANC):

Figure6: Configuration of the control simulation.

Decentralized ANC can be implemented. In this transformer tank surface is divided into number of elements. For each element unit consist of micro phone located in front of loud speaker delivers error signal, this signal is fed to controller which drives loud speaker is attached. An experimentation of decentralized active noise control on power transformer is shown in figure 5 and Configuration of the control simulation is shown in figure 6. Figure 5: experimentation of decentralized active noise control on power transformer

Thanks !!