further education - routledge · 2020. 7. 2. · reid 4. chapter 1.introduction, steven burton and...

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R O U T L E D G E . T A Y L O R & F R A N C I S

Further EducationA S E L E C T I O N O F

C H A P T E R S F R O M O U R C A T A L O G U E F O R F U R T H E R E D U C A T I O N

Contents

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1. Chapter 1: Reading constructiondrawingsFrom: Manual of First and Second FixingCarpentry, 4th Edition, By Les Goring

From: IET Wiring Regulations: Explained andIllustrated, By Brian Scaddan

From: Advanced Automotive Fault Diagnosis,By Tom Denton

20% Discount AvailableYou can enjoy a 20% discount across our entire range of Routledge books. Simply add thediscount code F048 at the checkout. Please note: This discount code cannot be combined with any other discount or offer and is only valid on print titlespurchased directly from www.routledge.com. Valid until 31st December 2020.

3. Chapter 1: Introduction

2. Chapter 1: Fundamental Requirementsfor Safety

From: Safeguarding and Protecting Children inthe Early Years, Edited by Steven Burton, JamesReid

4. Chapter 1.Introduction, StevenBurton and James Reid

From: Early Childhood Studies, 2nd edition,By Jane Johnston, Lindy Nahmad-Williams, Ruby Oates, Val Wood

5. Chapter 1: History and philosophyof early childhood studies

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1. Reading construction drawings

From: Manual of First and Second Fixing Carpentry

4th Edition

By Les Goring

A Chapter Sampler

1.1 INTRODUCTIONConstruction drawings are necessary in most spheres of the building industry, as being the best means of conveying detailed and often complex information from the designer to all those concerned with the job. Building tradespeople, especially carpenters and joiners, should be familiar with the basic principles involved in understanding and reading drawings cor-rectly. Mistakes on either side – in design or interpre-tation of the design – can be costly, as drawings form a legal part of the contract between architect/client and builder. This applies even on small jobs, where only goodwill may suffer; for this reason, if a non-contractual drawing or sketch is supplied, it should be kept for a period of time after completion of the job, in case any queries should arise.

1.1.1 Retention of Drawings or SketchesA simple sketch supplied by a client in good faith to a builder or joinery shop for the production of a replacement casement-type window, is shown in Figure 1.1(a). The client’s mistake in measuring between plastered reveals is illustrated in Figure 1.1(b). Retention of the sketch protects the firm from the possibility of the client’s wrongful accusation.

Another important rule is to study the whole drawing carefully and be reasonably familiar with the details before starting work.

The details given in this chapter are based on the recommendations laid down by the British Standards Institution, in their latest available publications entitled Construction drawing practice, BS 1192: Part 1: 1984, and BS 1192: Part 3: 1987. BS 1192: Part 5: 1990, which is not referred to here, is a guide for the structuring of computer graphic information.

Reading Construction Drawings

1

950

950

F

300

1100

(a)

(b)

Figure 1.1 (a) Client’s sketch drawing. (b) Horizontal section showing client’s mistake

2 Reading Construction Drawings

1.1.2 Scales Used on DrawingsParts of metric scale rules, graduated in millimetres, are illustrated in Figure 1.2. Each scale represents a ratio of given units (millimetres) to one unit (one millimetre). Common scales are 1:100, 1:50, 1:20, 1:10, 1:5 and 1:1 (full size). For example, scale 1:5 one-fifth 1

5( ) full size, or 1 mm on the drawing equals 5 mm in reality.

Although a scale rule is useful when reading draw-ings, because of the dimensional instability of paper, preference should always be given to written dimen-sions found on the drawing.

1.1.3 Correct Expressions of DimensionsThe abbreviated expression, or unit symbol, for metres is a lower case (small) letter m, and letters mm for mil-limetres. Symbols are not finalized by a full stop and do not use a letter ‘s’ for the plural. Confusion occurs when, for example, 31

2 metres is written as 3.500 mm – which means, by virtue of the decimal point in rela-tion to the unit symbol, 31

2 milli metres! To express 31

2 metres, it should have been written as 3500 mm, 3.5 m, 3.50 m, or 3.500 m. Either one symbol or the other should be used throughout on drawings; they should not be mixed. Normally, whole numbers should indicate millimetres, and decimalized numbers, to three places of decimals, should indicate metres. Contrary to what seems to be taught in schools, the construction and engineering industry in the UK does not communicate in centimetres. All references to measurement are made in millimetres and/or metres, i.e. 2 cm should be expressed as 20 mm.

1.1.4 Sequence of DimensioningThe recommended dimensioning sequence is illus-trated in Figure 1.3. Length should always be given

first, width second and thickness third, for example 900 200 25 mm. However, if a different sequence is used, it should be consistent throughout.

1.1.5 Dimension Lines and FiguresA dimension line with open arrowheads for basic/modular (unfinished) distances, spaces or components is indicated in Figure 1.4(a). Figure 1.4(b) indicates the more common, preferred dimension lines, with solid arrowheads, for general use in finished work sizes.

All dimension figures should be written above and along the line; figures on vertical lines should be writ-ten, as shown, to be read from the right-hand side.

1.1.6 Special-purpose LinesFigure 1.5: Section lines seen on drawings indicate imaginary cutting planes, at a particular point through the drawn object, to be exposed to view. The view is called the section and is lettered A–A, B–B and so on, according to the number of sections to be exposed. It is important to bear in mind that the arrows indicate the direction of view to be seen on a separate section drawing.

1:100

1:50

1:20

1:10

1:5

0 1 m 2 5 m3 4500

0 1 m250 500 750

0 1 m100

050 100 200 300 400 500 mm

025 50 75 100 200 mm

300 500 700 900

2 m 250 500 250 500750

500

Figure 1.2 Common metric scales

B

C

A

Figure 1.3 Dimensioning sequence A B C

Orthographic Projection 3

Figure 1.6: Hidden detail or work to be removed, is indicated by a broken line.

Figure 1.7(a): End break-lines (zig-zag pattern) indi-cate that the object is not fully drawn.

Figure 1.7(b): Central break-lines (zig-zag pattern) indicate that the object is not drawn to scale in length.

Figure 1.8 Centre or axial line

(a) (b)

323 300

200

Figure 1.4 Dimension lines. (a) Open arrow-head (unfinished);(b) Solid arrow-head (finished)

A

B

A

B

C D

C D

E

EHorizontal sections Staggered section

Vertical sections

Figure 1.5 Section lines

Figure 1.6 Hidden detail or work to be removed

(a) (b)

1.300

Figure 1.7 Break lines

Figure 1.8: Centre or axial lines are indicated by a thin dot-dash chain.

1.2 ORTHOGRAPHIC PROJECTION

1.2.1 IntroductionOrthography is a Latin/Greek-derived word meaning ‘correct spelling’ or ‘writing’. In technical drawing it is used to mean ‘correct drawing’; orthographic pro-jection, therefore, refers to a conventional drawing method used to display the three-dimensional views (length, width and height) of objects or arrangements as they will be seen on one plane – namely the draw-ing surface.

The recommended methods are known as first-an-gle (or European) projection for construction drawings, and third-angle (or American) projection for engineer-ing drawings.

1.2.2 First-angle ProjectionThe box in Figure 1.9(a) is used here as a means of explaining first-angle projection (F.A.P.). If you can imagine the object shown in Figure 1.9(b) to be suspended in the box, with enough room left for you to walk around it, then by looking squarely at the object from all sides and from above, the views seen would be the ones shown on the surfaces in the background.

1.2.3 Opening the Topless BoxIn Figure 1.9(c) the topless box is opened out to give the views as you saw them in the box and as they should be laid out on a drawing. Figure 1.9(d) shows the BS symbol recommended for display on drawings to indicate that first-angle projection (F.A.P.) has been used.

Note that when views are separated onto differ-ent drawings, becoming unrelated orthographically, descriptive captions should be used such as ‘plan’, ‘front elevation’, ‘side elevation’, etc.


Vertical planes

PlanPlan

FEFE

RE

RE

SE.L/HS

E.R

/H

SE

.L/H

SE

Horizontal plane

Figure 1.9 (a) Theory of first-angle orthographic projection (SE side elevation, FE front elevation, RE rear elevation, R/H right-hand side, L/H left-hand side)

Figure 1.9 (b) Example object

Side elevation R/H Front elevation Side elevation L/H

Plan

Rear elevation

Vertical planes

Horizontal plane

Figure 1.9 (c) First-angle projection

Figure 1.9 (d) F.A.P. symbol

Side elevation R/HFront elevationSide elevation L/H Rear elevation

Plan

Vertical planes

Horizontal plane

Figure 1.9 (e) Third-angle projection

Oblique Projections 5

1.2.4 Third-angle ProjectionThis is shown in Figure 1.9(e) for comparison only. This time the box has a top instead of a bottom; the views from the front and rear would be shown on the surface in the background, as before, but the views seen on the sides would be turned around and seen on the surfaces in the foreground; the view from above (plan) would be turned and seen on the surface above. Figure 1.9(f ) shows the BS symbol for third-angle projection (T.A.P.).

1.2.5 Pictorial ProjectionsFigure 1.10: Another form of orthographic projection produces what is known as pictorial projections, which preserve the three-dimensional view of the object. Such views have a limited value in the make-up of actual working drawings, but serve well graphically to illustrate technical notes and explanations.

1.2.6 Isometric ProjectionThis is probably the most popular pictorial projec-tion used, because of the balanced, three-dimensional effect. Isometric projections consist of vertical lines and base lines drawn at 30°, as shown in Figure 1.10(a). The length, width and height of an object thus drawn are to true scale, expressed as the ratio 1:1:1.

1.3 OBLIQUE PROJECTIONSThere are three variations of oblique projections.

1.3.1 Cavalier ProjectionShown in Figure 1.10(b) with front (F) drawn true to shape, and side (S) elevations and plan (P) drawn at 45°, to a ratio of 1:1:1. Drawn true to scale by this method, the object tends to look misshapen.

1.3.2 Cabinet ProjectionShown in Figure 1.10(c), this is similar to cavalier except that the side and plan projections are only drawn to half scale, i.e. to a ratio of 1:1:1

2, making the object look more natural.

1.3.3 Planometric ProjectionShown in Figure 1.10(d), this has the plan drawn true to shape, instead of the front view. This comprises verticals, lines on the front at 30° and lines on the side elevation at 60°. It is often wrongly referred to as axonometric.

1.3.4 Perspective ProjectionsFigure 1.11: Parallel perspective, shown in Figure 1.11(a) refers to objects drawn to diminish in depth to a vanishing point.

Angular perspective, shown in Figure 1.11(b) refers to an object whose elevations are drawn to diminish to two vanishing points. This is of no value in pure tech-nical drawing.

Figure 1.9 (f) T.A.P. symbol

(a) Isometric (b) Cavalier (c) Cabinet (d) Planometric

P

F S

P

F

SP

FS

P

FS

30° 30° 45° 45°1 1

1

11

111

30° 60°

1

11

—12

Figure 1.10 Pictorial projections (F front, P plan, S side elevation)


1.3.5 Graphical Symbols and RepresentationFigure 1.12: Illustrated here are a selection of graph-ical symbols and representations used on building drawings.Figure 1.13: On more detailed drawings, various materials and elements are identified by such sectional representation as shown here.

To help reduce the amount of written information on working drawings, abbreviations are often used. A selection are shown here:BMA bronze metal antiqueDPC damp-proof courseDPM damp-proof membrane

EML expanded metal lathingpar planed all roundPVA polyvinyl acetateT&G tongue and groovebdg boardingbldg buildingcpd cupboardhbd hardboardhwd hardwoodms mild steelswd softwood

1.3.6 Window IndicationFigure 1.14: Windows shown on elevational drawings usually display indications as to whether a window is fixed (meaning without any opening window or vent)

(a) Parallel perspective (b) Angular perspective

VP VPVP

Figure 1.11 Perspective projections (VP vanishing point)

= Rise of stair

dia (or Ø) = Diameter

ffl = Finished floor level

c/c = Centre to centre

= Rise of ramp

CL = Centre line

GL =

=

Ground level

North point

Figure 1.12 Graphical symbols and representations

Brickwork Topsoil Blockwork Stone

Concrete Hardcore Plywood Wood (sawn)

Subsoil Insulation Screed/plaster/render Wood (planed)

Figure 1.13 Sectional representation of materials

Horizontalpivot

Tilt and turn

Verticalpivot

Sliding Sliding

Top hung

Bottom hung Side hungFixed

W8

W9

W7 W6 W5 W4

W2

W3 W1

Figure 1.14 Opening/fixed window indication – numbered clockwise round the exterior of the building

Oblique Projections 7

or opening (meaning that the window is to open in a particular way, according to the BS indication drawn on the glass area).

1.3.7 Door IndicationFigures 1.15 and 1.16: Doors shown on plan-view drawings are usually shown as a single line with an arrowed arc indicating their opening-direction, as illustrated. Alternatively, the 90° arrowed arc may be replaced by a 45° diagonal line, from the door-jamb’s edge to the door’s leading edge. Figure 1.16 is the indication for revolving doors.

1.3.8 Block PlansFigure 1.17: Block plans shown on construction draw-ings, usually taken from Ordnance Survey maps, are to identify the site (e.g. No. 1 Woodman Road, as illustrated) and to locate the outline of the building in relation to its surroundings.

1.3.9 Site PlansFigure 1.18: Site plans locate the position of buildings in relation to setting-out points, means of access, and the general layout of the site; they also give informa-tion on services and drainage, etc.

Sliding door Single swing

Single doordouble swing

Double doorsdouble swing

Double doorssingle swing

Figure 1.15 Plan view of door indication

Figure 1.16 Revolving doors

WOODMANROAD

LOF

TS

RO

AD

11 3 1113

14

15

4547

Figure 1.17 Block plan (scale 1:1250)

MH2

MH1

MH3

1.500G

G

GSVP

NO 1WOODMAN

ROAD

6.250 5.60

08.

750

Figure 1.18 Site plan (scale 1:200)

1.3.10 Location DrawingsThese are usually drawn to a scale of 1:50 and are used to portray the basic, general construction of buildings. Other, more detailed, drawings cover all other aspects.

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2. Introduction

From: Safeguarding and Protecting Children in the Early

Years2nd Edition

Edited by Steven Burton, James Reid

A Chapter Sampler

1

C H A P T E R

IntroductionSteven Burton and James Reid

1

while considering how to introduce this second edition, our minds cast to the same thought processes experienced while writing the conclusion to the first edition. At that time, in February 2013, Burton made a reference in the book’s conclusion to a couple in Birmingham who had been arrested on suspicion of the murder of a young boy. Details at the time of the boy’s death were obvi-ously scant, but we now know that the boy was in fact Levi-Blu Cassin, a 22 month old who died as a result of traumatic abdominal injuries: in fact, it was speculated by medical professionals at the trial of his parents that he had been stamped on with such ferocity that his small intestine was split. According to the post-mortem examination, these were not the first traumatic abdominal injuries that the little boy had suffered (Solihull LSCB, 2015). Between the time of Levi-Blu’s death and the writing of this introduction in autumn 2016, his par-ents had been convicted not of murder, but of causing or allowing the death of a child. Levi-Blu was cremated, more than two years after his death, following an acrimonious and public legal battle between his incarcerated mother and her family.

we bring up this particular case to attempt to demonstrate a point in rela-tion to safeguarding and child protection. we, and the other contributors to this text, teach in the areas of Early Years, Childhood Studies, Education Studies and Health Studies, and we teach passionate, intelligent, articulate students of these fields at both Honours and Masters degree levels. However, if one conducts a quick poll of students in class when we are discussing safe-guarding or child protection, typically these intelligent and articulate students can only identify a small number of such cases.

Test yourself now: which cases can you call to mind? Anecdotally, the cases of victoria Climbié, Baby P (Peter Connelly), Daniel

Pelka and Khyra Ishaq are those that appear most easily recalled by our stu-dents. However, even when teaching this subject since 2013, the name of Levi-Blu Cassin is not often heard, despite the horrific injuries that he suffered. Likewise, child victims such as Kandyce Downer, Ayeeshia Smith and Daniel Jones, to name but three, are seldom raised in the public conscience. In fact, there were 75 child homicides in the United Kingdom in 2014/15 (NSPCC, 2016)

S. Burton and J. Reid

2

– actually, a reduction over recent years – but the lack of public conscience and attention, to our minds at least, is staggering.

Chillingly, the most recent statistics made available by the NSPCC tell us that in 2014/15, over 620,000 children were referred to UK social services, and that at the end of this period there were approximately 220,000 children determined to be ‘in need’ due to abuse or neglect (this accounts for approx-imately 50 per cent of the total number of ‘children in need’), and around 57,000 children were subject to a Child Protection Plan (NSPCC, 2016). These frightening statistics underscore a 24 per cent increase in the number of chil-dren in the child protection system in the last five years (2016: 55).

This brings us to the distinction between the terms ‘child protection,’ and ‘safeguarding’. As demonstrated above, child protection refers reactively to the protection of identified children, who have specific concerns from which they need directed protection. Safeguarding, conversely, refers proactively to all the children that we encounter, and to our shared responsibility as both adults and as professionals to defend the wellbeing of all vulnerable children. The Department for Education supports this dichotomy by stating that safe-guarding and promoting the welfare of children is defined as

nn protecting children from maltreatment;nn preventing impairment of children’s health or development;nn ensuring children are growing up in circumstances consistent with the pro-

vision of safe and effective care;nn taking action to enable all children to have the best outcomes.

(DfE, 2015: 5)

Here, the DfE clearly locate child protection within context of safeguarding. Reid, writing in his introduction to the first edition of this text, suggested that child protection is

a specific professional activity undertaken with children who are suffer-ing or likely to suffer significant harm. That is, all childcare professionals continue to have responsibilities and duties to safeguard children but it is social workers in particular whose duties extend to child protection.

Our book continues in its attempt to introduce the reader to both spheres, and is again divided into two parts. Part one provides an updated overview of the contemporary context for child protection, with a focus on a number of key areas of child protection and safeguarding. It includes consideration of the history of child abuse, and provides a vital appreciation of the socially con-structed nature of safeguarding and of child abuse.

Part two develops the overview from the macro contemporary knowledge for child protection that is relevant to all childcare practitioners to focus explic-itly on the early years context, and specifically on those everyday issues that

3

chapter 1 Introduction

confront staff. Importantly, the chapters draw upon early years workers’ real experiences in practice and reveal some of the ‘grey’ areas that frustrate and confront them.

The role and responsibilities of early years practitioners, professionals and teachers

To promote simplicity in this text, we shall refer hereafter to staff working with children in the early years as practitioners. That said, we are of course includ-ing within this arena the countless professionals who care for and educate our children in the early years: the childminders, Children’s Centre staff, day nursery practitioners, EYPs, EYTs and others who have a direct and very vis-ible responsibility to the safeguarding of early years children. This book aims to help early years practitioners to understand their roles and responsibilities in keeping children safe from harm. This is particularly necessary for those practitioners who are perhaps recently qualified or still have yet to qualify, or who are inexperienced or daunted by the thought of safeguarding and child protection. However, the content of this book is constructed in the knowledge that practitioners are not a homogeneous group, and it is written with all early years practitioners in mind.

As we have already pointed out, safeguarding and child protection are not fixed concepts, and successive governments seek to improve and to enhance the structures and policies already in place. The UN Convention on the Rights of the Child, the Children Act 1989, the Children Act 2004 and the current working Together to Safeguard Children (HM Government, 2015) guidance provides the statutory basis for child protection in England and wales; simi-lar legislation exists in the other devolved regions of the United Kingdom. All early years practitioners have moral and legal duties and responsibilities to ensure the protection of children. It is essential, therefore, that practitioners, whatever their status, experience or knowledge, keep up to date with policy and legal developments. whereas child protection relates to those children who are suffering or likely to suffer significant harm, safeguarding applies to all children and encompasses the need to protect all children from maltreat-ment, to prevent impairment of their health or development and to ensure that children are growing up in circumstances consistent with the provision of safe and effective care. Safeguarding is therefore a core element of the content of all government policy and guidance relating to children and their families.

The government is clear that early help and intervention are crucial in sup-porting children and their families. This means that early years practitioners need to be clear in how they can best support child development, including through safeguarding and protection, so that children reach school age ready to take advantage of all the opportunities available to them. In paragraph 4.1 of her review, Tickell wrote that


4

Children learn and develop best when they are safe, happy and healthy. For all those working with young children, safeguarding is everyone’s respon-sibility and must be their first and foremost consideration. Regardless of their level or experience within the workforce, everyone working with young children must know how and when to raise any concerns. They must be aware of the warning signs and alert to acting on any concerns.

(2011: 37; emphasis added)

working to protect, safeguard and promote the welfare of children is not optional; it is a core duty and responsibility of the early years practitioner. However, child protection and safeguarding is much more than a cerebral activity; it also involves emotions and deep-seated feelings, and perhaps even includes our own prejudices! It is important, therefore, that early years practi-tioners are also aware of the need to safeguard themselves. Much of this need could be met in effective supervision. Tickell (2011: 46–47) recognises that supervision is an opportunity for early years practitioners ‘to receive support to help them deal with difficult or challenging situations at work’. Although Tickell overemphasises the management function of supervision, a good prac-titioner will also use supervision effectively to learn and develop more broadly. It is in recognition of the importance of supervision as a professional obliga-tion that the final chapter of the book focuses on this activity.

Our approachThis book is an essential text for all early years students and practitioners, as it provides an overview of developments in early years and safeguarding practice, and, importantly, considers some of the grey areas experienced by practitioners, such as the power relations in early years practice, either between young, inexperienced staff and more senior staff, or in the uncon-ditional regard children have for staff, and therefore the power of the practi-tioner in children’s lives. Drawing on the everyday experiences and dilemmas of early years professionals in seeking to safeguard and protect young chil-dren, the book focuses on helping them to seek solutions to both practical and moral issues in a context of legal duties and responsibilities. The book is written by authors with close connections to early years practice and with a wealth of experience, including in safeguarding and child protection, the Early Years Foundation Stage, health visiting, social work, the police and in leading and managing services. The authors are able therefore to draw upon their own contemporary professional experience in constructing chapters that are relevant to the early years sector.

However, this rich mix of experience and knowledge goes beyond the contem-porary legislative and policy context to offer meaningful and practical insight into the issues faced by practitioners on a day-to-day basis. Content deals with issues on both the macro and the micro levels. For example, ‘Safeguarding

5

chapter 1 Introduction

children from online danger’ explores the potential for harm that can come from the improper or illegal use of technology around children (macro), whereas ‘The primacy of communication in safeguarding’ highlights some of the issues in face-to-face communication with children (micro). Similarly, ‘Safeguarding children’s health and wellbeing’ highlights the macro interface between parental responsibility and state accountability and makes the direct links between social exclusion, poverty and ill health and the need for early help and intervention. The chapter then moves forward to offer practical tips on implementing policy by suggesting a role for parenting education classes.

Thus, this book is focused on the real experiences of practitioners, not just on safeguarding and child protection as an academic subject for study. The book deals with the gaps in the understanding of policy and guidance and the grey areas of practice that hinder or confound good practice. For example, if a member of staff loses their temper with young children, is this a safeguard-ing issue? In this regard, it is also important to explore how practitioners feel about safeguarding and managing their own feelings.

The guidance relating to child protection and safeguarding is vast. It includes a good deal that relates to children in specific circumstances, some of which, such as parental mental health problems, substance misuse and domestic vio-lence, parental learning disability and the misuse of ICT, are discussed in this book. There are many other areas of concern, including female genital muti-lation, fabricated or induced illness and abuse linked to spiritual or religious beliefs, for which you are advised to access the procedures (usually available online) of your Local Safeguarding Children Board. This is important, since cultural or religious practices may be used to defend certain actions that harm children. Female genital mutilation, for example, has no religious or cultural defence, and indeed is a criminal offence in the United Kingdom – a reminder that UK law and policy have precedence in all safeguarding or child protection concerns in that country.

we need to be aware also that children can be harmed because of their ethnic background. while racism is not a category of child abuse, it can cause significant harm. Children and families from black and minority ethnic groups are likely to have experienced harassment and racial discrimination, but we must not assume that their experience is common. Attention should be paid to the needs of all children, and practices must be inclusive and respectful to all, addressing any issues of discrimination due to race, culture or religion, whether it concerns the child or family. In this regard, it is appropriate to high-light findings of the Macpherson Inquiry Report (Home Office 1999):

6.4 Racism in general terms consists of conduct or words or practices which disadvantage or advantage people because of their colour, culture, or eth-nic origin. In its more subtle form it is as damaging as in its overt form.

6.34 [I]nstitutional racism consists of: [t]he collective failure of an organisation to provide an appropriate and professional service to people


6

because of their colour, culture, or ethnic origin. It can be seen or detected in processes, attitudes and behaviour which amount to discrimination through unwitting prejudice, ignorance, thoughtlessness and racist stereo typing which disadvantage minority ethnic people.

we all have a responsibility to challenge such ‘unwitting prejudice, ignorance, thoughtlessness and racist stereotyping’.

As the Macpherson Inquiry Report shows, the consequences of individ-ual, organisational, collective or governmental failure can be horrendous. Politicians no longer want to be in a position where they can be held responsi-ble for or negatively associated with any future tragedy or poor practice. The onus is clearly on the practitioner to assure the protection and safeguard-ing of children, with concomitant consequences for failure in that regard. This book serves to support early years practitioners in meeting their responsibili-ties and duties.

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3. Fundamental Requirementsfor Safety

From: IET Wiring Regulations: Explained and Illustrated

11th Edition

By Brian Scaddan

A Chapter Sampler

118th Edition IET Wiring Regulations: Explained and Illustrated. 978-1-138-60606-7.© Brian Scaddan. Published by Taylor & Francis. All rights reserved.

Fundamental Requirements for Safety

Important terms/topics covered in this chapter:

▪ The Health and Safety at Work Act 1974▪ The Electricity at Work Regulations 1989▪ The Building Regulations 2010 Part ‘P’▪ Distribution Network Operator DNO▪ DNO supply voltages and BS 7671 voltage bands▪ The Electricity Safety, Quality and Safety Regulations 2002

By the end of this chapter the reader should:

▪ be aware of the requirements of Part1 and Chapter 13 of BS 7671:2018,

▪ understand their responsibilities under the H & S at Work Act andthe EAWR,

▪ be able to demonstrate a knowledge and understanding of therequirements of Part ‘P’,

▪ know the standard DNO’s supply voltages and tolerances,▪ know the BS 7671 voltage bands.

IET WIRING REGULATIONS (IET REGULATIONS PART 1 AND CHAPTER 13)

It does not require a degree in electrical engineering to realize that electric-ity at low voltage can, if uncontrolled, present a serious threat of injury to persons or livestock, or damage to property by fire.

Clearly the type and arrangement of the equipment used, together with the quality of workmanship provided, will go a long way to minimizing danger. The following is a list of basic requirements:

1. Use good workmanship.2. Use approved materials and equipment.

CHAPTER 1

Fundamental Requirements for Safety 2

3. Ensure that the correct type, size and current-carrying capacity ofcables are chosen.

4. Ensure that equipment is suitable for the maximum powerdemanded of it.

5. Make sure that conductors are insulated, and sheathed or protectedif necessary, or are placed in a position to prevent danger.

6. Joints and connections should be properly constructed to be mechan-ically and electrically sound.

7. Always provide overcurrent protection for every circuit in an instal-lation (the protection for the whole installation is usually providedby the Distribution Network Operator [DNO]), and ensure that pro-tective devices are suitably chosen for their location and the dutythey have to perform.

8. Where there is a chance of metalwork becoming live owing to afault, it should be earthed, and the circuit concerned should be protected by an overcurrent device or a residual current device(RCD).

9. Ensure that all necessary bonding of services is carried out.10. Do not place a fuse, a switch or a circuit breaker, unless it is a linked

switch or circuit breaker, in an earthed neutral conductor. The linked type must be arranged to break all the line conductors.

11. All single-pole switches must be wired in the line conductoronly.

12. A readily accessible and effective means of isolation must be pro-vided, so that all voltage may be cut off from an installation or anyof its circuits.

13. All motors must have a readily accessible means of disconnection.14. Ensure that any item of equipment which may normally need oper-

ating or attending by persons is accessible and easily operated.15. Any equipment required to be installed in a situation exposed to

weather or corrosion, or in explosive or volatile environments,should be of the correct type for such adverse conditions.

16. Before adding to or altering an installation, ensure that such workwill not impair any part of the existing installation and that theexisting is in a safe condition to accommodate the addition.

17. After completion of an installation or an alteration to an instal-lation, the work must be inspected and tested to ensure, as far as


reasonably practicable, that the fundamental requirements for safety have been met.

These requirements form the basis of the IET Regulations.

It is interesting to note that, whilst the Wiring Regulations are not stat-utory, they may be used to claim compliance with Statutory Regulations such as the Electricity at Work Regulations, the Health and Safety at Work Act and Part ‘P’ of the Building Regulations. In fact, the Health and Safety Executive produces guidance notes for installations in such places as schools and construction sites. The contents of these doc-uments reinforce and extend the requirements of the IET Regulations. Extracts from the Health and Safety at Work Act, the Electricity at Work Regulations and Part ‘P’ of the Building Regulations are reproduced below.

THE HEALTH AND SAFETY AT WORK ACT 1974

Duties of employers

Employers must safeguard, as far as is reasonably practicable, the health, safety and welfare of all the people who work for them. This applies in particular to the provision and maintenance of safe plant and systems of work, and covers all machinery, equipment and appliances used.

Some examples of the matters which many employers need to consider are:

1. Is all plant up to the necessary standards with respect to safety andrisk to health?

2. When new plant is installed, is latest good practice taken intoaccount?

3. Are systems of work safe? Thorough checks of all operations, espe-cially those operations carried out infrequently, will ensure that dan-ger of injury or to health is minimized. This may require specialsafety systems, such as ‘permits to work’.

4. Is the work environment regularly monitored to ensure that, whereknown toxic contaminants are present, protection conforms to cur-rent hygiene standards?


5. Is monitoring also carried out to check the adequacy of controlmeasures?

6. Is safety equipment regularly inspected? All equipment and appli-ances for safety and health, such as personal protective equipment,dust and fume extraction, guards, safe access arrangement, moni-toring and testing devices, need regular inspection (Section 2(1) and2(2) of the Act).

No charge may be levied on any employee for anything done or provided to meet any specific requirement for health and safety at work (Section 9).

Risks to health from the use, storage, or transport of ‘articles’ and ‘sub-stances’ must be minimized. The term substance is defined as ‘any natu-ral or artificial substance whether in solid or liquid form or in the form of gas or vapour’ (Section 53(1)).

To meet these aims, all reasonably practicable precautions must be taken in the handling of any substance likely to cause a risk to health. Expert advice can be sought on the correct labelling of substances, and the suit-ability of containers and handling devices. All storage and transport arrangements should be kept under review.

Safety information and training

It is now the duty of employers to provide any necessary information and training in safe practices, including information on legal requirements.

Duties to others

Employers must also have regard for the health and safety of the self-em-ployed or contractors’ employees who may be working close to their own employees, and for the health and safety of the public who may be affected by their firm’s activities.

Similar responsibilities apply to self-employed persons, manufacturers and suppliers.


Duties of employees

Employees have a duty under the Act to take reasonable care to avoid injury to themselves or to others by their work activities, and to cooperate with employers and others in meeting statutory requirements. The Act also requires employees not to interfere with or misuse anything provided to protect their health, safety or welfare in compliance with the Act.

THE ELECTRICITY AT WORK REGULATIONS 1989

Persons on whom duties are imposed by these Regulations

1. Except where otherwise expressly provided in these Regulations, itshall be the duty of every:a. employer and self-employed person to comply with the provi-

sions of these Regulations in so far as they relate to matterswhich are within his or her control; and

b. manager of a mine or quarry (within in either case the meaningof Section 180 of the Mines and Quarries Act 1954) to ensurethat all requirements or prohibitions imposed by or under theseRegulations are complied with in so far as they relate to the mine or quarry or part of a quarry of which he or she is the managerand to matters which are within his or her control.

2. It shall be the duty of every employee while at work:a. to cooperate with his or her employer in so far as is necessary

to enable any duty placed on that employer by the provisions ofthese Regulations to be complied with; and

b. to comply with the provisions of these Regulations in so far asthey relate to matters which are within his or her control.

Employer

1. For the purposes of the Regulations, an employer is any person orbody who (a) employs one or more individuals under a contract ofemployment or apprenticeship; or (b) provides training under theschemes to which the HSW Act applies through the Health andSafety (Training for Employment) Regulations 1988 (StatutoryInstrument No. 1988/1222).


Self-employed

2. A self-employed person is an individual who works for gain orreward otherwise than under a contract of employment whether ornot he or she employs others.

Employee

3. Regulation 3(2)(a) reiterates the duty placed on employees by Sec-tion 7(b) of the HSW Act.

4. Regulation 3(2)(b) places duties on employees equivalent to thoseplaced on employers and self-employed persons where these arematters within their control. This will include those trainees whowill be considered as employees under the Regulations described inparagraph 1.

5. This arrangement recognizes the level of responsibility which manyemployees in the electrical trades and professions are expected totake on as part of their job. The ‘control’ which they exercise overthe electrical safety in any particular circumstances will determineto what extent they hold responsibilities under the Regulations toensure that the Regulations are complied with.

6. A person may find him or herself responsible for causing danger toarise elsewhere in an electrical system, at a point beyond their owninstallation. This situation may arise, for example, due to unautho-rized or unscheduled back feeding from the installation onto the sys-tem, or to raising the fault power level on the system above rated and agreed maximum levels due to connecting extra generation capacity,etc. Because such circumstances are ‘within his or her control’, theeffect of Regulation 3 is to bring responsibilities for compliance withthe rest of the regulations to that person, thus making him or her aduty holder.

Absolute/reasonably practicable

7. Duties in some of the Regulations are subject to the qualifying term‘reasonably practicable’. Where qualifying terms are absent therequirement in the Regulation is said to be absolute. The meaning


of reasonably practicable has been well established in law. The inter-pretations below are given only as a guide to duty holders.

Absolute

8. If the requirement in a Regulation is ‘absolute’, for example if therequirement is not qualified by the words ‘so far as is reasonablypracticable’, the requirement must be met regardless of cost or anyother consideration. Certain of the regulations making such abso-lute requirements are subject to the Defence provision of Regulation29.

Reasonably practicable

9. Someone who is required to do something ‘so far as is reasonablypracticable’ must assess, on the one hand, the magnitude of therisks of a particular work activity or environment and, on the otherhand, the costs in terms of the physical difficulty, time, trouble andexpense which would be involved in taking steps to eliminate orminimize those risks. If, for example, the risks to health and safetyof a particular work process are very low, and the cost or technicaldifficulties of taking certain steps to prevent those risks are veryhigh, it might not be reasonably practicable to take those steps. Thegreater the degree of risk, the less weight that can be given to thecost of measures needed to prevent that risk.

10. In the context of the Regulations, where the risk is very often that ofdeath, for example from electrocution, and where the nature of theprecautions which can be taken are so often very simple and cheap,e.g. insulation, the level of duty to prevent that danger approachesthat of an absolute duty.

11. The comparison does not include the financial standing of the dutyholder. Furthermore, where someone is prosecuted for failing tocomply with a duty ‘so far as is reasonably practicable’, it would befor the accused to show the court that it was not reasonably practi-cable for him or her to do more than he or she had in fact done tocomply with the duty (Section 40 of the HSW Act).


THE BUILDING REGULATIONS 2010 PART ‘P’

Part ‘P’ of the building regulations requires that installations in dwellings be designed, installed and inspected and tested to the requirements of the current edition of the IET Wiring Regulations, BS 7671.

Details of some such work need to be notified to the Local Authority Building Control (LABC). This is a legal requirement.

Notifiable work

▪ Any new circuit fed from the consumer unit.▪ Replacement of a consumer unit.▪ Any work, additions or alterations in the bath/shower room, sauna

or swimming pool.

Non-notifiable work

Any other work that involves replacements, additions or alterations any-where else including gardens.

Certification

All electrical work has to be inspected, tested and certified with the issue of either:

▪ An Electrical Installation Certificate (EIC) for all new circuits andconsumer unit replacements.

▪ A Minor Electrical Installation Works Certificate (MEIWC) for smalladditions and/or alterations that do not comprise a new circuit.

▪ An Electrical Installation Condition Report (EICR) where the inspec-tor is not the installer.

If an installer belongs to a ‘Competent Persons’ scheme, i.e. is a Domestic Installer with an approval body such as the NICEIC, ELECSA etc., he/she can self-certify the work and issue the appropriate certificate to the person ordering the work. The approval body will notify the LABC.

If an installer is not registered on a ‘Competent Persons’ scheme, but is qualified to inspect and test, he/she should issue the appropriate certificate


to the LABC. They will take the inspector’s qualifications into account and decide if any further action needs to be taken.

An installer who is not qualified to inspect and test may appoint a ‘Regis-tered Competent Person’ to carry out the inspection and test. In this case only an EICR can be issued to the person ordering the work.

Appendix 2 of the IET Regulations lists all of the other Statutory Regu-lations and Memoranda with which electrical installations must comply.

It is interesting to note that if an installation fails to comply with Chapter 13 of the Regulations, the DNO has the right to refuse to give a supply or, in certain circumstances, to disconnect it.

While we are on the subject of DNOs, let us look at the current declared supply voltages and tolerances. In order to align with European Harmo-nized Standards, our historic 415 V/240 V declared supply voltages have now become 400 V/230 V. However, this is only a paper exercise, and it is unlikely that consumers will notice any difference for many years, if at all. Let me explain, using single-phase as the example.

The supply industry declared voltage was 240 V ± 6%, giving a range between 225.6 V and 254.4 V. The new values are 230 V + 10% − 6%, giv-ing a range between 216.2 V and 253 V. Not a lot of difference. The industry has done nothing physical to reduce voltages from 240 V to 230 V, it is just the declaration that has been altered. Hence a measurement of voltage at supply terminals will give similar readings to those we have always known. Figure 1.1 shows the UK supply system and associated declared voltages.

BS 7671 details two voltage categories, Band 1 and Band 2. Band 1 is essen-tially extra low-voltage (ELV) systems and Band 2 low-voltage (LV) systems.

ELV is less than 50 V a.c. between conductors or to earth. LV exceeds ELV up to 1000 V a.c. between conductors and 600 V between conductors and earth.

The suppliers are now governed by the ‘Electricity Safety, Quality & Con-tinuity Regulations 2002’ ESQCR (formerly the Electricity Supply Regu-lations 1988).


Questions

1. Which Part of BS 7671 forms its basis?

2. Which three sets of legislation are most likely to be associated with BS 7671?

3. Under the EAWR 1989, which persons have a duty of care placed upon them?

4. Which item of legislation is solely applicable to electrical installations in dwellings?

5. When may an unqualified installer issue an Electrical Installation Certificate?

6. Under Part ‘P’ of the Building Regulations, to whom should work in a bathroom be

notified?

7. Where, in BS 7671:2008, are Statutory Documents listed?

8. What are the DNO’s standard voltages and tolerances?

9. What is the voltage Band and maximum a�c� value of Extra Low Voltage?

10. What is the ESQCR?

Consumer

E

L

N

U0 � Nominal voltage to earth

0 V

0 V N

Supply transformer

400 V400 V between lines

Note: The connection of the transformer star or neutral pointto earth helps to maintain that point at or very near zero volts.

230 VU0 � 230 V

FIGURE 1.1 DNO supply voltages�


Answers

1. Part 1

2. The H&S at Work Act 1974, the EAWR 1989, and Part‘P’ of the Building Regulations

3. Employers, self employed, employees and managers of mines and quarries

4. Approved Document P of the Building Regulations

5. Never

6. The LABC

7. Appendix 2

8. 230 V, 400 V; +10%, −6%

9. Band 1; 50 V a�c�

10. The Electricity Safety, Quality and Continuity Regulations 2002� These are applicable to

the DNOs

www.routledge.com


4. Introduction

From: Advanced Automotive Fault Diagnosis

Automotive Technology: Vehicle Maintenance and Repair, 4th

Edition

By Tom Denton

A Chapter Sampler

1

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1.1 Diagnosis

1.1.1 Introduction

What is needed to find faults?

Finding the problem when complex automotive systems go wrong is easy if you have the necessary knowledge. This knowledge consists of two parts:

understanding of the system in which the problem exists;the ability to apply a logical diagnostic routine.

It is also important to be clear about these definitions:symptom(s) – what the user/operator/repairer of the system (vehicle or whatever) notices;fault(s) – the error(s) in the system that result in the symptom(s);root cause(s) – the cause(s) of the fault.

If a system is not operating to its optimum, then it should be repaired. This is where diagnostic and other skills come into play. It is necessary to recognise that something is not operating correctly by applying your knowledge of the system, and then by applying this knowledge further, and combining it with the skills of diagnostics, to be able to find out the reason.

The four main chapters of this book (‘Engine systems’, ‘Chassis systems’, ‘Electrical systems’ and ‘Transmission systems’) include a basic explanation of the vehicle systems followed by diagnostic techniques that are particularly appropriate for that area. Examples of faultfinding charts are also included. In the main text, references will be made to generic systems rather than to specific vehicles or

marques. For specific details about a particular vehicle or system, the manufacturer’s information is the main source.

Definition

Diagnosis: The word ‘diagnosis’ comes from the

ancient Greek word ‘δια’γνωσις’, which means

discernment. It is the identification of the nature

and cause of anything. Diagnosis is used in

many different disciplines, but all use logic,

analysis and experience to determine cause and

effect relationships. In automotive engineering,

diagnosis is typically used to determine the

causes of symptoms and solutions to issues.

Key fact

General diagnostic principles and techniques can

be applied to any system, physical or otherwise.

Other chapters such as ‘Sensors, actuators and oscilloscope diagnostics’ and ‘On-board diagnostics’ are separated from the four previously mentioned chapters, because many operations are the same. For example, testing an inductive sensor is similar whether it is used on ABS or engine management.

An important note about diagnostics is that the general principles and techniques can be applied to any system, physical or otherwise. As far as passenger-carrying heavy or light vehicles are concerned, this is definitely the case. As discussed earlier, there is a need for knowledge of the particular

1 Introduction

2

Further, always wear appropriate personal protective equipment (PPE) when working on vehicles.

The following section lists some particular risks when working with vehicle systems, together with suggestions for reducing them. This is known as risk assessment.

Safety first

Aways wear appropriate personal protective

equipment (PPE) when working on vehicles.

1.2.1 Risk assessment and reduction

Table 1.1 lists some identified risks involved with working on vehicles. The table is by no means exhaustive but serves as a good guide.

1.3 Terminology

1.3.1 Introduction

The terminology included in Tables 1.2 and 1.3 is provided to ensure we are talking the same language. These tables are provided as a simple reference source.

system, but diagnostic skills are transferable (Figure 1.1).

1.2 Safe working practices

Safe working practices in relation to diagnostic procedures and indeed any work on a vehicle are essential – for your safety as well as that of others. You only have to follow two rules to be safe:

Use your common sense – do not fool about.If in doubt – seek help.

Figure 1.1 Diagnostics in action

Table 1.1 Identifying and reducing risk

Identified risk Reducing the risk

Battery acid Sulphuric acid is corrosive, so always use good PPE – in this case overalls and if necessary rubber gloves. A rubber apron is ideal as are goggles if working with batteries a lot, particularly older types

Electric shock Ignition HT is the most likely place to suffer a shock – up to 25 000 V is quite normal. Use insulated tools if it is necessary to work on HT circuits with the engine running. Note that high voltages are also present on circuits containing windings due to back emf as they are switched off – a few hundred volts is common. Mains supplied power tools and their leads should be in good condition, and using an earth leakage trip is highly recommended

Exhaust gases Suitable extraction must be used if the engine is running indoors. Remember it is not just the CO that might make you ill or even kill you, other exhaust components could also cause asthma or even cancer

Fire Do not smoke when working on a vehicle. Fuel leaks must be attended to immediately. Remember the triangle of fire – (heat/fuel/oxygen) – do not let the three sides come together

Moving loads Only lift what is comfortable for you; ask for help if necessary and/or use lifting equipment. As a general guide, do not lift on your own if it feels too heavy

Raising or lifting vehicles Apply brakes and/or chock the wheels when raising a vehicle on a jack or drive on lift. Only jack under substantial chassis and suspension structures. Use axle stands in case the jack fails

Running engines Do not wear loose clothing – good overalls are ideal. Keep the keys in your possession when working on an engine to prevent others starting it. Take extra care if working near running drive belts

Short circuits Use a jump lead with an in-line fuse to prevent damage due to a short when testing. Disconnect the battery (earth lead off first and back on last) if any danger of a short exists. A very high current can flow from a vehicle battery – it will burn you as well as the vehicle

Skin problems Use a good barrier cream and/or latex gloves. Wash skin and clothes regularly

1 Introduction

3

1

report should convey clearly to another person what has been done. Further, a ‘qualified’ person should be able to extract enough information to be able to repeat the test – and check your findings. Use clear simple language remembering that in some cases the intended audience may not be as technically competent as you are.

Key fact

Setting out results of any test in a standard

format is the best way to ensure all the

important and required aspects of the test have

been covered.

1.3.3 General terminology

Table 1.2 Diagnostic terminology

Symptom The effect of a fault noticed by the driver, user or technician

Fault The cause of a symptom/problem

Root cause This may be the same as the fault, but in some cases it can be the cause of it

Diagnostics The process of tracing a fault by means of its symptoms, applying knowledge and analysing test results

Knowledge The understanding of a system that is required to diagnose faults

Logical procedure A step-by-step method used to ensure nothing is missed

Concern, cause, correction A reminder of the process starting from what the driver reports, to the correction of the problem

Report A standard format for the presentation of results

Table 1.3 General terminology

System A collection of components that carry out a function

Efficiency This is a simple measure of any system. It can be scientific, for example, if the power out of a system is less than the power put in, its percentage efficiency can be determined (P-out/P-in � 100%). This could, for example, be given as say 80%. In a less scientific example, a vehicle using more fuel than normal is said to be inefficient

Noise Emanations of a sound from a system that is either simply unwanted or is not the normal sound that should be produced

Active Any system that is in operation all the time (steering for example)

Passive A system that waits for an event before it is activated (an airbag is a good example)

Short circuit An electrical conductor is touching something that it should not be touching (usually another conductor of the chassis)

Open circuit A circuit that is broken (a switched off switch is an open circuit)

High resistance In relation to electricity, this is part of a circuit that has become more difficult for the electricity to get through. In a mechanical system, a partially blocked pipe would have a resistance to the flow of fluid

Worn This word works better with further additions such as worn to excess, worn out of tolerance or even, worn, but still within tolerance

Quote To make an estimate of or give exact information on the price of a part or service. A quotation may often be considered to be legally binding

Estimate A statement of the expected cost of a certain job (e.g. a service or repairs). An estimate is normally a best guess and is not legally binding

Bad Not good – and also not descriptive enough really

Dodgy, knackered or @#%&*.

Words often used to describe a system or component, but they mean nothing. Get used to describing things so that misunderstandings are eliminated

1.3.2 Diagnostic terminology

1.4 Report writing

1.4.1 Introduction

As technicians you may be called on to produce a report for a customer. If you are involved in research of some kind, it is important to be able to present results in a professional way. The following sections describe the main headings that a report will often need to contain together with an example report based on the performance testing of a vehicle alternator.

Laying out results in a standard format is the best way to ensure all the important and required aspects of the test have been covered. Keep in mind that the

1 Introduction

4

Conclusions/Comments/ObservationsNote here any further tests that may be necessary. Conclude that device X does perform better than device Y – if it did. If appropriate, add observations such as how device Y performed better under the set conditions, but under other circumstances the results could have been different. Comment on the method used if necessary.

ForecastIf necessary comment on how the ‘item’ tested will continue to perform based on the existing data.

AppendicesDetailed pages of results that would ‘clog up’ the main report or background material such as leaflets relating to the test equipment.

1.4.3 Example report

An example report is presented here relating to a simple alternator test where its actual output is to be compared to the rated output. Minimal details are included so as just to illustrate the main points.

IntroductionA ‘Rotato’ 12 V alternator was tested under different temperature conditions to check its maximum output. The manufacturer’s specifications stated that the alternator, when hot, should produce 95 A at 6000 rpm.

Test criteriaStart at room temperature.

Run alternator at 3000 rpm, 30 A output for 10 minutes.

Run alternator at 6000 rpm, maximum output. Check reading every 30 seconds for 10 minutes.

Run alternator at 6000 rpm, maximum output for a further 20 minutes to ensure output reading is stable.

Facilities/ResourcesA ‘Krypton’ test bench model R2D2 was used to drive the alternator. The test bench revcounter was used and a ‘Flake’ digital meter fitted with a 200 A shunt was used to measure the output. A variable resistance load was employed.

Test proceduresThe alternator was run for 10 minutes at 3000 rpm and the load adjusted to cause an output of 30 A. This was to ensure it was at a nominal operating temperature. The normal fan was kept in place during the test.

Speed was then increased to 6000 rpm and the load adjusted to achieve the maximum possible output. The load was further adjusted as required to keep the maximum possible output in case the load resistance changed due to temperature. Measurements were taken every 30 seconds for a period of 10 minutes.

1.4.2 Main headings of a report

The following suggestions for the headings of a professional report will cover most requirements but can, of course, be added to or subtracted from if necessary. After each heading, I have included brief notes on what should be included.

ContentsIf the report is more than about five pages, a list of contents with page numbers will help the reader find his or her way through it.

IntroductionExplain the purpose of what has been done and set the general scene.

Test criteriaDefine the limits within which the test was carried out. For example, temperature range or speed settings.

Facilities/ResourcesState or describe what equipment was used. For example: ‘A “Revitup” engine dynamometer, model number C3PO was used for the consumption test’.

Test proceduresExplain here exactly what was done to gain the results. In this part of the report, it is very important not to leave out any details.

Measured resultsPresent the results in a way that is easy to interpret. A simple table of figures may be appropriate. If the trend of the results or a comparison is important, a graph may be better. Pictures of results or oscilloscope waveforms may be needed. If necessary a very complex table of results from which you draw out a few key figures could be presented as an appendix. You should also note the accuracy of any figures presented (�0.5% for example).

Key fact

Present test results in a way that is easy to

interpret.

Analysis of resultsThis is the part where you should make comments on the results obtained. For example, if, say, a fuel consumption test was carried out on two vehicles, a graph comparing one result to the other may be appropriate. Comments should be added if necessary, such as any anomaly that could have affected the results (change of wind direction for example).

1 Introduction

5

1The overall duration of this test was 40 minutes, it is possible, however, that the device would increase in temperature and the output may fall further after prolonged operation. Further tests are necessary to check this, for example, under more realistic vehicle operating conditions.

Overall the device performed in excess of its rated output in this test.

(Always sign and date the report.)

Tom Denton, March 2016

Measured resultsSpeed held constant at 6000 (�200) rpm.

Room temperature (18 °C)

See Table 1.4.

To ensure the alternator output had stabilised it was kept running for a further 20 minutes at full output. It continued to hold at 96 A.

Analysis of results

Figure 1.2 shows the results in graphical format.

ConclusionsThe manufacturer’s claims were validated. The device exceeded the rated output by 6% at the start of the test and, under continuous operation at full load, continued to exceed the rated output by 1%.

Figure 1.2 Alternator output current over time

Table 1.4 Results

Time (�1 s)

0 30 60 90 120 150 180 210 240 270 300 330 360 390 420 450 480 510 540 570 600

Output (�0.2 A)

101 100 99 99 98 98 98 98 98 98 97 97 96 96 96 96 96 96 96 96 96

1 Introduction

6

1.5 Autonomous driving

1.5.1 First steps

While autonomous driving is not yet a big issue for diagnostic technicians, it soon will be! These two short sections are just to give an overview of the ‘state of the art’ at this time.

High-performance assistance systems already help drivers reach their destinations safely and more comfortably (Figure 1.3). Such systems control speed and the distance between vehicles. They also warn drivers of traffic jams and help them manoeuvre into tight parking spaces. Bosch, the global supplier of automotive technology and services, is set to expand its range of driver assistance systems in the years to come. In the future, these systems will take on a growing role in guiding vehicles through traffic jams. More specifically, they will brake, accelerate and steer completely autonomously. The traffic jam assistant will step in when the vehicle is moving at speeds between 0 and 50 km per hour. This means that it will operate in most stop-and-go traffic situations. Eventually, the traffic jam assistant will serve as a highway pilot, making fully autonomous driving a reality.

Today, adaptive cruise control already tracks the vehicles ahead and adapts the distance and speed of the driver’s own vehicle accordingly. Acting in combination with the ESP® system and with the additional support of lane-detection cameras and electro-mechanical steering, this forms the technical basis for autonomous driving. High-performance software now calculates the appropriate driving instructions for safer and less stressful driving. Automatic lane changing is the next functional step. It calls for two additional features. First, a rear-mounted radar sensor that also detects fast-approaching vehicles and, second, a dynamic navigation map. Such maps, which operate via a mobile network connection, can keep drivers informed of current roadwork sites and local speed restrictions. And although drivers remain responsible for driving, they can limit themselves to monitoring the actions of the driver assistance system.

Depending on the extent of on-board functions offered by a particular vehicle, front detection is carried out by a radar sensor combined with a mono camera, or by a stereo camera. Bosch offers a high-performance long-range radar sensor, with an aperture angle of up to 30 degrees. This sensor can detect objects at a

Figure 1.3 Semi-autonomous driving

1 Introduction

7

1until the highway pilot can take over the entire trip. Two major challenges remain. First, inner-city driving, since automated vehicle functions have to deal with dense traffic involving a large number of road users travelling in every direction. Second, developing a concept to ensure that the system’s functions operate reliably in all types of driving situation.

1.5.2 Levels of driving automation

SAE International has defined six levels of driving automation for on-road vehicles (if we count zero). These levels correspond to those developed by the Germany Federal Highway Research Institute (BASt) and approximately correspond to those described by the US National Highway Traffic Safety Administration (NHTSA).

Diagnostics of these systems will require skilled operators as well as new equipment. Clearly these are safety critical systems and will need particular care and attention to detail.

distance of 250 metres. A mid-range radar sensor offers a range of 160 metres and an aperture angle of 45 degrees. Its cost is significantly lower, since it is designed to meet the requirements of the mass market. In addition to the currently available multi-purpose video camera that is equipped with one sensor element, Bosch has developed a stereo video camera that detects objects in 3D with the help of two sensors. As a result, it is able to calculate exactly how far objects are from the vehicle, as well as in which direction they are moving. Both sensor configurations enable full predictive emergency braking. Two adapted mid-range radar sensors assume the task of observing traffic behind the vehicle. These sensors have an aperture angle of 150 degrees and can detect objects up to 100 metres away. Finally, the parking assistant’s ultrasound sensors provide support during close-range steering manoeuvres.

Fully autonomous driving will come about one step at a time. Driving on roads with an ever greater degree of automation and at ever higher speeds will be possible,

Table 1.5 Levels of driving automation

SA

E le

vel

NH

TS

A le

vel

BA

St

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ack

Dri

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od

es

0 0Driver only No

automationFull-time performance by the human driver of all aspects of the dynamic driving task, even when enhanced by warning or intervention systems

H H H N/A

1 1

Assisted Driver assistance

Driving mode-specific execution by a driver assistance system of either steering or acceleration/deceleration using information about the driving environment and with the expectation that the human driver perform all remaining aspects of the dynamic driving task

H/S H H Some

2 2

Partially automated

Partial automation

Driving mode-specific execution by one or more driver assistance systems of both steering and acceleration/deceleration using information about the driving environment and with the expectation that the human driver perform all remaining aspects of the dynamic driving task

S H H Some

3 3

Highly automated

Conditional automation

Driving mode-specific performance by an automated driving system of all aspects of the dynamic driving task with the expectation that the human driver will respond appropriately to a request to intervene

S S H Some

4 3/4

Fully automated

High automation

Driving mode-specific performance by an automated driving system of all aspects of the dynamic driving task, even if a human driver does not respond appropriately to a request to intervene

S S S Some

5 3/4

Fully automated

Full automation

Full-time performance by an automated driving system of all aspects of the dynamic driving task under all roadway and environmental conditions that can be managed by a human driver

S S S All

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5. History and philosophy ofearly childhood studies

From: Early Childhood StudiesPrinciples and Practice, 2nd

Edition

By Jane Johnston, Lindy Nahmad-Williams, Ruby Oates, Val Wood

A Chapter Sampler

This book is written to support early years professionals and students who are attempting to develop their knowledge, understanding and skills in an ever-complex multidisciplinary and integrated-agency context.

Early Childhood Studies encompasses a large range of aspects related to the childhood of young children between 0 and 8 years of age, including historical infl uences, psychol-ogy, sociology, education, legislation, management of early years settings and services, international perspectives and comparisons. As an academic discipline, it is taught at sec-ondary, further and higher education levels and combines disciplinary aspects from health and social care, education, psychology and sociology in a complex balance. Professionals working in the early years often have expertise in one of these areas, but rarely all. Since the publication of the fi rst edition of this textbook, the sector has been witness to changes of pace and priority in respect of public policy for education and childcare. The early years sector has grown in prominence because of its potential contribution to achieving a range of positive outcomes for children. These changes are now refl ected in the second edition of the textbook, including two new chapters covering safeguarding the child and the impor-tance of play. The introduction of initiatives to improve expertise in the workforce, such as the Early Years Teachers/Educator status and recognition of a graduate early years workforce, are also refl ected within the new edition through an expanded chapter on refl ective practice. Overall the book seeks to equip its readers with a knowledge base which emphasises the importance of working with children and their families in a holistic way.

The target readers of the book refl ect the changing nature of Early Childhood Studies and include:

students on Early Childhood Studies HE courses (e.g. degrees in Early Childhood, Edu-cation Studies and joint/combined honours degrees);

students on Early Childhood Studies FE courses (e.g. the Early Years Educator and EarlyYears Teacher courses);

initial teacher education students on both primary and early years courses;

early years professionals and practitioners (teachers, classroom assistants, play workers,family support workers, nursery managers, childcare managers, etc.);

tutors in higher and further education.

Aims of the book Within this book we attempt to support this holistic and integrated service by explicit devel-opment in a number of areas. First, we aim to develop knowledge and understanding in

Introduction

2 Introduction

Early Childhood Studies and a critical understanding of its interdisciplinary nature, so that there is a balance of focus on the health, social care and education of children. This focus is one that has traditionally been compartmentalised, so that while families have consid-ered the holistic well-being and development of their children, agencies and early years providers have often focused on one area almost exclusively. Secondly, we aim to build on basic understandings in all areas, extending knowledge and practice, so that professionals and student professionals can extend their expertise in areas where they are confi dent and competent and develop in those areas where they face particular challenges.

Throughout the book, the child is central to everything we do. Indeed, the child is central to our own underpinning philosophy. In complex and ever-changing and developing areas of society it is easy to lose sight of the main reason for initiatives and developments. Our main aim is the same as that of the government, other children’s agencies, parents and the whole of society: that is, supporting children in their development, so that they can become happy, safe, well-rounded individuals who are able to contribute to society and in turn support their children.

The key points of the book are the following:

it contains easily accessible yet rigorous support for the development of understandingsand skills in early childhood issues;

it supports and extends effective practice in caring for and educating children in the earlyyears, being well grounded in research and good practice;

it looks at Early Childhood Studies from a multidisciplinary perspective;

it supports the beginner practitioner and extends the more experienced practitioner;

it contains issues for refl ection and practical tasks at three levels for student and existingprofessionals, thus appealing to the kinaesthetic practitioner/learner;

it contains reference to recent research and practice, both nationally and internationally;

it contains illustrations, tables, graphs and photographs, as well as practical tasks, thusappealing to the more visual practitioner/learner;

it provides additional reading suggestions and website addresses to support furtherunderstanding of issues.

Study skills The development of professional practice is dependent on more early years professionals gaining degree level expertise in Early Childhood Studies. This means that professionals should develop a range of study skills, which facilitate their professional practice and refl ec-tion on early childhood practice and provision. Within the book, these skills are termed the Study Skills and are embedded in Refl ective and Practical Tasks.

The order of the Study Skills in each chapter follows a developmental sequence (see Table 0.1), which should be helpful for students and professionals who are attempting to develop their expertise and practice. The fi rst set of Study Skills, in Part 1 of the book, is connected to reading and refl ection of reading. Chapter 1 is concerned with the selection and use of literature as follows:

Introduction 3

helping the reader to make appropriate choices in the type of literature: a combinationof books, journals, policy documents and web-based sources, avoiding an over-relianceon one type of source;

reading for understanding;

making notes on their reading;

using reading effectively in the development of persuasive arguments, rather than simplydescribing the reading;

referencing using the Harvard system;

using original sources rather than using books cited in other texts.

In order to select and use reading effectively, you need to be very clear what the reading is being used for. Usually, this means having clear questions that need to be answered. These may be SMART: Specifi c, Measurable, Analytical, Relevant and Time-related. Questions that are too broad and generic will be unanswerable, especially if you are focusing on a few texts. You need to be clear how you are going to measure success in fi nding evidence to answer the

Table 0.1 The development of Study Skills within each chapter of the book

Chapter Title Study Skills

Part 1 History and philosophy of Early Childhood Studies

1 Theories and theorists Selecting and using literature 2 Developing your own philosophy Refl ection and analysis

Part 2 Early years development 3 Physical development Methodology 4 Cognitive development Interacting with children as a research tool 5 Language development Narrative as a research tool 6 Emotional and moral development Listening as a research tool 7 Social development Interview as a research tool

Part 3 Early childhood 8 Families, home and childhood Deeper analysis 9 Early education Combining primary and secondary analysis10 Play Deeper analysis11 Special educational needs and inclusion:

policy and practiceSynthesis of ideas

12 Safeguarding children Discussion of fi ndings

Part 4 Practitioners in early childhood13 The early years professional Writing a literature review/developing written

arguments14 Refl ective practice Writing models for different methodologies15 Working together Writing up a thesis16 Leadership and management of early

years settingsPresenting research

Introduction4

1. Sheep phase In this phase of research you wander around, grazing on interesting titbits, but are not quite sure where you are going and why you are going there. You may fi nd interesting bits of information, but they do not form a coherent whole and may not inspire you. The focus of your research appears as a distant speck on the horizon, one that you are wandering towards but not by any defi ned path-way. It can be a rather frustrating phase, although this frustration can be a motivating force to move towards a more defi ned focus.

2. Chick phase In the chick phase, you need nurture and guidance. You rely on tutors for support, but care needs to be taken that you do not become over-reliant and dependent on others. A healthy chick researcher will take advice, but becomes increasingly self-suffi cient, thus moving from the comfort zone into new and more frightening territory. Less healthy chicks may need constant feeding, thus not achieving any independence, while cuckoo chicks expect that someone else will provide for all their needs at the expense of others. Yet other chicks (ducklings) may follow the lead without question and independent or original thought.

3. Squirrel phase This is the phase where you know what you are doing and you read and collect information, which you squirrel away for future reference and use. It is a very comforting phase as you can collect a vast amount of information and feel very reassured by the reading which confi rms your initial ideas. This comfort, however, can encourage you to stay in this phase for too long and keep hoarding information which may not see the light of day unless you move on.

4. Lemming phase This is one of the most frightening phases and this fear provides the reason why some researchers try to avoid it. The lemming researcher needs to make a giant leap into the unknown – to take a big risk and voice new ideas, question assumptions and challenge perceptions. Researching involves taking risks but in this phase it is important to remember that you are not alone. There are other lemmings out there who are just as frightened as you and will support you when you make the leap, and may leap with you.

5. Sheepdog phase The penultimate research phase is the sheepdog phase, in which you need to round up your research, collecting all the stray bits of information together and making a coherent whole of it. This is a very organised phase and can be very structured, which is of comfort to some researchers. However, a good sheepdog researcher will make decisions and act upon them and so will not just follow guidelines but will reinterpret them to ensure the best possible outcome. So, the sheep-dog researcher synthesises the data, draws conclusions, identifi es implications and packages the research up in a fi nal written form, making decisions for him or herself.

6. Songbird phase This fi nal phase is another frightening one, where you disseminate your research to a wider audi-ence. You may present your research fi ndings at appropriate conferences and write articles for further and wider dissemination or contribute to, or author, books.

Figure 0.1 Phases of research (based on Johnston, 2005) With thanks to Ashley Compton and Lindy Nahmad-Williams for inspiration

Introduction 5

questions. You need to pose analytical questions (how, why, so what questions) as opposed to descriptive questions (what, when, who questions) and be clear how the evidence you collect will answer them (how relevant the evidence is to the questions). Finally, you need a clear timescale for collecting the reading necessary to answer the questions; it is very easy to spend a great proportion of the time you have in reading and collecting nice bits of infor-mation, as this is comforting and reassuring (see the Squirrel phase in Figure 0.1).

In Chapter 2 we focus on refl ection and analysis . We start by looking at what analysis is: to take something apart or separate in order to illuminate, reveal, uncover, understand, resolve, identify or clarify. We look at how you can analyse events, situations, experiences or reading, revealing what the main factors affecting them are or understanding why someone has acted in a particular way or clarifying issues for further development/action. Later in the book (in Part 3) we will look at deeper analysis and combining analysis of primary and secondary data.

Research termsTable 0.2 has key research terms and their defi nitions. These are mixed up and you need to draw a line between the matching term and its defi nition. The answers for this can be found in Figure 0.3 at the end of the Introduction, on p. 13.

Table 0.2 Key concepts in educational research: task

Practical Tasks

Term Defi nition

Methodology Issues which ‘might be feasibly and fairly answered’ through research

Methods ‘The honesty, depth, richness and scope of the data achieved, the participants approached, the extent of triangulation and the disinterestedness or objectivity of the researcher’

Research questions Research approach which aims to ‘help us to understand. In the broadest possible terms, not the products of scientifi c enquiry but the process itself ’

Reliability ‘The range of approaches used in educational research to gather data, which are to be used as a basis for inference and interpretation, for explanation and prediction’

Analysis ‘Consistency and replicability over time, over instruments and over groups of respondents’

Validity Technique for understanding issues or factors by breaking them up into their constituent parts and refl ecting upon them

(Defi nitions taken from Cohen et al., 2000: 44, 45, 74, 105, 117)

Introduction6

Part 2 of the book focuses on the collection of primary data, with each chapter (3–7) looking at a different research tool. This is a scary phase of your research (see the Lemming phase in Figure 0.1), as you cannot rely on the work or support of others. In this part, you need to consider the reliability , validity and ethics of the different data collection methods you use and how these methods fi t into an overall methodology .

There are many different methodologies or types of research and each one has its own individual characteristics. You need to understand different methodologies in order to make a decision about which type best describes your research. The types of research which best suit research in early childhood include the following:

Action research , in which the professional attempts to improve or develop practice in acyclical way, by planning the next step of action or development as a result of analysisof the previous action or development. This is signifi cantly different from other researchmethodologies and it needs to be written up in a particular way (see Chapter 14 and Fig-ure 14.1). You may be attempting to develop children’s social skills, or developing roleplay in your setting and therefore research the effectiveness of your plans and practice ina plan–do–review research process.

Case study research , which involves analysis of a number of specifi c instances to under-stand the bigger picture. You may be researching transition by looking at the differentperspectives of parents, children and professionals (with each one being a case). Yourcases may also be issues or factors affecting transition which emerge from the data, sothat in research into transition this may be the role of the parents, the curriculum orother settings in the transition (see Chapter 16).

Correlational research , which considers interrelationships among variables involved in theresearch. For example, you may research the relationship between the increase in chil-dren’s emotional diffi culties and early childcare away from the home (see Chapter 6), orthe relationship between social class and childhood obesity.

Survey , where opinions, factors and issues are identifi ed. This may involve giving a ques-tionnaire to parents to fi nd out their attitudes towards a Steiner approach to learning, ortalking to children to fi nd out what games they like to play.

Historical research does not depend on primary data but uses policy documents andresearch reports to analyse historical trends, or the effect of new developments. Thismay involve analysis of the changes in the early years curriculum, or special needsprovision.

Ethnographic research concerns analysis in the natural context, so that the study is unaf-fected by external factors. Children may be observed in their homes, while interactingwith their parents or siblings, or professionals observed and informally interviewedwithin their own setting, during the course of their normal working day.

Ex post facto research is retrospective research, which investigates possible cause-and-effectrelationships. This is done by observing an existing condition or state of affairs and search-ing back in time for plausible causal factors. For example, an attempt may be made to tracethe causes of a child’s behavioural problems, or the causes of a child’s health problems.

Accounts or narratives are types of interpretive ethnography where situations are consid-ered from the participants’ perspectives. Professionals may narrate their life stories to

Introduction 7

help understanding of their career pathway, or critical incidents in your life may be ana-lysed to illuminate your philosophical stance (see Chapter 2).

Illuminative research is an attempt to explain or understand the data, looking for deepunderstandings. So analysis of an early years leader’s concerns and the constraints inwhich they work, may help to explain or understand their actions.

You may fi nd it helpful to articulate your ideas for your research (questions, method-ology, methods and preliminary reading) in a research proposal. A format for this can be found in Figure 0.2. Planning your research in this way helps you to fi rm up your ideas, preparing yourself and giving yourself a greater chance of succeeding in your research, for, as Dwight Eisenhower (1890–1969) said, ‘In preparing for battle I have always found that plans are useless, but planning is indispensable.’

The research methods considered in Part 2 can be used in most of the methodologies described above. Research methods are considered in Chapters 3–7. Chapter 3 looks at developing the most important research skill for the early years professional , as well as a skill that is essential to develop in young children: that is observation. Through the Refl ective Tasks, we help to understand observation and expand observation skills, and so understand processes, events and development. We look at different types of observations: focused, unfocused, participant and non-participant, and the use of observation schedules. In Chap-ter 4, we consider how we can collect data from children by interacting with them. Impor-tantly, we consider the ethics of working with children and collecting data from them to support their development and our practice. We also introduce the idea of a planning ladder to help professionals to plan their interactions with children. Chapter 5 considers narrative

When writing a research proposal, the following headings can be a guide.

Focus of research . A brief statement about the focus of the research (perhaps with a title or an overarching research question).

Research questions . We suggest three questions which will help you to explore the area or answer your overarching research question.

Methodology . A brief statement about the type of research you are conducting. Identify research literature which is informing your choice of methodology and methods and annotate to identify how it supports your choices.

Methods . A list of methods to be used to collect evidence to answer your questions. Identify also how you can ensure your research methods are reliable and the data collected will be valid.

Ethical statement . Write a brief statement to explain how you have ensured your research adheres to ethical guidelines.

Literature . An alphabetical list of reading which will underpin your research and provide the basis for the literature review. For each piece of reading also supply a short annotation to explain the relevance to your research.

Figure 0.2 Structure of a research proposal

Introduction8

as a research tool. In narrative, participants or informants tell a story. These stories are more than anecdotes, and can provide powerful insights into situations and support analysis and synthesis . Each chapter in this book contains such stories, sometimes in the form of case studies, exemplars of practice or research. Sometimes the story is told by different partici-pants, triangulating data and getting a more vivid and comprehensive picture of the action, event or situation being described. A story told from a different perspective allows layers of data to be analysed and a more valid (truthful) picture begins to be revealed. Chapter 6 focuses on listening as a research tool. We can tell a great deal about a child by listening to them in a variety of situations. If children talk to us, ask us questions, this information can inform us about their worries, concerns, achievements and aspirations. Evidence collected from children can be a powerful way to fi nd out about them and will help us to make decisions about how to continue to support them. On its own, listening to children can provide evidence to assist our deep understanding; combined and triangulated with other evidence, from observation, narratives, discussions with parents and other professionals, the evidence is more valid and powerful. Chapter 6 also considers the ethos and environ-ment that encourages children to talk and helps us to evaluate our own environment. We explore the type of adult interaction and the type of questions which encourage children to talk openly and honestly and so enable us to gain a better understanding of them and how we can support their development. In Chapter 7 we look at discussions and interviews as research tools. The chapter considers the different nature of formal interviews and more fl uid and informal discussions and the different types of data that they can usefully provide, the limitations of that data and their role in verifying or triangulating evidence from other sources and other methods. We also consider the advantages and limitations of different data collection tools used in interviews and discussions (notebook, questions, video, audio-tape, etc.).

Part 3 of the book is focused on early childhood, and the Study Skills in this part are the important skills of analysis and synthesis. In Chapter 8 the Refl ective Tasks aim to develop your analytical skills. We start by looking at what analysis is and how it can help us to under-stand and identify the main factors, issues or components of ideas or actions. We look at analytical questions, so that you can begin to identify and use these, rather than descriptive questions, to help improve your understanding of children, childhood and your practice. Deeper analysis is supported through tasks that help mine data to different depths, under-stand different perspectives, identify patterns and chronology of events, and illuminate meanings, all of which will help us in our professional practice with children. Chapter 9 is concerned with the combination of primary and secondary analysis. In this chapter the Study Skills involve the skill of combining analysis from both primary and secondary data. Analysis of secondary data is mainly found in a literature review, which reviews the litera-ture in order to answer questions you have posed. Primary data are usually presented and analysed in sections of your work entitled ‘Research fi ndings’ or ‘Outcomes and analysis’. These sections, especially in action research, also contain analysis of secondary data, and both are also combined in ‘Discussion of fi ndings’. Primary and secondary analysis should be combined and used to create strong arguments, using the data as evidence in support. In order to create arguments you need to understand what an argument is and the difference between an argument (an evidence-based belief) and an opinion (a non-evidence-based belief ). You also need to know what makes for a good rather than a weak argument – one that provides reasons behind what you are claiming and evidence to support your argu-ment, such as factual data, persuasive language and a counter-argument. We also look at

Introduction 9

how you can help yourself to develop strong arguments by asking yourself the sort of ques-tions that promote argument.

In Chapter 10 we consider the skill of synthesis and deeper analysis, which is a very important skill that enables you to take analyses from a wide range of primary and second-ary evidence and put them together in order to draw conclusions, make sense of the whole and draw inferences, producing new ideas or models and identifying implications. Synthe-sising involves breadth and depth of understanding, making links between different ana-lyses and engaging in a deep and critical discussion of the ideas, implication or models of thinking that have emerged from the analysis. Most importantly, it does not repeat the ana-lysis but moves forward from it to greater clarity, sophistication of ideas and understanding.

Part 4 of the book is concerned with presenting ideas in written, pictorial or oral forms. This is an essential tool for those who are being assessed through their presentation of ideas in short written assignments, longer dissertations, and oral and visual presentations. Chap-ter 13 focuses on what a literature review is and how to write one, developing persuasive written arguments. There is a mistaken view that a literature review should provide a gen-eral description of all the writing in a large area (for example, childhood, early education, childhood health), rather than a more specifi c analysis of literature to help answer posed questions and in narrower or more defi ned areas (for example, the effect of divorce on early emotional development, the effectiveness of a new phonics programme or the increase in childhood obesity). The literature review of any study has two main functions:

1. to set the scene and provide an introduction to the research, through a critical examina-tion of literature in the area;

2. to use the literature to provide a critical analysis to answer the research questions posed.

There are four steps to writing a literature review. The fi rst one is to select appropriateliterature, ensuring a balance between different types of texts, professional and academic: books, journals and websites; seminal and recent texts; policy documents and historical documents. The second step is to read and understand the literature and not skim-read to pick out juicy quotations to use in your writing. To understand a text fully, you may need to read and reread it and refl ect upon it for a while before using it. Step three involves using the analysed ideas in the literature. The Study Skills sections in Chapters 8 and 9 will help you to understand analysis, and Chapters 10 and 11 will help you to articulate analysis of reading. In order to use the reading effectively, you need to develop a persuasive argument (Toulmin, 1958): that is, use ideas from literature to support your thinking or argue against and answer your research questions. Effective use of reading involves making these persuasive arguments (see also Chapter 9) by using reading to support your ideas, rather than citing reading, as this shows understanding of the issues through analysis of the ideas expressed in the text rather than description; these skills are further developed in Chapters 10–13.

In Chapter 14 we focus on the different writing structures for different research meth-odologies. The different methodologies (the overarching type of research you are undertak-ing) were described earlier in this chapter. Different methodologies need to be written up in different ways. This is especially the case with action research and case study research. When deciding on your methodology, you need to consider what the research will look like in its fi nal written form and keep this in mind throughout the data collection and analysis process. This will ensure that the relevant primary data are collected and written up in a

Introduction10

form that is appropriate to the type of research. Figure 14.1 provides a basic structure of the written task. Each reader needs to provide their own structure for their written work, which best shows their understanding of both research and the subject being researched. The Study Skills in Chapter 15 are concerned with writing up a thesis, bearing in mind that it is your written thesis that is assessed and so it should show the depth and breadth of your understanding. Remember also that writing up the research takes far longer than most peo-ple envisage. Chapter 15 considers the sections and structure of your written work, some of the dilemmas you may face when writing up your research thesis and possible solutions to help you perfect your work. Within the chapter there is also a section to help you to focus on the criteria by which you will be assessed and some tasks specifi cally designed to help you refl ect on your written work. The Study Skills theme for Chapter 16 is presenting research, both orally and visually. Oral presentation of ideas and fi ndings helps to articulate under-standing and ultimately will help with written communication. Oral communication is an essential element of degree level work, and the individual who seeks out opportunities to speak out and articulate ideas is likely to enhance their personal and professional develop-ment. In this book there are plenty of opportunities for large and small group discussions in the Refl ective Tasks and Critical Discussion boxes (see below). The skill of formally pre-senting ideas orally also needs to be developed, since presentations form a part of assess-ments both in higher education and in working life as an early childhood professional. The skill of oral presentation includes the ability to speak coherently and engage with the audience, referring to notes rather than reading from them, or using notes only as a prompt. An excellent visual and oral presentation would motivate and engage the audience and have clear sense of purpose. It is easy to spend considerable time making visual presentations visually striking and even engaging, but without a clear objective a presentation will fail in its purpose.

Boxed features As well as the Study Skills boxes, there are other boxed features within the book. Each chap-ter has a number of Refl ective Tasks and some also have Critical Discussion boxes. Many of the Refl ective Tasks relate specifi cally to the Study Skills being developed in the chapter, and each has three levels. Level 1 is designed for the student or someone with little experience in either the skill being developed in the Study Skills or the subject matter of the chapter. Level 2 is designed for the working early years professional, or someone with some skill in the specifi c tool for learning being developed and/or in the subject matter of the chapter. Level 3 is designed for the lead professional, headteacher or manager, or someone who has already developed their skills and knowledge and wishes to extend them or support others in their personal and professional development and lead their setting in developments. Many chapters also have Case Studies and these are usually followed by a Refl ective Task to help make sense of the Case Study. In this way the Case Studies are not simply illustra-tive, but lead to refl ective and personal and professional development. Some chapters also have Practical Tasks, which encourage the reader to undertake some more practical physical activities related to the content of the chapter. These too are at three levels for the student, the professional and the lead professional. These are designed to support application of ideas in practice, thus supporting professional development and thinking. Each chapter

Introduction 11

is underpinned by extensive research, and specifi c current research is summarised in each chapter in Research boxes.

The decision as to which level of task to undertake is one that each individual reader must take, and the route through the book will, likewise, be individual. For example, an undergraduate student may wish to tackle the Level 1 tasks, which build on from their post-16 qualifi cations and are the sort of task undertaken on undergraduate degree programmes. However, there may be some areas of knowledge in which the reader has more expertise and so may choose to focus on Level 2 tasks, or move from Level 1 to Level 2 tasks. Some work-based undergraduate students (for example, Foundation Degree students, with exten-sive experience of working with young children) may wish to focus on Level 2 tasks, and in areas where they have especial expertise they may choose to move on to some Level 3 tasks. Lead professionals, headteachers and managers will wish to focus on Level 3 tasks, which provide ideas for extending not only their own professional development, but also that of their team/staff through in-service training sessions and staff meetings. They may also wish to incorporate some of the Level 2 tasks to support the development of professionals in their setting.

We recognise that books of this nature contain many terms and acronyms or abbrevia-tions not used in everyday life. Understanding these terms and what the acronyms stand for, as well as being able to use them, is increasingly important in professional life. The fi rst time these key terms are used in the text they are coloured blue and the reader can then turn to the Glossary (p. 559) where the term will be defi ned. There is a list of Abbreviations on p. xxi.

Theorists in practice The book begins in Chapter 1 with an overview of historical practice and provision in the early years and the work of early pioneers, theorists and reformers who have infl uenced ideas and practice. Throughout the book we continue to refl ect on these theorists, as well as introducing some new and more recent ideas. Table 1.1 identifi es the main theorists you will meet in the book. Chapter 2 identifi es the philosophical sayings of some theorists, in particular Steiner and McMillan; the latter’s ideas about the importance of diet on children’s health is picked up in Chapter 3. Maslow’s hierarchy of needs is introduced in Chapter 1 (see Figure 1.1) and is used to support arguments about emotional development in Chapter 6, about social development in Chapter 7 and in looking at families in Chapter 8. It is also used to create new arguments and models in Chapter 16 (see Figure 16.3).

In Chapter 4, the ideas of Piaget, Vygotsky and Bruner are considered and two fi gures enlarge on Piaget cognitive theories (see Figure 4.4 and Table 4.1). Piaget’s theories are fur-ther developed in relation to the following:

language development in Chapter 5;

moral development (see Table 6.5) in Chapter 6;

social development in Chapter 7;

education in Chapter 9;

early years settings in Chapter 16.

Introduction12

Vygotsky’s theories are further developed through discussion of language development in Chapters 5, 7, 9, 15 and 16. Other theorists whose ideas are recurrent themes throughout the book are:

Bowlby, whose ideas about emotional development are fully developed in Chapter 6,but also form part of discussions in Chapters 7, 8 and 15;

Bronfenbrenner, whose ecological systems theory is fully explored in Chapter 7 andthrough Figure 7.2, but is also considered in Chapters 6 and 15.

In the second edition, Chapter 4 has revisited some of the psychological research and con-cepts presented in the fi rst edition, providing a critical evaluation of them in light of more recent research fi ndings.

As well as considering the ideas and theories of Piaget and Vygotsky in Chapter 5, the part played by Skinner and Bruner in understanding language development is discussed. We also introduce the work of Noam Chomsky, who provided an alternative viewpoint in the debate on language acquisition. Chapter 6 focuses on the work of four of our theorists, Sig-mund Freud, Erik Erikson, John Bowlby and Laurence Kohlberg. Freud’s psychoanalytical theory is explored and explained through the chapter and Table 6.3, and Erikson’s psychoso-cial stages are illustrated in Table 6.4. Bowlby’s theories on attachment are developed using the ideas of Lorenz, and the new work of Mary Ainsworth and Sir Richard Bowlby (John Bowlby’s son) are discussed. The debate on moral development focuses mainly on the the-ories of Piaget and Kohlberg (see especially Table 6.6), but the part played by Bandura’s and Bronfenbrenner’s work is also explored. Both Bandura and Bronfenbrenner feature strongly in Chapter 7, together with the behaviourist theories of Skinner and Lorenz. It is in this chapter that Bronfenbrenner’s ecological systems theory is fully explained (see Figure 7.2) and links between emotional and social development are explored using the work of Bowlby. The importance of Rousseau’s work (1911) on thinking about social development is also discussed and Baumrind’s work (1971) on parenting is introduced.

Diana Baumrind’s ideas are more fully explored in the fi rst chapter of Part 3, Early child-hood (see Figure 8.2). Chapter 8 begins with a quote from Rousseau about the family being the most ancient of societies, and the recurrent ideas of Maslow and Bowlby are further discussed in this context.

Chapter 9 focuses on the work of Froebel, Bruner and Piaget, but also discusses the link between health and education using the ideas of Margaret McMillan, while Chapter 11 looks at the original focus of Montessori’s ideas in supporting children with special educa-tional needs and disabilities.

The second edition contains two new chapters: Chapter 10 on Play and Chapter 12 on Safeguarding. These have been added because of the importance now given to these two areas since the fi rst edition.

In Part 4, Practitioners in early childhood, the practical applications of ideas are consid-ered using the following examples:

High/Scope, developed from the ideas of David Weikart (see Chapters 13, 14 and 15);

Reggio Emelia, developed from the work of Loris Malaguzzi (see Chapters 14 and 15);

Montessori education (see Chapter 15);

Steiner education, developed from the philosophical work of Rudolf Steiner (seeChapter 15).

Introduction 13

Chapter 13 in the second edition acknowledges and discusses the introduction of a new professional and initial teacher training role incorporating new teacher standards for the early years (NCTL, 2013), and the creation of a new status known as the Early Years Teacher (EYT).

Chapter 14 also develops the ideas of Dewey and introduces new ideas in the form of Kolb’s experiential learning cycle (1984; see Figure 14.2), and more recent theories and debates related to refl ective practice, while Chapter 15 develops and refl ects upon the work of Bronfenbrenner, Vygotsky and Bowlby, utilising contemporary ideas and theories.

Finally, Chapter 16 refl ects upon the important contributions of Bronfenbrenner, Rous-seau, Vygotsky, Piaget and Maslow, discussing them in the context of leadership and man-agement, and introducing new ways of applying their ideas, as well as introducing the ideas of Charles Handy (1992). The second edition introduces more recent and contemporary ideas and theories about leadership and management, for example, situational leadership.

How to use the book Like any book of this nature, it is not expected that you will read it from cover to cover, but rather use sections to support particular areas of study or personal and professional devel-opment. Neither is it designed to be ‘dipped into’ to fi nd useful quotations to support your work, as this is an unscholarly approach that will not help your personal and professional development. Each chapter will stand alone, focusing on a specifi c area of Early Childhood

Methodology Research approach which aims to ‘ help us to understand. In the broadest possible terms, not the products of scientifi c enquiry but the process itself ’.

Methods ‘The range of approaches used in educational research to gather data, which are to be used as a basis for inference and interpretation, for explanation and prediction.’

Research questions Issues which ‘might be feasibly and fairly answered’ through research.

Reliability ‘Consistency and replicability over time, over instruments and over groups of respondents.’

Analysis Technique for understanding issues or factors by breaking them up into their constituent parts and refl ecting upon them.

Validity ‘The honesty, depth, richness and scope of the data achieved, the participants approached, the extent of triangulation and the disinterestedness or objectivity of the researcher.’

Figure 0.3 Key concepts in educational research answers (Defi nitions taken from Cohen et al ., 2000: 44, 45, 74, 105, 117)

Introduction14

Studies, and should be read and reread; the relevant Refl ective and Practical Tasks should be undertaken to support deep understanding. The Study Skills follow a sequence and these may be looked at in order or when the particular skill is being developed by the reader.

We hope that you will enjoy the book and fi nd it useful in your personal and profes-sional development.

References and further reading Ainsworth, M., Blehar, M., Waters, E. and Wall, S. (1978) Patterns of Attachment . Hillsdale,

NJ: Erlbaum Bandura, A. (1977) Social Learning Theory . Englewood Cliffs, NJ: Prentice-Hall Baumrind, D. (1971) ‘Current Patterns of Parental Authority’, Developmental Psychology ,

Monograph 4.1, Part 2 Bowlby, J. (1958) ‘The Nature of a Child’s Tie to His Mother’, International Journal of Psycho-

analysis, 39: 350–73 Bowlby, J. (1969) Attachment and Loss . New York: Basic Books Bowlby, R. (2006) The Need for Secondary Attachment Figures in Childcare . Available from

www.telegraph.co.uk/opinion/main.jhtml?xml=/opinion/2006/10/21/nosplit/dt2101.xml#head5Childcare problems

Bronfenbrenner, U. (1995) The Bioecological Model From a Life Course Perspective: Refl ec-tions of a participant observer, in Moen, P., Elder Jnr, G.H. and Lüscher, K. (eds) Examin-ing Lives in Context . Washington, DC: American Psychological Association, pp. 599–618

Bruner, J. (1983) Child’s Talk: Learning to Use Language . New York: Norton Chomsky, N. (1972) Language and Mind . New York: Harcourt Brace Jovanovich Cohen, L., Manion, L. and Morrison, K. (2000) Research Methods in Education , 5th edn.

London: Routledge Falmer CWDC (2007a) ‘About CWDC: What We Do’. www.cwdcouncil.org.uk/aboutcwdc/

whatwedo.htm CWDC (2007b) Prospectus: Early Years Professional Status . Leeds: CWDC Davenport, G.C. (1994) An Introduction to Child Development . London: Collins Dewey, J. (1897) ‘My Pedagogic Creed’, The School Journal , LIV, 3: 77–80. Also available in

the Informal Education Archives, www.infed.org/archives/e-texts/e-dew-pc.htm Dewey, J. (1933) How We Think . Boston: D.C. Heath DfES (2003) Every Child Matters . London: DfES Erikson, E.H. (1950) Childhood and Society . New York: Norton Freud, S. (1923) The Ego and the Id . London: Hogarth Gardner, H. (2007a) ‘Multiple Intelligences: Past, Present, Future’, Proceedings of CONASTA

56 and ICASE 2007 World Conference on Science and Technology Education. Sustainable, Responsible, Global . Perth: Science Teachers’ Association of Western Australia, www.worldste2007.asn.au

Gardner, H. (2007b) Five Minds for the Future . Boston: Harvard Business School Press Handy, C. (1992) The Gods of Management . London: Penguin Johnston, J. (2005) ‘Research Phases’, Newsletter of the Leicester Doctor of Education , 13 Kolb, A. (1984) Experiential Learning: Experience as the Source of Learning and Development .

Englewood Cliffs, NJ: Prentice-Hall

http://www.telegraph.co.uk/opinion/main.jhtml?xml=/opinion/2006/10/21/nosplit/dt2101.xml#head5Childcare

http://www.telegraph.co.uk/opinion/main.jhtml?xml=/opinion/2006/10/21/nosplit/dt2101.xml#head5Childcare

http://www.cwdcouncil.org.uk/aboutcwdc/whatwedo.htm

http://www.cwdcouncil.org.uk/aboutcwdc/whatwedo.htm

http://www.infed.org/archives/e-texts/e-dew-pc.htm

http://www.worldste2007.asn.au

http://www.worldste2007.asn.au

Introduction 15

Maslow, A.H. (1968) Towards a Psychology of Being . New York: Van Nostrand National College for Teaching & Leadership (NCTL) (2013) Teachers’ Standards (Early Years)

London: Department for Education [online] HYPERLINK “https://protect-us.mimecast.com/s/OhyDCv2YjAf772OL2IWW0rl?domain=gov.uk” https://www.gov.uk/government/publications/early-years-teachers-standards (Accessed 16 January, 2018)

Piaget, J. (1929) The Child’s Conception of the World . New York: Harcourt Piaget, J. (1950) The Psychology of Intelligence . London: Routledge & Kegan Paul Piaget, J. (1959) The Language and Thought of the Child . London: Routledge & Kegan Paul Rinaldi, C. (2006) In Dialogue with Reggio Emilia . London: Routledge Rousseau, J.J. (1911) Emile . London: J.M. Dent Steiner, R. (1996) The Education of the Child and Early Lectures on Education . New York:

Anthroposophic Press Toulmin, S. (1958) The Uses of Argument . Cambridge: Cambridge University Press Vygotsky, L. (1962) Thought and Language . Cambridge, MA: MIT Press Vygotsky, L. and Cole, M. (eds) (1978) Mind in Society: The Development of Higher Psycholog-

ical Processes . Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press

www.https://protect-us.mimecast.com/s/OhyDCv2YjAf772OL2IWW0rl?domain=gov.uk

www.https://protect-us.mimecast.com/s/OhyDCv2YjAf772OL2IWW0rl?domain=gov.uk

www.https://www.gov.uk/government/publications/early-years-teachers-standards

www.https://www.gov.uk/government/publications/early-years-teachers-standards

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