FUSARIUM WILT IN ‘CAVENDISH’ BANANA CAUSED BY FOC TR4:

A THREAT TO PHILIPPINE BANANA INDUSTRY

CECIRLY G. PUIG Graduate Student, University of the Philippines Los Baños, Los Baños, Laguna;

A term paper as requirement of the course PPTH 141 – Plant Disease Epidemiology.

ABSTRACT

Fusarium wilt is responsible for severe losses of ‘Cavendish’

banana in Davao region’s banana industry. The disease is also a global

threat to all banana growing areas around the world. With its continued

destruction, it resulted to more than 5,000 hectares abandoned in Davao del

Norte and ComVal alone. The causal organism Fusarium oxysporum f. sp.

cubense Tropical Race 4 (Foc TR4) affects not only the export ‘Cavendish’

banana but all banana cultivars growing in the region. Despite many

disease management strategies, control of Fusarium wilt in the region

remains unsuccessful just like the experience of other Asian countries,

Australia, South and Central America and Africa. Future research,

therefore, requires a highly disciplined effort whereby the current status of

the disease should be thoroughly analyzed and plant resistance responses

and pathogen virulence factors systematically investigated. An integrated

disease management program, built on enhanced plant resistance and

health, pathogen containment and improved field management strategies

should be advocated.

INTRODUCTION

The History and Global Distribution of the Disease

Diseases are a major constraint to banana production worldwide. A great number

of diseases affect banana (Jones, 2000), with one of the most important of these diseases

being Fusarium wilt of banana.

The first record of Fusarium wilt was in Australia in 1874 (Bancroft, 1876) and

the disease has since been found in all banana-growing regions of the world, except for

some of the countries bordering the Mediterranean Sea. Fusarium wilt has had a

particularly destructive history in the evolution of international banana trade. In the

period 1890-1960, some 40,000 hectares of the susceptible banana cultivar Gros Michel

(grown for export) were destroyed or abandoned in Central and South America and the

Caribbean because of race 1of Foc. In terms of crop destruction, Fusarium wilt then

ranked alongside the foremost devastating plant diseases such as wheat rust and potato

blight (Carefoot and Sprott, 1969). Export industries were forced to replace the

susceptible Gros Michel variety with Cavendish cultivars, which continue to show

resistance to race 1 of Foc in these areas (Stover, 1990).

Cavendish cultivars remain the banana varieties of international trade. However,

these cultivars are not resistant to all strains of Foc. The ‘subtropical race 4’ strain of Foc

causes losses of Cavendish cultivars in the subtropical regions of the Canary Islands,

South Africa, Australia and Taiwan (Stover, 1990). More importantly, in the tropical

commercial and subsistence production regions of the Philippines, Indonesia, Taiwan,

Malaysia, and in the southern provinces of China, a new strain of Foc designated ‘tropical

race 4’ has caused widespread devastation (INIBAP, 2006). Alarmingly, the disease is

continuing to spread in these areas. Several incursions of this pathogen have also been

recorded in Australia (Northern Territory); however these outbreaks have all been

contained and have not reached the commercial growing regions situated on the east-

coast of the country (Walduck, 2002).

Tropical race 4 of Foc affects banana cultivars that comprise 80% of the world’s

banana production, including the important Cavendish and plantain subgroups (Ploetz,

2005). The tropical race 4 strain of Foc could cause significant damage to the major

world export production areas if introduced into Ecuador, Central America and

Colombia, which are based on Cavendish cultivars. As it stands, the tropical race 4 strain

poses a very real threat to the multi-billion dollar global banana trade, and the food

security of millions of subsistence farmers (Ploetz, 2005). Furthermore, the Cavendish

variety may risk the very same fate as Gros Michel, the cultivar it replaced nearly 50

years ago because of its susceptibility to race 1 of Foc.

Foc Recent Threat to Philippine Banana

Philippine Banana particularly the Cavendish type has gained popularity

worldwide making the country as the 3rd largest producer and exporter (in terms of

volume) in the world in 2012. Almost 50% of the total banana production is contributed

by Cavendish. It has been reported that Cavendish succumbed to Foc TR4 which has

already been reported in other Asian countries. Here the most affected are the

independent growers (IG) since the multinationals can contain the disease. Now that IG

are the ones affected, the fast spread of the disease also scares the multinationals hence

everyone would like to put their efforts to address the disease. Region XI which grows

almost 60% of the total Cavendish started to be alarmed (Generalao, 2013).

Fusarium wilt, a soil-borne fungal disease in banana has been considered a threat

in the region, with Foc TR4 considered as the most devastating. It has already been

reported in China, Indonesia, Malaysia, and Taiwan. Recently, it was reported that more

than 5,000 ha Cavendish farms in Davao region has been infected with Fusarium wilt.

REVIEW OF LITERATURE

Disease Symptoms

Fusarium wilt of banana can be described as a “classic” vascular wilt disease

causing disruption of water translocation, systemic foliar symptoms and plant collapse

(Jeger et al., 1995). It invades the vascular tissue (xylem) through the roots causing

discoloration and wilting. Externally, the first obvious signs of disease in most varieties

are wilting and a light yellow coloring of the lower older leaves, most prominent around

the margins. They eventually turn a bright yellow color with dead leaf margins (Fig. 1).

As the disease advances, more of the leaves become yellow and die. A “skirt” of dead

leaves often surrounds the pseudo-stem. In the advanced stages of disease, affected plants

may have a spiky appearance due to prominent upright apical leaves in contrast to the

skirt of dead lower leaves (Fig. 2).

Internally, symptoms first become obvious in the xylem (water conducting)

vessels of the roots and the rhizome. These turn a reddish-brown to maroon colour as the

fungus grows through the tissues (Fig

yellow in plants showing early stages of infection

discoloration appears in a circular pattern around the centre of the rhizome

infection concentrates due to the arrangement of the vessels (Fig

progress into the pseudo

plant is cut longitudinally

pseudo-stem. In severe cases it may even

stalk) of bunched plants. However, infection has not been

(Stover, 1962a).

Banana suckers that are less than about four months old do not develop visible

symptoms of Fusarium wilt. The lack of visible symptoms on suckers has assisted in the

movement of the pathogen to new regions

suckers to new areas as planting material. The fruit of the banana plant does not show any

specific disease symptoms.

Fig. 1. Plant showing early symptoms of

Fusarium wilt

fungus grows through the tissues (Fig. 3). Occasionally, the discoloration first appears

yellow in plants showing early stages of infection. When a cross-section is c

ration appears in a circular pattern around the centre of the rhizome

infection concentrates due to the arrangement of the vessels (Fig. 4

into the pseudo-stem, continuous lines of discoloration are eviden

plant is cut longitudinally. The infection may travel all the way up to the top of the

stem. In severe cases it may even enter the leaf petioles and the peduncle (bunch

stalk) of bunched plants. However, infection has not been shown to progress into the fruit

Banana suckers that are less than about four months old do not develop visible

Fusarium wilt. The lack of visible symptoms on suckers has assisted in the

pathogen to new regions through the movement of these asymptomatic

as planting material. The fruit of the banana plant does not show any

symptoms.

Fig. 1. Plant showing early symptoms of

Fusarium wilt.

Fig. 2. Plant showing advanced

of Fusarium wilt

ration first appears

section is cut, the

ration appears in a circular pattern around the centre of the rhizome where the

4). As symptoms

ration are evident when the

. The infection may travel all the way up to the top of the

enter the leaf petioles and the peduncle (bunch

shown to progress into the fruit

Banana suckers that are less than about four months old do not develop visible

Fusarium wilt. The lack of visible symptoms on suckers has assisted in the

through the movement of these asymptomatic

as planting material. The fruit of the banana plant does not show any

advanced symptoms

of Fusarium wilt.

Disease Development and Epidemiology

The disease cycle

Spores of Foc in the soil germinate and grow towards the nearby roots of banana

plants in response to chemical compounds exuded from the roots (Fig. 5). Infection takes

place on the secondary and finer roots and proceeds into the larger, primary roots through

the xylem vessels before entering the rhizome. The primary roots and the rhizome do not

appear to be infected directly by the pathogen. The xylem network consists of a series of

Fig. 3. Reddish-brown to maroon discoloration of vessels in the pseudo-stem.

Fig. 4. Reddish-brown to maroon discoloration of vessels in rhizome.

individual vessels with perforated end walls through which the sap flows. Movement

the spores with the sap flow is blocked temporarily when they become lodged at the end

walls. The spores then

adjoining vessels where further spores are

infection from successfully travelling to and entering the rhizome

gels and tyloses (a resistance mechanism) to seal off the infection. However, multiple

infections occur during the life of a plant and invariably one or more lead to

invasion. The virulence of ‘tropical’ race 4 on ‘Cavendish’ bananas suggests that the

resistance mechanisms employed by

‘sub-tropical’ race 4. This strain generally only causes

where the plants are under stress.

Fig. 5. Disease initiation and life cycle of Foc in a banana plant.

individual vessels with perforated end walls through which the sap flows. Movement

with the sap flow is blocked temporarily when they become lodged at the end

germinate and hyphae grow through the perforations into

adjoining vessels where further spores are produced. The plant is often able to preven

infection from successfully travelling to and entering the rhizome by the production of

gels and tyloses (a resistance mechanism) to seal off the infection. However, multiple

infections occur during the life of a plant and invariably one or more lead to

virulence of ‘tropical’ race 4 on ‘Cavendish’ bananas suggests that the

resistance mechanisms employed by the plant against this strain are not as effective as for

tropical’ race 4. This strain generally only causes serious losses in a plantation

where the plants are under stress.

. Disease initiation and life cycle of Foc in a banana plant.

individual vessels with perforated end walls through which the sap flows. Movement of

with the sap flow is blocked temporarily when they become lodged at the end

germinate and hyphae grow through the perforations into

produced. The plant is often able to prevent

by the production of

gels and tyloses (a resistance mechanism) to seal off the infection. However, multiple

infections occur during the life of a plant and invariably one or more lead to its complete

virulence of ‘tropical’ race 4 on ‘Cavendish’ bananas suggests that the

the plant against this strain are not as effective as for

losses in a plantation

Spread of the pathogen

Foc is most commonly spread by the movement of infected planting material,

rhizomes and suckers (and the attached soil), to new uninfected areas. This infected

planting material often does not exhibit symptoms of Fusarium wilt (is asymptomatic).

The pathogen can also be effectively spread by the movement of soil, running water, and

farm machinery and implements. Once a site is infected, the pathogen can persist in the

soil as chlamydospores for more than 30 years (Stover 1962a; Waite and Dunlap 1953).

Also, it is likely that Foc can survive non-pathogenically on alternative hosts, such as

weed species (Hennessey et al.2005).

The life cycle of Foc

The life cycle of Foc begins with the entry of the pathogen into the potential host

via the root tip. Substances produced by the host, in the region behind the zone of

elongation of the root meristem elicit a pathogen response which results in the

germination of chlamydospores. The germinated hyphae then infect the lateral roots and

progress to invade the xylem vessels. Further spread of most initial infections is usually

stopped in the xylem by the vascular occluding responses of the host, which include the

formation of gels, tyloses and the collapse of vessels. In susceptible cultivars, some of

these infections become established in the xylem and advance ahead of these defense

mechanisms. Microconidia are formed in the xylem vessels and are spread through the

vascular system of the plant, streaming to new sites where they germinate. Hyphae are

then produced, and this begins the invasion at this new site, thus repeating the cycle. In

resistant varieties, the initial pathogen-induced occlusion reaction is further enhanced by

the production of phenolic compounds, which lignifies these obstructions and limits the

pathogen to the infected vessels; no further colonization of the xylem vessels occurs

(Beckman 1969; Beckman 1987; Beckman 1990; Beckman and Keller 1977; Beckman

and Talboys 1981; VanderMolen et al. 1977).

Disease Control

Initially, control of Fusarium wilt

in infested fields. However, fungicides, fumigants, flood fallowing, crop rotation

corn) and organic amendments have rarely provided long

area.

Quarantine and exclusion procedures are effective in controlling the spread of the

disease by restricting the movement of corms, suckers and soil that could carry

infested to non-infested areas. In

President Decree of 1978

and the Bureau of Plant Industry

localities where the disease i

of planting material. Planting material is only approved if the source plantation has no

previous record of the occurrence of the disease, and is apparently free from Fusarium

wilt when subjected to row

Fig. 6. The life cycle of Foc in the soil and in its host.

Initially, control of Fusarium wilt was aimed at reducing the pathogen

in infested fields. However, fungicides, fumigants, flood fallowing, crop rotation

organic amendments have rarely provided long-term control in any pro

ine and exclusion procedures are effective in controlling the spread of the

restricting the movement of corms, suckers and soil that could carry

areas. In the whole of Davao region, legislation provi

President Decree of 1978, which operates through the DA-RFU XI Quarantine Service

d the Bureau of Plant Industry, prohibits the transfer of planting material from certain

localities where the disease is prevalent or from any plantation not approved as a source

planting material. Planting material is only approved if the source plantation has no

record of the occurrence of the disease, and is apparently free from Fusarium

to row-by-row inspection by trained personnel

educing the pathogen population

in infested fields. However, fungicides, fumigants, flood fallowing, crop rotation (with

term control in any production

ine and exclusion procedures are effective in controlling the spread of the

restricting the movement of corms, suckers and soil that could carry Foc from

, legislation provided by the

I Quarantine Service

, prohibits the transfer of planting material from certain

s prevalent or from any plantation not approved as a source

planting material. Planting material is only approved if the source plantation has no

record of the occurrence of the disease, and is apparently free from Fusarium

row inspection by trained personnel preceding the

removal of the material. However, due to the presence of suppressive soils in which

microbial populations suppress the pathogen population, and since infected rhizomes or

suckers may not exhibit external symptoms, the pathogen may still be moved in approved

planting material. In recent years, the use of certified disease-free tissue-cultured

plantlets, from an approved Quality Banana Approved Nursery facility, has become a

cost effective way of maintaining disease-free production. Tissue-culture plants also have

the added benefits of providing uniform growth and harvest times.

It is now generally accepted that the most effective means of controlling Fusarium

wilt is by host resistance. Since banana is a clonally propagated, perennial crop,

resistance must be enduring. Natural sources of resistance exist in wild species and

cultivars of banana, and also in synthetic diploids developed by breeding programs.

Biotechnology, mutation breeding and somaclonal variations are also being used to

produce resistant genotypes. These programs are likely to provide replacement clones in

the future. Since the Philippines does not have a banana breeding program, close

collaboration with international breeding and plant improvement programs is essential for

obtaining replacement clones in the future.

Disease management

Management of this disease in Davao region is based around three key strategies:

the early detection and containment of outbreaks of Fusarium wilt and application of

protocols to prevent introduction of Foc into disease-free production districts; (2)

adoption of disease management strategies to enable farms with Fusarium wilt to

maintain production, and (3) research to evaluate and develop long-term disease

management strategies for the Mindanao banana industry.

Local quarantine measures are in place in banana production areas to restrict the

movement of banana planting material (particularly suckers and rhizome pieces). Other

banana growers require permits to move planting material to initiate new plantations and,

if vegetative material is used (e.g. suckers or rhizome pieces) this must be from a

certified source of “clean” planting material.

Result of the survey conducted by the PCAARRD’s Socio-Economics Research

Division (SERD) for the project titled “An Assessment of the Socio-economic Impact of

Fusarium Wilt Disease of ‘Cavendish’ Banana (Aquino, 2013) at the farm level have

enumerated different methods used by small scale farmers to destroy Fusarium infected

plants. These are:

Single Method

� Burning with rice hulls

� Injecting chemicals into the pseudostem

� Injecting biocontrol agents into the pseudostem

� Putting chemical-impregnated sticks into the corm

� Pouring chemicals on the candle/cigar leaf

� Spraying chemicals on the whole plant

� Removing leaves and chopping the plant

Combination of Methods � Burning with rice hulls

� and injecting chemicals into the pseudostem

� and putting chemical-impregnated sticks into the corm

� and injecting chemicals into the pseudostem and putting chemical-

impregnated sticks into the corm

� Injecting chemicals into the pseudostem and pouring chemicals on the

candle/cigar leaf

� Putting chemical-impregnated sticks into the corm or putting pure salt into the

pseudostem

CRITICAL REVIEW

The following are the summarized methods and strategies of control that

individual growers, plantation groups, joint effects of government/private/non-

governmental institutions employed or are currently employing against Fusarium wilt

disease in their banana plantation and their corresponding epidemiologic effects (Table

1):

Table 1. Methods/strategies of disease control in Fusarium wilt of banana and their

epidemiological effects

METHODS/STRATEGIES OF CONTROL MAJOR EFFECT ON

A. Avoidance of the Pathogen

1. Use of disease-free tissue cultured planting materials

2. Modification of cultural practices

Xo

r

B. Exclusion of the Pathogen

1. Treatment of planting materials

2. Inspection and certification

3. Exclusion or restriction by plant quarantine

Xo

Xo

Xo

r

C. Eradication of the Pathogen

1. Biological control of plant pathogens

2. Crop rotation

3. Removal or destruction of diseased plants

4. Dipping to fungicide of the planting stocks

5. Drenching with fungicide on the planting holes as basal

treatment

Xo

Xo

Xo

Xo

Xo

r

r

D. Protection of the Plant

1. Modification of the environment

2. Modification of nutrition (fertilization)

r

r

E. Development of Resistant Host

1. Selection and breeding for resistance

a. Vertical resistance

b. Horizontal resistance

2. Somaclonal variation (multilines)

3. Resistance through nutrition

Xo

r

r

r

Critical Analysis in Relation to Epidemiology

The problem is far from over!

The appearance of a virulent strain of Foc in Davao region’s ‘Cavendish’ banana

and in other Asian countries renewed the nightmare brought about by the Panama

Disease epidemic during the Gros Michel era. Foc TR4 infects not only ‘Cavendish’ type

but other cultivars including the local variety ‘Lakatan’ which is even more susceptible

than ‘Cavendish’. The disease is really a threat to our export banana and a threat to the

small-growers in their livelihood and food.

Although Fusarium wilt and its diversed pathogen forms have been in this region

before the 90’s, the disease destructive potential was not realized until the demise of a lot

of commercial ‘Cavendish’ plantations.

Why is it so dreadful? It is because the pathogen kills the plant completely! It can

survive and remains infective for decades. Until now, there was no effective fungicide to

eradicate the pathogen. It affects many important cultivars and potentially cause severe

epidemics especially the perennial mono-cropping system employed in banana

plantations in the region.

Why the fast spread of the disease? The following are identified factors in the

spread of the disease: infected rhizome/suckers, infected sheaths used to cushion fruit

crates, infested soil, contaminated irrigation or running water and infested farm

implements or machinery.

There are still banana growers that are traditionally using rhizome (bull heads)

and suckers as planting materials for banana. As previously discussed, young suckers

though infected or coming from an infected mother would show asymptomatic

expression of the disease. The farmer might have chosen an infected one and successfully

planted and distributed Fusarium in his farm. This is the same scenario with the use of

infected rhizome as planting stocks.

Local variety ‘Lakatan’ is marketed from Mindanao to Visayas and to Luzon local

markets. The process of packing banana for transport might have contributed to the long

spread of the disease. Bananas are put in wooden crates but cushioned with banana bract

sheaths. The problem arises when they accidentally used infected sheaths to cushion the

fruit crates. Anywhere in the destination of the product, they will threw away the

infected sheaths and there goes the pathogen propagule will be able to land in a new area

and would just wait for the right time (host, environment) to cause new destruction.

There are a lot of workers in a banana plantation and even visitors. There in and

out of the area will contribute to the pathogen’s spread. If they will be able to step in a

Foc-infested soil then they are carrying with them the pathogen’s propagule. As to where

they are tracking in the area, there they already have sown the pathogen. This is really

very critical in the workers in the farm. I suggest there should only be one entry and exit

point. They should step (by wearing rubber boots) in a disinfectant before entering the

banana area and whenever they go out, step again to a disinfectant before going to

another parcel of the banana plantation. Big plantations are doing this. But independent

banana growers are mostly not.

During drought season or when there is scarcity of water that runs through the

drip irrigations in the plantation floors, there is an augmentation of boom sprayed

irrigation. The fear of this is that when the source of water is coming from a nearby

plantation river which in some way have catched some propagules of the pathogen.

There will be massive distribution of the propagules then when sprayed in the area.

The use of farm implements/machinery should be taken with utmost care because

they might have carried with them pathogen propagules and brought to the non-infested

area or vice-versa. So, before using in the new area, tires and its parts should be properly

cleaned and disinfested. That is IN and OUT protocol.

Well, the unavoidable spread of the disease was during the great flood of the area

mostly in ComVal province after the hit of typhoon Pablo. The previously non-infested

area the plants became infected after recovery of the typhoon and later on abandoned

because of the total damage brought by Fusarium wilt. Meaning, water is a successful

mean of disease spread.

The pathogen forms chlamydospores as a mean of survival. This activates with

the presence of the hosts’ exudates or from any alternate hosts. Therefore, alternate hosts

should be removed as they can serve as reservoir of inoculums.

Though banana growers and experts/scientists have not yet perfected the weapons

for this dreadful disease, proper identification (diagnosis) is essential for everyone

concerned in the banana industry and be reported at once for any sightings or early

detection to right personnel. Alternative procedure for eradication should be strictly

implemented and followed at once. Inoculum source and dead infected mats should be

totally removed in the area through proper burning. And lastly, area isolation and use of

disinfectant and strong quarantine implementation should never be handled as a joke.

The efforts of the Department of Agriculture and the Department of Science and

Technology as to mapping the disease spread are very relevant this time. We mostly

knew that the disease all started in Davao region and even identified through PCR the

identity that it was the dreadful TR4. The survey and mapping did not only looked into

‘Cavendish’ but including our ‘Lakatan’, ‘Latundan’ and ‘Cardaba’. There are still areas

where there are no sightings yet of the disease, this is where our quarantine protocols be

strictly imposed and provincial legislations be made.

On-farm disease management: A critical review

Provided the strain of Foc involved in an outbreak of Fusarium wilt does not pose

a quarantine risk, or the property concerned is not beyond a defined local quarantine

zone, banana production is allowed to continue. Banana growers are advised to follow

simple yet practical measures to minimize the spread of the disease and to extend the

productive life of the plantation.

It is essential to prevent the spread of the pathogen to other farms (e.g. no

movement of planting material or infested soil and, if possible, containing or diverting

associated drainage water), and to minimize the spread of Foc within the affected farm.

The common procedure in by farmers and growers for isolated cases of Fusarium wilt in

an otherwise healthy block is to immediately inject the affected plants with herbicide

(e.g. Roundup®/glyphosate), and let them die in situ without further disturbance of the

plants. Often a single or double ring of healthy plants around the affected ones may also

be injected or otherwise treated with herbicide and allowed to die in place. This has the

two-fold effect of preventing mat-to-mat spread of the pathogen through living banana

roots, and also reducing the population of the fungus at that site by killing its preferred

host plant. It is important that the affected plants and the soil around them be disturbed as

little as possible in this process as any disturbance and movement of soil will increase the

chances of moving the pathogen. Fencing-off the area also signals to workers or visitors

to keep out, reducing the risk of movement of contaminated soil on boots, machinery or

in suckers.

Banana growers must not be tempted to use planting material from known

infected plantations, even if some rhizomes appear “clean”. If Foc has been identified at a

plantation, any movement of soil or plants from the affected block must be considered as

an unacceptable risk.

If disease-free areas are available for banana production it is vitally important not

to contaminate them through the lack of basic farm hygiene. The key to keeping disease-

free areas free from Foc is to minimize, if not remove, all opportunities for infested soil,

plant material or irrigation water (that may be carrying spores of the fungus attached to

soil particles) from entering the area. Risk minimization can be achieved in several ways:

• Using only certified disease-free vegetative planting material or tissue-cultured

plants to initiate new plantations;

• Cleaning equipment, footwear and vehicles to avoid moving infested soil or plant

matter from an affected block to disease-free blocks;

• Where practicable, isolating irrigation water that drains from diseased parts of a

plantation. Such drainage water may be carrying spores of Foc and should not be

used to irrigate new or disease free areas if possible. At this time no commercial

treatments are known for controlling Foc in irrigation water or water storages.

• Educating farm workers about how the fungus is spread and providing posters or

other visual material to enable symptoms of Fusarium wilt to be recognized to aid

in early detection of new outbreaks.

• Use of disinfectant applied to vehicles (particularly tyres and inside wheel arches)

as a foaming spray, which is then left for about 10 minutes to allow it to soak into

any soil that may still be attached before being rinsed off. It is also used in

footbaths for cleaning boots when moving between infected and disease-free areas

within and between properties.

Recommendations for Management and Future Research

The following are my recommendations for continued searched for best options

against Foc TR4 in our banana plantations:

• Updated mapping on the distribution of Foc TR4 and distribution of results to

concerned agencies and discussing its relevance;

• Continued developing/validating disease management measure: varietal resistance

trial, IPM approaches, biological control, annual cropping, soil health

management, eradication, fungicide treatment, and quarantine

• Understanding mechanisms of soil suppression studies

• Microbial population interaction studies and development and identification of

indicators

• Reproduction of diagnostic tools

• Establishing collaborative studies

• Remote sensing and image analysis

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WALDUCK, G. (2002). New varieties and quarantine help solve Panama riddle.

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