Gamal Abdel NasserThe inventor of Panarabism?

Egypt before 1952

Before the British occupation, Egypt was a province of the Ottoman Empire. British interests in the region were motivated by a securing of the trade routes to India, as well as competition with other European imperial powers.

Egypt occupied in 1883 in order to safeguard the Suez Canal, but Britain´s relationship with Egypt wasn´t defined, Egypt wasn´t declared a colony or a protectorate.

Under the administrator Lord Cromer, Britain undertook a modernization of the country, both in the financial sector and in the agricultural sector. The aim was to increase agricultural production, to avoid competition with the British textile industry. The Nile irrigation system was improved and the Aswan Dam constructed (1902).

The British control generated an increase in living standard on the countryside, taxes were reduced and forced labor and abolished. Those who benefited most were however the large landowners and not the fellahin.

A group of intellectual Egyptians gradually emerged, who expressed their criticism in newspapers like al-Liwa.

International recession in 1907 drove cotton prices down, which initiated a spark to a revolution after unrest in the Nile delta. Britain managed to restore order and reforms were noticed, especially the foundation of political parties in 1907 – 14.

WWI abruptly ended the reforms, as Britain declared Egypt a protectorate and imposed martial law.

After WWI Egypt became a British mandate and the ambition seem to have been to delay independence, keeping control over the Suez Canal was still the major British aim. A group of prominent Egyptians had in 1918 formed a delegation, wafd, with a request to be represented at the Paris Peace Conference. The Wafd Party was led by Sa´d Zaghul, a skilled orator who aroused popular discontent with the British and because of that was exciled to Malta in early 1919.

The Egyptians revolted as response in a revolution and Britain finally declared the independence of the country in 1922. Egypt was now a kingdom, but adopted a parliamentary system, Zaghul and his Wafd Party won a landslide victory.

Egyptian independence was however limited, Britain remained in control of the Canal Zone, and was the “protector” of foreign interests in the country.

Egypt in WWII and after Egyptian politics came to be dominated by power struggles between king

Fuad, the Wafd government and British interests. In 1936 Britain, alarmed by Italian moves in the area (Abyssinia) was

prepared to sign a new agreement with the Wafd government in 1936. The concrete outcome was the Anglo-Egyptian treaty of alliance, which

reaffirmed Britain´s military presence in the Canal zone. In WWII Egypt was soon dragged into the war because of the importance of

the Suez Canal and Italian campaigns in Libya, as well as Rommel´s invasion from the West.

After WWII tension between Britain and Egypt increased again, the British were not prepared to leave the Suez Canal.

The corrupt king Faruq symbolized repression and British control to many Egyptians. The failure in the 1948 Arab-Israeli war further weakened the king´s authority.

A main concern for the masses was the enormous gap between rich and poor. The class divisions gave space to popular, but repressed movements like the Muslim Brotherhood, the major oppositional force counting over 500 0000 members by the late 1940s. More extremist members of the brotherhood attacked foreigners and polititians.

Nasser; Where did he come from? Born in a poor family 1918 in Beni Mur, a village close to

Alexandria. The father was a postmaster, Gamal was the first child of the family.

At the age of six the family settled in a desert village, closer to Cairo.

As he was eight his parents sent him to an uncle in Cairo, where Gamal went to school.

A year later his mother died, Gamal then moved to Alexandria to live with his grandparents. Two years later he was moved to Cairo again, but regularly visited Alexandria. Here he came to witness protests against the British.

As Nasser was sixteen he joined Misr al Fatat, the Young Egypt Party. He soon began to organize protests, but left Misr al Fata after a short time.

After graduating, Nasser began the study of law, but since job opportunities seemed bad,he quit after a couple of months.

Military academy and the Free Officers In March 1937 Nasser was admitted to the Egyptian Military Academy. His political activities were temporarily ended as he seemed to focus on

the military career. At the Academy he met several of his later aides, among them Anwar

Sadat. Content about the situation in the country grew in the army, the

Second World War didn´t make it better. Nasser served in Sudan, but Nasser and Sadat established contacts wit

the Axis to get support for a planned coup, it was however never carried out.

The formation of a group of young nationalist officers began, later the name Free Officers was adopted.

In the Arab-Israeli war 1948 Nasser got real military experience. Nasser saw defeat in the war as a result of the corrupt Egyptian system, which convinced him about that a fundamental change was necessary.

The Revolution

January 1952 marked the end of the old regime, starting with the Black Saturday on which the masses of Cairo exploded in demonstrations and riots. A number of fires were set and Cairo´s central business district was destroyed. Everything connected to symbols of corruption and foreign interests was a target.

In July 1952 the Free Officers staged their coup to take power. The group was led by an inner committee of nine, headed by Nasser.

Government buildings, police stations, radio stations and army headquarter were quickly occupied.

King Farouk was forced to abdicate in favor of his son and one year later the republic was proclaimed.

Muhammad Naguib was declared new prime minister. A power struggle among Naguib and Nasser soon erupted, Nasser

was initially forced on the defensive, but in 1954 managed to force Naguib from power. Naguib remained in house arrest until his death in 1984.

Consolidation of power and reforms After the coup the Free Officers renamed them The Egyptian

Revolutionary Command Council (RCC). Naguib was chairman, Nasser vice chairman. Similarly a former minister was appointed prime minister.

Nasser quickly pushed through three reforms: the Agrarian Reform Law; the Abolition of the Monarchy and the Reorganization of political parties.

In order to split the opposition, two members of the Brotherhood were given minor posts in the government. Communists tried to organize strikes, but without significant success.

In January 1953 the Liberation Party was created as a movement that should replace all other parties.

A number of nationalizations were carried out, from 1955 all foreign owned banks were nationalized.

In October 1954 Nasser escaped an attempt to assassinate him in Alexandria. He used this to remove his most feared rival, Naguib, who was accused of cooperating with the Muslim Brotherhood (the organization was accused of the assassitation attempt).

Naguib was put in house arrest and the Muslim Brotherhood was banned and thousands of its members put in prisons.

The new constitution The power of the president was strengthened. President should be elected for a period of six years and

could be re-elected. He should be nominated by the National Assembly and elected by plebiscite.

The president got the right to dissolve the Assembly and to propose, approve and veto new laws.

Two thirds of the Assembly could override his veto. Candidates for the first five years of the constitution were

chosen only from the list of the Liberation Party (National Union), but the constitution stated free elections.

The constitution was ratified though a plebiscite, which became a landslide victory for Nasser.

The Agrarian Reform Law Before the landreform less than 6% owned 65% of the land.

Peasants rented land at high prices and were often forced in debt. Peasants working as laborers at big farms were payed very low wages.

The reform meant: Land owners were prohibited to possess more than 200

feddans of land. However, fathers with more than 2 children were allowed to own 300 feddans.

A limit on the rental rate for land was set at seven times the land tax value of the plot of land.

All land leases were given a minimum duration of three years. The government established cooperatives for farmers holding

less than five feddans. The members of these cooperatives worked together to obtain supplies such as fertilizers, pesticides, and seeds as well as cooperating to transport their products to market.

A minimum wage for agricultural workers was set

Foreign policy - aims Take control over the Suez Canal, remove foreign

influence (overlaps with domestic issues). Unite the Arab countries Destroy the state of Israel.

Nasser has announced the nationalization of Suez.

British presence in the Middle East The traditionally straticgical importance for Britain; the

Middle East is a spot where Europe, Asia and Africa meet. Had been a vital trading route since ancient time. Since the construction of the Suez Canal and the discovering of oil in Iran and Iraq of special strategic importance for the British Empire. Britain controlled the Iranian oil production through the Anglo-Iranian Oil Company.

After WWII the British control of the area was weakened, but Britain was determined to keep her positions, but in a more ”modern” way. Egypt was ”independent” but Britain kept her military base in the Suez Canal zone and signed an agreement with Transjordan in 1948 about military bases. Britain also organized the formation of the Arab League 1945.

Of special concern was the problematic situation in Palestine, where Britain came under attack from both Arabs and Jews.

In 1947 Britain left Palestine to the UN, after the Israeli declaration of independence Britain was a supporter of the Arab states, particularly Transjordan.

US and Soviet presence The decline of the British Empire (especially the Indian

independence) and the conflict in Palestine, weakened the British influence in the region. Both the US and the Soviet Union strengthened their positions in supporting different actors in the region, American oil companies also established a dominating position in Kuwait, Saudi Arabia and partly Iraq.

Both superpowers had initially supported Israel, the jewish state had bought large numbers of weapons from Czechoslovakia, which was a key to success in the 1948 Arab-Israeli war.

Arab nationalists, among them Nasser, saw the existing Arab government as corrupt and weak, entirely in the hands of foreign powers. Especially the old imperial powers were targeted.

For both superpowers Middle East was a stratigical and important area, both also had a different status than Britain in the Region.

The road to Suez 1948 was a humiliating defeat for the Arabs. It had

demonstrated the inability to unite and coordinate the actions, as well as a low fighting morale. Israel with a population of about 600 000 managed to defeat Arab states wit a population of about 40 million.

After 1948 a propaganda campaign was directecd against Israel, especially from Cairo and Damascus.

1955: Formation of the Baghdad Pact between Britain, Turkey, Iran and Iraq.

A reaction to this came with the Bandung Conference, led by Nehru. Nasser attended the conference and was deeply impressed of Nehru, seen as a strong independent third force.

The Suez Crisis can be traced to three important sources; the increasing hostility between Egypt and Israel; Nassers position in his own country and as Pan-Arab leader; Nassers need to find money.

The Suez War 1956

Egypt sponsored the formation of Fedayeen Commands, who operated over the border to Israel, led to a growing Israeli discontent with Nasser.

Nasser turned up the volume of his anti-imperialist propaganda.

Nasser needed money to finance the construction of the Aswan dam, here he felt betrayed by the US.

Britain saw Nasser as a problematic trouble maker, a sting in the tail of their interests.

Nassers decision to nationalize the Suez Canal led to drirect confrontation.

After Suez Results of the Suez War: Britain and France suffered a loss of

prestige, especially in the Arab world, but also among African countries. Nasser's prestige increased, he was now the unquestioned Pan-arab leader, even though he had lost the war. The Suez Canal remained in Egyptian hands. UN got a role as peacekeeper. Israel had demonstrated military superiority, but had been forced by the US to give up demands. Soviet presence in the Middle East increased.

1957: Failed coup in Jordan. 1958: Egypt and Syria proclaim their unification in the

United Arab Republic (UAR). 1958: Coup in Iraq, the king and the monarchy overthrown,

General Qassim takes power. 1958: Political crisis in Lebanon, US marines land near

Beirut, king Hussein of Jordan calls for British assistance. 1963: Qassim overthrown and executed, the Baath party

takes power in Iraq. 1964: Formation of the PLO

The return of Nasser?

But his return seems to have been less successful!?