Medieval Germany

An Encyclopedia

Editor

John M.Jeep

Miami University

Associate EditorsMichael Frassetto

La Grange CollegeHISTORY

Edward R.HaymesCleveland State University

LITERATUREJoan A.Holladay

University of Texas at AustinART

Stephanie Cain Van D'EldenUniversity of Minnesota

LITERATURE

Contributing EditorsGeert H.M.Claassens

Katholieke Universiteit LeuvenDUTCH

Francis G.GentryPennsylvania State University

LITERATUREDonna Mayer-Martin

Southern Methodist UniversityMUSIC

Frank TobinUniversity of Nevada, Reno

PHILOSOPHY AND RELIGION

Medieval Germany

An Encyclopedia

Edited by

John M.Jeep Miami University

Garland Publishing, Inc. New York & London

2001

Published in 2001 by Garland Publishing, Inc.

29 West 35th Street New York, NY 10001

Garland is an imprint of the Taylor & Francis Group.This edition published in the Taylor & Francis e-Library, 2005.

To purchase your own copy of this or any of Taylor & Francis or Routledges collection of thousands of eBooks please go to www.eBookstore.tandf.co.uk.

Disclaimer: For copyright reasons, some images in the original version of this book are not available for inclusion in the eBook.Editorial Staff

Laura Kathleen Smid Project EditorEdward Cone

Melissa Dobson Margery Heffron

CopyeditorsAlexis Skinner

Production EditorLaura-Ann Robb

Production DirectorRichard Steins

Development ManagerSylvia K.Miller

Publishing Director, ReferenceCopyright 2001 by Garland Publishing, Inc.

All rights reserved. No part of this book may be reprinted or reproduced or utilized in any form or by any electronic, mechanical, or other means, now known or hereafter invented, including photocopying and

recording, or in any information storage and retrieval system, without permission in writing from the publisher.

10 9 8 7 6 5 4 3 2 1

10 9 8 7 6 5 4 3 2 1Library of Congress Cataloging-in-Publication Data

Medieval Germany/edited by John M.Jeep. p. cm.

Includes bibliographical references and index. ISBN 0-8240-7644-3 (alk. paper)

1. GermanyHistory12731517Encyclopedias 2, Civilization, MedievalEncyclopedias. 3. NetherlandsHistoryTo 1384Encyclopedias. 4.

NetherlandsHistoryHouse of Burgundy, 13841477Encyclopedias. 5. NetherlandsHistoryHouse of Burgundy, 14771556Encyclopedias. I. Jeep, John M.

DD157.M43 2001 943'.02'03dc21

00061780ISBN 0-203-80176-8 Master e-book ISBN

ISBN 0-203-80178-4 (MP PDA Format)

ISBN 0-8240-7644-3 (Print Edition)Copyright 2004/2005 . All rights reserved.

Reader's GuideThis ebook has been optimized for PDA.Tables may have been presented to accommodate this Device's Limitations.Table content may have been removed due to this Device's Limitations.Image presentation is limited by this Device's Screen resolution.All possible language characters have been included within the Font handling ability of this Device.

Contents

Alphabetical List of EntriesList of Entries by CategoryIntroductionAbbreviationsContributorsMapsA to Z EntriesIndex

Alphabetical List of Entries

AachenAbrogansAdam of BremenAdam von FuldaAdelheid of BurgundyAdmonitio GeneralisAdmontAdolf of NassauAgricola, RodolphusAlbertus MagnusAlbrecht von JohansdorfAlbrecht von KemenatenAlbrecht von ScharfenbergAlcuinAlexander Literature, DutchAlexanderliedAlphabetAlpharts TodAnegengeAnimal Epics, DutchAnnoAnnoliedArcher/BowmanArchpoetAristoteles und PhyllisAnnenbibelArmer HartmannArmorArnolt, PriesterArs MoriendiArthurian Literature, GermanArthurian Literature, DutchAschaffenburgAugsburgBambergBaselBeatrijs van NazarethBeguinesBeheim, MichaelBenedict, Rule of SaintBernBerno von ReichenauBernward of HildesheimBerthold von HennebergBerthold von HolleBerthold von RegensburgBertram, MeisterBeyeren, HeraldBibleBible Epic, SaxonBible Translations, DutchBible Translator of 1360, DutchBillungerBirth, Marriage, BurialBlock BookBoethiusBoethius, DutchBoner, UlrichBonnBookmaking and ProductionBoppe, MeisterBouvines, Battle ofBrabant, Duchy ofBraunschweigBrendanBruno of MagdeburgBuch von Bern and RabenschlachtBurchard of WormsBurgCaesarius of HeisterbachCanossaCapitulariesCarmina BuranaCarolingian Art and ArchitectureIntroductionArchitectureIvoriesMural PaintingPaintingSculpture and MetalworkCarolingiansCharlemagneCharlemagne Epics, DutchCharlemagne Epics, GermanCharles III, the FatCharles III, the SimpleCharles IVCharles IV, ArtCharmsChildhoodChronicles, City, DutchChronicles, City, GermanChronicles, Regional/National, DutchChronicles, Regional/Territorial, German

Chronicles, World, DutchChronicles, World, GermanChurCistercian Art and ArchitectureClothing, Costume, and FashionClovisCoblenzCoburgCoinage and MintsCologne, ArchdioceseCologne, ArtCologne, HistoryComes/GrafConcordat of WormsConrad IConrad IIConrad of MarburgConrad of UrachConrad von SoestConradin of HohenstaufenConstanceConstance, ArtConversionCookbooksCoronationCorveyCouncils/SynodsCrossbowCrusadesCrusades, Literature, DutchCrusades, OppostionCrusades, RecruitmentDavid von AugsburgDe HeinricoDendrochronologyDeutschordenDevotio ModernaDhuodaDiet and NutritionDietrich und WenezlanDietrichepikDinkelsbhlDioceseDirc van DelfDonation of ConstantineDramaDrama, Christmas PlaysDrama, DutchDrama, Easter PlaysDrama, Last Judgment PlaysDrama, Latin, NetherlandsDrama, Paradise PlaysDrama, Passion PlaysDutch Language, DialectsDux/HerzogE.S., MasterEbner, MargarethaEcbasis CaptiviEchternachEckenliedEducationEgbertEigenkircheEike von RepgowEike von Repgow, LegalEilhart von ObergeEinsiedelnElisabeth von SchnauElizabeth of HungaryEmpireEncyclopedic Literature, DutchEncyclopedic Literature, GermanEngelbergEngelbert of BergEntechrist, LinzerErfurtErhart, GregorErhart, MichelErwin von SteinbachEssenEsslingen am NeckarExemplumEzzoEzzonidsFables, DutchFamilyFastnachtspieleFeudalismFishingFodrum, Gistum, Servitium RegisFolz, HansFortificationFranciscan Art and ArchitectureFrancke, MasterFrankfurt am MainFrau AvaFrauenlobFrederick I Barbarossa

Frederick I Barbarossa, ArtFrederick IIFrederick IIIFrederick III, ArtFreibergFreiburgFreisingFriedrich von HausenFriends of GodFrieslandFrueauf, Rueland, the ElderFuetrer, UlrichFuldaFrstb ischofGandersheimGardens and GardeningGenesis and ExodusGeorgsliedGerhoh of ReichersbergGerman Language, DialectsGernrodeGerthener, MadernGertrud von HelftaGesta RomanorumGlosses, Old High GermanGolden BullGoslarGothic Art and ArchitectureIntroductionArchitectureIvoriesManuscript PaintingMetalworkPanel PaintingSculpture, IntroductionSculpture, Devotional ImagesSculpture, Early AltarpiecesSculpture, Interior ProgramsSculpture, Portal ProgramsSculpture, TombsStained GlassTextilesGothic Art and Architecture, LateIntroductionArchitectureMetalworkPaintingSculptureGothic LanguageGottfried von StraburgGottfried von Straburg, Tristan, IllustrationsGottschalk of OrbaisGraf RudolfGrasser, ErasmusGregory VIIGrimbergse Oorlag, DeGuelph TreasureGurkGutenberg, JohannHadewijchHadlaub, JohannesHalberstadtHalleHamburgHammer of WitchesHanseatic LeagueHartlieb, JohannesHartmann von AueHeiligenkreuzHeiligenlebenHeinricHeinrich der GlchezreHeinrich der TeichnerHeinrich von dem TrlinHeinrich von MelkHeinrich von MorungenHeinrich von NeustadtHeinrich von VeldekeHeinrich von Veldeke, Eneide, IllustrationsHelbling, SeifriedHeldenbcherHelmarshausenHenry IHenry II, ArtHenry IIIHenry IVHenry the LionHenry the Lion, ArtHenry the RaspeHenry VIHeraldryHerbort von FritzlarHerlin, FriedrichHermann von FritzlarHermann von SachsenheimHerrad von HohenburgHerrand von WildonieHeselloher, Hans

HildebrandsliedHildegard von BingenHildesheimHirsauHistoriography, DutchHistoriography, GermanHochzeit, DieHohenzollernHolbein, Hans, the ElderHollandHoly LanceHornburg, LupoldHousebook, Master of theHrabanus MaurusHrosvit of GandersheimHugo von LangensteinHugo von MontfortHugo von TrimbergHunting and Hunting LiteratureIconographies, InnovativeIntroductionActs of CharityAnna SelbdrittArma ChristiDance of DeathEquestrian FiguresGnadenstuhlHoly GravesHoly KinshipJohanneachsselMan of SorrowsMass of Saint GregoryPalmeselPestkreuzPietSaint John on the Bosom of ChristSchreinmadonna.SchutzmantelmadonnaSorrows of the VirginThrone of SolomonWise and Foolish VirginsIngelheimInternational StyleInvestiture ControversyIsidoreItinerant KingshipJacob van MaerlantJan van BoendaleJan van RuusbroecJans EnikelJewish Art and ArchitectureJewsJohann von WrzburgJohannes ScottusJohannes von TeplJudith, EmpressJudith the WelfKaiserchronikKaiserchronik, Latin, IlluminatedKaufringer, HeinrichKleveKlosterneuburgKoblenzKoerbecke, JohannKnigsfeldenKonrad von HeimesfurtKonrad von MureKonrad von WrzburgKraft, AdamKudrunKunigundeKrenberc, Der vonLahn RiverLambachLand OwnershipLandfriedenLandshutLangmann, AdelheidLatin LanguageLauber, DieboltLaufenberg, HeinrichLaw and LawbooksLechfeld, Battle ofLegenda Aurea, AlsatianLegendsLeinberger, HansLeo IXLibrariesLiederhandschriftenLiederhandschriften, IllustrationsLife of Mary, Master ofLimburg an der LahnLinzLiterature and HistoriographyLiterature, DutchLiturgical Vestments, Manuscripts, and ObjectsLiturgy, FurnitureLiturgy, Music

LiudolfingerLochner, StefanLorchLorraineLorschLothar ILothar IIILouis the ChildLouis the PiousLouis IILbeckLucerneLudolf of SaxonyLudwigsliedLneburgLutwinLuxemburgerMagdeburgMaget Kron, DerMagicMagic and Charms, DutchMainzMande, HenrikManfred of SicilyManuals, Artists', and ModelbooksManuscripts, Painting and ProductionMarburgMarchfeld, Battle ofMaria LaachMaria SaalMaria WrthMariazellMariendichtungenMarner, DerMarriage and DivorceMarsilius van InghenMrtyrerbuchMartyrologyMatfridingsMatilda, EmpressMaulbronnMaximilianMechthild von HackebornMechthild von MagdeburgMedicineMeienMeister EckhartMeistersingerMelkMerseburgMetalworkingMetzMeuse RiverMillstattMindenMinisterialsMinneallegorie, MinneredeMinnesangMithrasMonasteriesMonasticism, DutchMnch von Salzburg, DerMorgarten, Battle ofMoriz von CranMoselle RiverMoser, LucasMhlhausenMultscher, HansMunichMnsterMuskatbltMuspilliMstairMysticismMythologyNabuchodonosorNancy, Battle ofNaumburgNeidhartNeubrandenburgNibelungenliedNibelungia MinoraNicholas of CusaNicholas of VerdunNicolaus Gerhaert von LeydenNobility and FarmersNotke, BerntNotker LabeoNotker von ZwiefaltenNumbers and CalculationNurembergOliver of PaderbornOnomasticsOrdinatio ImperiiOsnabrckOswald von WolkensteinOtfridOtte

Ottol IOtto I, ArtOtto IIOtto II, ArtOtto IIIOtto III, ArtOtto IVOtto of FreisingOttonian Art and ArchitectureIntroductionArchitectureIvoriesManuscript IlluminationMetalworkSculptureTextilesWall PaintingPacher, MichaelPaderbornPaleographyParler FamilyPassauPassienbchleinPassionalPatronage, LiteraryPeter von StaufenbergPeters, GerlachPhysiologusPilgram, AntonPilgrim's BadgesPippinPlaying Cards, Master ofPleier, DerPleydenwurff, HansPoeta SaxoPotter, DircPraguePrayer BooksPreaching and Sermons, DutchPreaching and Sermons, GermanPregnancy and ChildbirthPrenzlauPrinting PressPrintmakingPrivilegium OttonianumPterich von Reichertshausen, JacobQuedlinburgRadewijns, FlorensRahewinRainald of DasselRegensburgRegistrum Gregorii, Master ofReichReichenauReichskircheReinmar der AlteReinmar von ZwetterRelics and ReliquariesRenovatio Imperii RomanorumRenovatio Regni FrancorumReynard the Fox, DutchRhenish PalatinateRiemenschneider, TillmannRobertiansRodeneggRoger of HelmarshausenRoland and Charlemagne, IllustrationsRoman de la Rose, DutchRomanesque Art and ArchitectureIntroductionArchitectureIvoriesManuscript IlluminationMetalworkMural PaintingSculptureStained GlassTextilesRoriczer, MatthewRosaryRostockRothenburg ob der TauberRottweilRudolf von EmsRunesRunkelsteinRuodliebRural SettlementSachliteraturSaints' CultSaints' Lives, DutchSaliansSalzburgSammelhandschriftSangspruchSankt Bartholomew Altarpiece, Master ofSankt GallSankt Katharinenthal

Sankt Paul in LavanttalSankt Veit an der GlanSankt Veronica, Master ofSankt WolfgangSaxon WarSchaffhausenSchleswigSchmalkaldenSchondochSchongauer, MartinSchwbisch GmndSchwbisch-HallSchwerinSeals and SigillographySeghelijn van JherusalemSegher DicngotgafSeckauSeligenstadtSempach, Battle ofServatiusSeuse, HeinrichSiegburg, AbbeySiegburg, ArtSigenotSiger of BrabantSionSister-BooksSlaverySoestSong of SongsSpeyerSpielmannsepenStainreuter, LeopoldStatutum in Favorem PrincipumStaufenSteinbachStendalStoke, MelisStoss, VeitStralsundStrasbourgStrasbourg OathsStricker, DerStuttgartSuccessionSuchenwirt, PeterSylvester IISylvester, TriererSynod of FrankfurtSyrlin, Jrg (Elder and Younger)Tannhuser, DerTatianTegernseeTheoderic, MasterTheodulf of OrlansTheophanuTheophanu, ArtTheophilus PresbyterThietmar of MerseburgThomas KempisThomasn von ZerklaereTnugdalusToulTournamentsTown Planning and UrbanismTrierTrier, ArtUlenspegelUlmUlrich von EtzenbachUlrich von LichtensteinUlrich von TrheimUlrich von ZatzikhovenUniversitiesUtrechtVan Meckenem, IsrahelVterbuchVerdunVersificationViennaViktringVirginalVisionary LiteratureVom RechteWalahfrid StraboWalthariusWalter und HildegundWalther von der VogelweideWarbeck, VeitWarfareWartburgWartburgkriegWeaponsWeckmann, Nicolaus, the ElderWelfsWenceslasWerdenWerner der Grtner

WestphaliaWidukind of CorveyWiener NeustadtWienhausenWigamurWillem of HildegaersberchWimpfenWinterthurWirnt von GrafenbergWismarWittenweiler, HeinrichWitz, KonradWolfdietrich and OrtnitWolfram von EschenbachWolfram von Eschenbach, Parzival, IllustrationsWolfram von Eschenbach, Willehalm, IllustrationsWolgemut, MichaelWomenWomen and ArtWorld MapsWormsWorringen, Battle ofWrzburgXantenZeitblom, BartholomusZillisZugZurichZwettl

List of Entries by Category

Art and ArchitectureBernward of HildesheimBertram, MeisterCharles IV, ArtCistercian Art and ArchitectureCologne, ArtConstance, ArtE.S., MasterEgbertErhart, GregorErhart, MichelErwin von SteinbachFranciscan Art and ArchitectureFrancke, MasterFrederick I Barbarossa, ArtFrederick III, ArtGothic Art and ArchitectureGothic Art and Architecture, LateGottfried von Straburg, Tristan, IllustrationsGrasser, ErasmusHeinrich von Veldeke, Eneide, IllustrationsHenry II, ArtHenry the Lion, ArtHeraldryHerlin, FriedrichHerrad von HohenburgHeselloher, HansHolbein, Hans, the ElderHoly LanceHousebook, Master of theIconographies, InnovativeInternational StyleJewish Art and ArchitectureKaiserchronik, Latin, IlluminatedKoerbecke, JohannKraft, AdamLauber, DieboltLeinberger, HansLiederhandschriften, IllustrationsLife of Mary, Master ofLiturgical Vestments, Manuscripts, and ObjectsLiturgy, FurnitureLochner, StefanManuals, Artists', and ModelbooksManuscripts, Painting and ProductionMultscher, HansNicholaus of VerdunNicolaus Gerhaert von LeydenOtto I, ArtOtto II, ArtOtto III, ArtOttonian Art and ArchitecturePacher, MichaelPaleographyPilgram, AntonPilgrim's BadgesPlaying Cards, Master ofPleydenwurff, HansPotter, DircPrintmakingRiemenschneider, TillmannRomanesque Art and ArchitectureRosaryRunkelsteinSankt Bartholomew Altarpiece, Master ofSankt Veronica, Master ofSchongauer, MartinSiegburg, ArtStoss, VeitSyrlin, Jrg (Elder and Younger)Theoderic, MasterTheophanu, ArtTrier, ArtVan Meckenem, IsrahelWarbeck, VeitWeckmann, Nicolaus, the ElderWitz, KonradWolfram von Eschenbach, Parzival, IllustrationsWolfram von Eschenbach, Willehalm, IllustrationsWolgemut, MichaelWomen and ArtWorld MapsZeitblom, Bartholomus Daily LifeAlphabetCharmsChildhoodClothing, Costume, and FashionCookbooksDiet and NutritionFamily

FishingGardens and GardeningHunting and Hunting LiteratureMagicMagic and Charms, DutchMarriage and DivorceMedicineNobility and FarmersPilgrim's BadgesPregnancy and ChildbirthRunesTournamentsTown Planning and Urbanism EducationAlphabetBlock BookBookmaking and ProductionDhuodaEducationEncyclopedic Literature, DutchEncyclopedic Literature, GermanGutenberg, JohannHerrad von HohenburgHrabanus MaurusHunting and Hunting LiteratureJohannes ScottusLibrariesManuals, Artists', and ModelbooksManuscripts, Painting and ProductionMinisterialsNumbers and CalculationPaleographyPrayer BooksPreaching and Sermons, DutchPreaching and Sermons, GermanPrinting PressPrintmakingRoland and Charlemagne, IllustrationsSachliteraturUniversitiesWalahfrid StraboWorld Maps LanguageAbrogansAlphabetBoethiusBoethius, DutchDutch Language, DialectsGerman Language, DialectsGlosses, Old High GermanGothic LanguageIsidoreLatin LanguageOnomasticsPaleographyStrasbourg Oaths LawEike von Repgow, LegalEmpireLaw and LawbooksSeals and Sigillography LiteratureAlbrecht von JohansdorfAlbrecht von KemenatenAlbrecht von ScharfenbergAlexander Literature, DutchAlexanderliedAlpharts TodAnegengeAnimal Epics, DutchAnnoliedArchpoetAristoteles und PhyllisArmenbibelArmer HartmannArnolt, PriesterArs MoriendiArthurian Literature, DutchArthurian Literature, GermanBeheim, MichaelBerthold von HolleBeyeren, HeraldBible Epic, SaxonBlock BookBoner, UlrichBookmaking and ProductionBoppe, MeisterBrendanBruno of MagdeburgBuch von Bern and RabenschlachtCarmina BuranaCharlemagne Epics, Dutch

Charlemagne Epics, GermanCharmsChronicles, City, DutchChronicles, City, GermanChronicles, Regional/National, DutchChronicles, Regional/Territorial, GermanChronicles, World, DutchChronicles, World, GermanCrusades, Literature, DutchDe HeinricoDietrich and WenezlanDietrichepikDramaDrama, Christmas PlaysDrama, DutchDrama, Easter PlaysDrama, Last Judgment PlaysDrama, Latin, NetherlandsDrama, Paradise PlaysDrama, Passion PlaysEcbasis CaptiviEckenliedEike von RepgowEilhart von ObergeEncyclopedic Literature, DutchEncyclopedic Literature, GermanEntechrist, LinzerExemplumFables, DutchFastnachtspieleFolz, HansFrau AvaFrauenlobFriedrich von HausenFuetrer, UlrichGenesis and ExodusGeorgsliedGesta RomanorumGottfried von StraburgGraf RudolfGrimbergse Oorlag, DeGutenberg, JohannHadlaub, JohannesHartlieb, JohannesHartmann von AueHeiligenlebenHeinricHeinrich der GlchezreHeinrich der TeichnerHeinrich von dem TrlinHeinrich von MelkHeinrich von MorungenHeinrich von NeustadtHeinrich von VeldekeHelbing, SeifriedHeldenbcherHermann von FritzlarHermann von SachsenheimHerrand von WildonieHeselloher, HansHildebrandsliedHildegard von BingenHochzeit, DieHornburg, LupoldHugo von LangensteinHugo von MontfortHugo von TrimbergHunting and Hunting LiteratureIsidoreJacob van MaerlantJan van BoendaleJan van RuusbroecJans EnikelJohann von WrzburgJohannes von TeplKaiserchronikKaufringer, HeinrichKonrad von WrzburgKudrunKrenberg, Der vonLaufenberg, HeinrichLaw and LawbooksLegenda Aurea, AlsatianLegendsLiederhandschriftenLiterature and HistoriographyLiterature, DutchLudwigsliedLutwinMaget Kron, DerMariendichtungenMarner, DerMrtyrerbuchMartyrologyMeister EckhartMeistersingerMinneallegorie, MinneredeMinnesang

Mnch von Salzburg, DerMoriz von CranMuskatbltMuspilliNabuchodonosorNeidhartNibelungenliedNibelungia MinoraNotker LabeoNotker von ZwiefaltenOswald von WolkensteinOtfridOttePassienbchleinPassionalPatronage, LiteraryPeter von StaufenbergPhysiologusPleier, DerPoeta SaxoPrinting PressPterich von Reichertshausen, JacobReinmar der AlteReinmar von ZwetterRoman de la Rose, DutchRuodliebSachliteraturSammelhandschriftSangspruchSchondochSeghelijn van JherusalemSegher DiengotgafServatiusSigenotSister-BooksSong of SongsSpielmannsepenStainreuter, LeopoldStokes, MelisStricker, DerSuchenwirt, PeterSylvester, TriererTannhuser, DerTatianThomasn von ZerklaereTnugdalusUlenspegelUlrich von EtzenbachUlrich von LichtensteinUlrich von TrheimUlrich von ZatzikhovenVterbuchVersificationVirginalVisionary LiteratureVom RechteWalter und HildegundWalthariusWalther von der VogelweideWigamurWillem of HildegaersberchWirnt von GrafenbergWittenweiler, HeinrichWolfdietrich and OrtnitWolfram von Eschenbach Low Countries, DutchAlexander Literature, DutchAnimal Epics, DutchArthurian Literature, DutchBeatrijs van NazarethBeguinesBeyeren, HeraldBible Translations, DutchBible Translator of 1360, DutchBoethius, DutchBrabant, Duchy ofBrendanCharlemagne Epics, DutchChronicles, City, DutchChronicles, Regional/National, DutchChronicles, World, DutchCrusades, Literature, DutchDirc van DelfDrama, DutchDrama, Latin, NetherlandsDutch Language, DialectsEncyclopedic Literature, DutchFables, DutchGrimbergse Oorlag, DeHeinricHeinrich von VeldekeHistoriography, DutchJacob van MaerlantJan van BoendaleJan van RuusbroecLiterature, Dutch

Magic and Charms, DutchMande, HenrikMonasticism, DutchPreaching and Sermons, DutchReynard the Fox, DutchRoman de la Rose, DutchSaints' Lives, DutchSeghelijn van JherusalemSegher DiengotgafSiger of BrabantStokes, Melis MusicAdam of BremenBeheim, MichaelBerno von ReichenauCarmina BuranaHildegard von BingenLiederhandschriftenLiederhandschriften, IllustrationsLiturgy, MusicMarsilius van InghenMeistersingerMinnesangSammelhandschriftSangspruch PersonsAdam of BremenAdam von FuldaAdelheid of BurgundyAdolf of NassauAgricola, RodolphusAlbertus MagnusAlbrecht von JohansdorfAlbrecht von KemenatenAlbrecht von ScharfenbergAlcuinAnnoArmer HartmannArnolt, PriesterBeatrijs van NazarethBeheim, MichaelBerno von ReichenauBernward of HildesheimBerthold von HennebergBerthold von HolleBerthold von RegensburgBertram, MeisterBeyeren, HeraldBillungerBoner, UlrichBoppe, MeisterBruno of MagdeburgBurchard of WormsCaesarius of HeisterbachCharlemagneCharles III, the FatCharles III, the SimpleCharles IVClovisConrad IConrad IIConrad of MarburgConrad of UrachConrad von SoestConradin of HohenstaufenDavid von AugsburgDhuodaDirc van DelfE.S., MasterEbner, MargarethaEgbertEike von RepgowEilhart von ObergeElisabeth von SchnauElizabeth of HungaryEngelbert of BergErhart, GregorErhart, MichelErwin von SteinbachFolz, HansFrancke, MasterFrau AvaFrederick I BarbarossaFrederick IIFrederick IIIFriedrich von HausenFuetrer, UlrichGerhoh of ReichersbergGertrud von HelftaGottfried von StraburgGottschalk of OrbaisGrasser, ErasmusGregory VIIGutenberg, JohannHadewijch

Hadlaub, JohannesHartlieb, JohannesHartmann von AueHeinricHeinrich der GlchezreHeinrich der TeichnerHeinrich von dem TrlinHeinrich von MelkHeinrich von MorungenHeinrich von NeustadtHeinrich von VeldekeHelbling, SeifriedHenry IHenry IIIHenry IVHenry the LionHenry the RaspeHenry VIHerbort von FritzlarHerlin, FriedrichHermann von FritzlarHermann von SachsenheimHerrad von HohenburgHerrand von WildonieHeselloher, HansHildegard von BingenHolbein, Hans, the ElderHornburg, LupoldHousebook, Master of theHrabanus MaurusHrosvit of GandersheimHugo von LangensteinHugo von MontfortHugo von TrimbergJacob van MaerlantJan van BoendaleJan van RuusbroecJans EnikelJohann von WrzburgJohannes ScottusJohannes von TeplJudith, EmpressJudith the WelfKaufringer, HeinrichKoerbecke, JohannKonrad von HeimesfurtKonrad von MureKonrad von WrzburgKraft, AdamKunigundeKrenberc, Der vonLangmann, AdelheidLauber, DieboltLaufenberg, HeinrichLeinberger, HansLeo IXLife of Mary, Master ofLiudolfingerLochner, StefanLothar ILothar IIILouis the ChildLouis the PiousLouis IILudolf of SaxonyLutwinMande, HenrikManfred of SicilyMarner, DerMarsilius van InghenMatilde, EmpressMaximilianMechthild von HackebornMechthild von MagdeburgMeister EckhartMnch von Salzburg, DerMultscher, HansMuskatbltNeidhartNicholas of CusaNicolaus of VerdunNicolaus Gerhaert von LeydenNotker LabeoNotker von ZwiefaltenOliver of PaderbornOswald von WolkensteinOtfridOtteOttol IOtto IIOtto IIIOtto IVOtto of FreisingPacher, MichaelPeter von StaufenbergPeters, GerlachPilgram, AntonPippin

Playing Cards, Master ofPleier, DerPleydenwurff, HansPoeta SaxoPotter, DircPterich von Reichertshausen, JacobRadewijns, FlorensRahewinRainald of DasselRegistrum Gregorii, Master ofReinmar der AlteReinmar von ZwetterRiemenschneider, TillmannSankt Bartholomew Altarpiece, Master ofSankt Veronika, Master ofSchondochSchongauer, MartinSeuse, HeinrichSiger of BrabantStainreuter, LeopoldStoke, MelisStoss, VeitStricker, DerSuchenwirt, PeterSylvester IISyrlin, Jrg (Elder and Younger)Tannhuser, DerTheoderic, MasterTheodulf of OrlansTheophanuThietmar of MerseburgThomas KempisThomasn von ZerklaereUlrich von EtzenbachUlrich von LichtensteinUlrich von TheimUlrich von ZatzikhovenVan Meckenem, IsrahelWalahfrid StraboWalther von der VogelweideWarbeck, VeitWeckmann, Nicolaus, the ElderWenceslasWidukind of CorveyWillem of HildegaersberchWirnt von GrafenbergWittenweiler, HeinrichWitz, KonradWolfram von EschenbachWolgemut, MichaelZeitblom, Bartholomus PhilosophyAdam von FuldaAgricola, RodolpusAlbertus MagnusAlcuinMarsilius van InghenNicholas of CusaSiger of Brabant Places and Place StudyAachenAschaffenburgAugsburgBaselBernBonnBrabant, Duchy ofCanossaChurCoblenzCoburgConstanceCorveyDinkelsbhlEinsiedelnEngelbergErfurtEssenEsslingen am NeckarFreibergFreiburgFreisingFrieslandFuldaGandersheimGernrodeGoslarGurkHalberstadtHalleHamburgHeiligenkreuzHildesheimHirsauHolland

KleveKlosterncuburgKoblenzKnigsfeldenLahn RiverLambachLandshutLimburg an der LahnLorchLorraineLorschLucerneLneburgMainzMarburgMarchfeld, Battle ofMaria LaachMaria SaalMaria WrthMariazellMaulbronnMeienMelkMetzMeuse RiverMindenMorgarten, Battle ofMoselle RiverMunichMnsterMstairNancy, Battle ofNaumburgNurembergOsnabrckPaderbornPassauPragueRegensburgReichenauRhenish PalatinateRodenggRothenburg ob der TauberRunkelsteinSalzburgSankt KatharinenthalSankt WolfgangSchaffhausenSchmalkaldenSchwbisch GmndSchwerinSekauSeligenstadtSempach, Battle ofSiegburg, AbbeySionSoestSpeyerSteinbachStrasbourgStuttgartTegernseeToulTrierUlmUtrechtVerdunViennaWartburgWerdenWestphaliaWiener NeustadtWienhausenWimpfenWinterthurWormsWorringen, Battle ofWrzburgZillisZugZurichZwettl Religion and TheologyAnnoArmenbibelBeatrijs van NazarethBeguinesBenedict, Rule of SaintBerno von ReichenauBernward of HildesheimBerthold von HennebergBerthold von RegensburgBibleBible Epic, SaxonBible Translations, DutchBible Translator of 1360, Dutch

Burchard of WormsCaesarius of HeisterbachCologne, ArchdioceseConrad of MarburgConrad of UrachConversionCouncils/SynodsCrusadesCrusades, Literature, DutchCrusades, OppostionCrusades, RecruitmentDavid von AugsburgDeutschordenDevotio ModernaDioceseDirc van DelfDrama, Christmas PlaysDrama, DutchDrama, Easter PlaysDrama, Last Judgment PlaysDrama, Latin, NetherlandsDrama, Paradise PlaysDrama, Passion PlaysEbner, MargarethaEgbertEigenkircheElisabeth von SchnauEngelbert of BergFastnachtspieleFriends of GodFrstb ischofGenesis and ExodusGeorgsliedGerhoh of ReichersbergGertrud von HelftaGottschalk of OrbaisGregory VIIHadewijchHeiligenlebenHeinrich von MelkHerrad von HohenburgHildegard von BingenHrabanus MaurusHrosvit of GandersheimHugo von LangensteinHugo von TrimbergJewish Art and ArchitectureJewsJohannes ScottusKonrad von HeimesfurtKonrad von MureLangmann, AdelheidLaufenberg, HeinrichLegenda Aurea, AlsatianLegendsLeo IXLiturgical Vestments, Manuscripts, and ObjectsLiturgy, FurnitureLiturgy, MusicLutwinMande, HenrikMariendichtungenMrtyrerbuchMartyrologyMechthild von HackebornMechthild von MagdeburgMeister EckhartMithrasMonasteriesMonasticism, DutchMysticismMythologyNabuchodonosorNicholas of CusaOliver of PaderbornPeters, GerlachPilgrim's BadgesPrayer BooksPreaching and Sermons, DutchPreaching and Sermons, GermanRadewijns, FlorensRegistrum Gregorii, Master ofReichskircheRelics and ReliquariesRosaryRunesSaints' CultSaints' Lives, DutchSeuse, HeinrichSiger of BrabantSister-BooksSong of SongsStainreuter, LeopoldSylvester IISynod of FrankfurtTatianThomas KempisVterbuch

VirginalVisionary LiteratureVom RechteWalahfrid Strabo Women, Gender, and FamiliesBeatrijs van NazarethBeguinesChildhoodDevotio ModernaDhuodaEbner, MargarethaElisabeth von SchnauElizabeth of HungaryFamilyFrau AvaGertrud von HelftaHadewijchHerrad von HohenburgHildegard von BingenHrosvit of GandersheimJudith, EmpressJudith the WelfKunigundeLangmann, AdelheidMarriage and DivorceMatilde, EmpressMechthild von HackebornMechthild von MagdeburgMysticismPregnancy and ChildbirthSister-BooksTheophanuWomenWomen and Art

Introduction

Medieval Germany: An Encyclopedia is an introduction to the society and culture of German- and Dutch-speaking Europe from approximately C.E. 500to 1500. By presenting articles on major persons, places, historical occurrences, artistic and technological accomplishments, intellectual developments,and daily life of the period roughly outlined, this reference work intends to answer readers' questions and supply further information on major topics fromthe broad field of medieval German studies. Its 647 entries were suggested and written by an international team of scholars from North America andEurope.The editors conceived the entries as covering the fields of German and Dutch art history, language and literature, history, music, philosophy, religion, andgeneral (social structure, daily life). Tangential articles such as "Boethius" or "Latin Language" reflect significant influences on the medieval German- andDutch-speaking world.

How to Use This Book

Entries are arranged alphabetically. Article headings appear in English or German, depending on the authors' perception of the most common usage inEnglish. Works of literature are discussed under the author's name, when known or supposed. Names are listed according to English-language customs,Wolfram von Eschenbach under "W," Ulrich Fuetrer under "F." Cross references ("See also") follow articles when called for. An analytical index alsoserves to point users to the appropriate article. Blind entries ("John Ruusbroec. See Jan van Ruusbroec"; "Teutonic Knights. See Deutschorden") in boththe text and the index lead nonspecialists to the information they seek.Authors were asked to keep the general reader in mind; bibliographies, listing primary sources, translations, and secondary sources, were severelylimited. They provide orientation into the vast field of medieval German studies; the works cited in turn contain a wealth of references for further readingand research. Thus, articles can be perused gainfully by nonspecialists and experts alike. English language sources were preferred but not alwaysavailable.

Acknowledgments

Medieval Germany: An Encyclopedia, was conceived in 1986, when Edward R.Haymes was approached by Gary Kuris, then of Garland Publishing, atthe Medieval Studies Conference at Western Michigan University in Kalamazoo, Michigan, about a German volume within Garland Publishing's MedievalEncyclopedia series. After serving as general editor during the initial phase, during which a first master list of articles was drawn up and manycollaborators were won, Haymes passed on the general editorship to a former associate editor, Stephanie Cain Van D'Elden, who in turn relinquishedthe position in 1996 to the undersigned. I had been associated with the project from early on as a contributor and as a consulting editor (Old HighGerman). I assumed the general editor position with the vast majority of entries chosen, very many of them assigned, a good number of them alreadysubmitted. In addition to Haymes and Van D'Elden, Joan A.Holladay (art) and Geert Claassens (Dutch) have been with the project since its inception, andhave demonstrated near-saintly patience and stickto-it-iveness. In addition, Holladay assumed the sizable burden of selecting, acquiring, and authoringlabels for the many illustrations. She has been ably assisted by, among others, her husband, Daniel Hofmann, and Anne Rudloff Stanton. MichaelFrassetto agreed to take over the vacated associate editor position for history late in 1996. Consulting editors Frank Gentry (Middle High Germanliterature), Donna Mayer-Martin (music), Frank Tobin (religion and philosophy), and Jan Ziolkowski (Latin), have been invaluable over the years. WesleyStevens (history) provided useful input.It is indeed a pleasant duty to thank a veritable host of scholars who shall, for fear I might omit someone, remain unnamed, who responded to requests forsuggestions for potential entries and authors. Without their selfless support, this would be a far inferior reference work. You know who you are, and manyof you appear in a significant way in the bibliographies. A further group of individuals responded to my many requests for address information, orotherwise helped me locate persons whose whereabouts were or had become unknown to me. This encyclopedia is, then, truly the result of a team effort.Each article is signed. This gives credit where credit is due. The contributors have, in some cases, waited years for their work to see the light of day.Those collaborators whose work has been listed as "done" for a long period of time are to be thanked for their timely responses and submissions.Without them, the time-consuming efforts to gather less punctual submissions would not have been possible. Various factors contributed to the delaysover the years. The editors are most grateful to the authors for their expertise, their collegiality, and their patience. It has been a pleasure to be in contactwith so many selfless, considerate, and talented individuals. Most readers will not have the delight of reading as many articles as the editors have, and wehave profited from our exposure to such a wide range of scholarship.I have benefited from the support of the department of German, Russian, and East Asian Languages (Robert Di Donato, chair) and the College of Artsand Science (John Skillings, acting dean) of Miami University, who provided student staff support, technical support, and an atmosphere conducive toresearch. My colleagues David Siebenhar, Charlotte Wharton, and Dan Meyers cheerfully provided helpful answers to my many computerrelatedquestions. Erin Brown assisted the general editor for one semester. Marianne Lown was my initial editorial contact at Garland Publishing; from 19971999, Joanne Daniels guided me. Richard Steins and Tim Roberts provided welcome support and expertise during an editorial transition phase. For thefinal stages, Laura Kathleen Smid has been a most conscientious and supportive editor. Finally, Cliff Kallemeyn has been a careful production editor. Asalways, Lynda Hoffman-Jeep and L.Cari a Jeep have supported me and my work.The atmosphere generated at the medieval studies conferences at the Medieval Institute of Western Michigan University has always been encouragingand stimulating. The association with these conferences has been very productive in this undertaking.I dedicate this book to the memory of my father, Charles W.Jeep, Jr., whose natural inquisitiveness and broad interests represent the kind of reader thecollaborators on this volume hope to engage.

John M.Jeep Miami University

Abbreviations

b.bornB.C.EBefore Common Erac.centuryca.circaC.E.Common Erachap.chaptercol., cols.column, columnsd.dieded., eds.editor, editorse.g.for exampleesp.especiallyfl.flourishedfol.folio (manuscript page)i.e.that isills.illustrationsintrod.introductionl., ll.line, linesm.marriedMHGMiddle High Germanno.numbern.p.no place, no publisherOHGOld High GermanP., pp.page, pagespbk.paperbackpl., pls.plate, platesr.ruled, reignedrev.revisedrpt.reprint, reprintedSt.Saint (German Sankt)supp.supplementtrans.translator(s)UMIUniversity Microfilms Inc.v., vv.verse, versesvol., vols.volume, volumes

Contributors

Melitta Weiss Adamson University of Western Ontario Cookbooks; Diet and NutritionAndrew E.Anderson Southern Methodist University Adam von FuldaMarian Andringa Rijksuniversiteit te Leiden Alexander Literature, DutchWim van Anrooij Rijksuniversiteit te Leiden Beyeren, Herald; Stoke, MelisDavid Appleby U.S. Naval Academy Synod of FrankfurtAmanda Athey University of Georgia HadewijchWolfgang Augustyn Zentralinstitut fr Kunstgeschichte SchaffhausenPiet Avonds Antwerp, Belgium Brabant, Duchy ofPeter Barnet Metropolitan Museum of Art Gothic Art and ArchitectureTextiles; Riemenschneider, Tillmann; Romanesque Art and ArchitectureMetalwork, Textiles; Weckmann, Nicolaus, the ElderBas J.P.van Bavel Universiteit van Amsterdam Monasticism, DutchBruce A.Beatie Cleveland State University Carmina BuranaPatricia Zimmerman Beckman University of Chicago Beguines; Visionary LiteratureBrigitte Bedos-Rezak University of Maryland at College Park Heraldry; Seals and SigillographyThomas Bein Universitt Bonn FrauenlobDonald P.Beistle University of Georgia MithrasDean Phillip Bell Spertus Institute of Jewish Studies JewsIngrid Bennewitz Universitt Bamberg NeidhartFiorin Berindeanu University of Georgia MariendichtungenJohn W.Bernhardt San Jose State University Fodrum, Gistum, Servitium Regis; Itinerant Kingship; Kunigunde; Renovatio Regni FrancorumAmand Berteloot Westflische WilhelmsUniversitt Mnster Saints' Lives, DutchDavid R.Blanks American University in Cairo Family; Rural Settlement; SlaveryUta-Renate Blumenthal Catholic University of America Canossa; Concordat of Worms; Gregory VII; Henry IV; Investiture ControversyHans J.Bker McGill University, Montreal, Que. Corvey; Frederick III, Art; Goslar; Kleve; Lbeck; Lneburg;

Maria Saal; Minden; Neubrandenburg; Paderborn; Prenzlau; Stendal; Stralsund; Vienna; Wismar; ZwettlFrank P.C.Brandsma Riijksuniversiteit te Utrecht Arthurian Literature, DutchDaniel F.Callahan University of Delaware Leo IX; Sylvester IIWilliam F.Carroll Harvard University EducationStephen M.Carey Washington University in St. Louis Exemplum; Heinrich der Teichner; Konrad von Mure; Konrad von Wrzburg; Minneallegorie, Minnerede; OtteAmelia Carr Allegheny College, Meadville, Pa. Heiligenkreuz; Klosterneuburg; Linz; Regensburg; Seckau; TegernseeKristin M.Christensen University of Notre Dame MysticismGeert H.M.Claassens Katholieke Universiteit Leuven Animal Epics, Dutch; Bible Translations, Dutch; Bible Translator of 1360, Dutch; Crusades, Literature, Dutch; Grimbergse Oorlag, De; Herrad von Hohenburg; Jacob van Maerlant; Jan van Boendale; Literature, Dutch; Reynard the Fox, Dutch; Seghelijn van Jherusalem; Segher DiengotgafAlbrecht Classen University of Arizona Alexanderlied; Boner, Ulrich; Chronicles, World, German; Eilhart von Oberge; Hadlaub, Johannes; Hugo von Langenstein; Hugo von Montfort; Johann von Wrzburg; Kaufringer, Heinrich; Oswald von Wolkenstein; Pterich von Reichertshausen, Jacob; Thomasn von Zerklaere; Ulenspegel; Ulrich von Etzenbach; Ulrich von Trheim; Warbeck, VeitAdam S.Cohen Washington, DC Einsiedeln; Freising; Gandersheim; Gernrode; Henry II, Art; Otto I, Art; Otto II, Art; Otto III, Art; Ottonian Art and ArchitectureManuscript IlluminationKristen M.Collins University of Texas at Austin Echternach; Hildesheim; Ottonian Art and ArchitectureWall Painting; ReichenauLeo A.Connolly University of Memphis Bible; De Heinrico; German Language, Dialects; Ludwigslied; OtfridJohn J.Contreni Purdue University Charlemagne; Charles III, the Fat; Johannes Scottus; Lothar I; Louis the Pious; Louis II; Theodulf of OrlansBrigitte Corley London, Eng. Bertram, Meister; Conrad von Soest; Francke, MasterMelanie Gesink Cornelisse University of Texas at Austin Iconographies, InnovativeDance of Death,Man of Sorrows; Piet; Van Meckenem, IsrahelRebecca W.Corrie Bates College, Lewiston, Maine Gothic Art and ArchitecturePanel Painting,Stained Glass; Gurk; Iconographies, InnovativeSchutzmantelmadonna; Lambach; Romanesque Art and ArchitectureMural Painting; Salzburg; SeligenstadtWilliam C.Crossgrove Brown University Encyclopedic Literature, German; SachliteraturPia F.Cuneo University of Arizona Augsburg; Holbein, Hans, the ElderGuido O.E.J.De Baere University of Antwerpen Jan van Ruusbroec

Kelly DeVries Loyola College in Maryland Archer/Bowman; Armor; Crossbow; Fortification; Warfare; WeaponsErnst S.Dick University of Kansas Heinrich von dem TrlinMadelyn Bergen Dick Atkinson College, York University, Toronto, Ont. Adelheid of Burgundy; Conrad I; Eike von Repgkow, Legal; Henry I; Henry the Lion; Holy Lance; WelfsWilliam J.Diebold Reed College, Portland, Ore. Garolingian Art and ArchitectureIntroduction, Architecture,Mural PaintingMartina Dlugaiczyk Universitt Gesamthochschule Kassel Clothing, Costume, and Fashion; Gothic Art and ArchitectureSculpture, TombsMaria Dobozy University of Utah Eike von Repgow; Law and Lawbooks; SpielmannsepenMichael R.Dodds Southern Methodist University Berno von ReichenauEdelgard E.DuBruck Marygrove College, Detroit, Mich. FastnachtspieleLawrence G.Duggan University of Delaware Conversion; Diocese; Empire; Frstbischof; Landfrieden; MonasteriesGraeme Dunphy Universitt Regensburg Drama, Paradise Plays; Gesta Romanorum; Physiologus; Tannhuser, Der; WartburgkriegMatthias Exner Bayerisches Landesamt fr Denkmalpflege Mstair; Steinbach; WerdenAn Faems Katholieke Universiteit Leuven Beatrijs van Nazareth; Brendan; Dirc van Delf; Willem of HildegaersberchRobert C.Figueira Lander University, Greenwood, S.C. Frederick IIRuth H.Firestone Fort Hays State University, Hays, Kans. Albrecht von Kemenaten; Alpharts Tod; Boethius; Buch von Bern and Rabenschlacht; Dietrich und Wenezlan; Eckenlied; Sigenot; VirginalJacqueline A.Frank Long Island University, C.W. Post Campus Jewish Art and ArchitectureMichael Frassetto Encyclopedia Britannica Admonitio Generalis; Carolingians; Clovis; Conradin of Hohenstaufen; Crusades; Donation of Constantine; Frederick I Barbarossa; Gerhoh of Reichersberg; Hanseatic League; Henry the Raspe; Lechfeld, Battle of; Louis the Child; Manfred of Sicily, Ordinatio Imperii; Otto IV; Otto of Freising; Rahewin; Staufen; SuccessionPeter Frenzel Wesleyan University Mnch von Salzburg, Der; Reinmar von Zwetter; Sangspruch; Walther von der VogelweidePaul J.J.van Geest Titus Brandsma Instituut Thomas KempisEdda Gentry Pennsylvania State University MuskatbltFrancis G.Gentry Pennsylvania State University Annolied; Armer Hartmann; Ezzo; Heinrich von Melk; Kaiserchronik; Notker von Zwiefalten

Richard Gerberding University of Alabama, Huntsville PippinPatricia A.Giangrosso New Orleans, La. Benedict, Rule of Saint; CharmsJason Glenn University of Southern California Charles III, the Simple; RobertiansHans-Peter Glimme Philipps- Universitt Marburg Romanesque Art and ArchitectureIntroduction, ArchitectureJutta Goheen Carleton University, Ottawa, Ont. Hugo von TrimbergEric J.Goldberg Claremont McKenna College, Claremont, Calif. Strasbourg OathsElsa Gontrum Brookline, Mass. Bern; Sion; Winterthur; ZugEileen P.McKiernan Gonzlez University of Texas at Austin Iconographies, InnovativeAnna Selbdritt,Holy KinshipMariken Goris and Wilma Wissink Katholieke Universiteit Nijmegen Boethius, DutchKaren Gould University of Texas at Austin Gutenberg, Johann; Iconographies, InnovativeThrone of Solomon; Manuals, Artists', and Modelbooks; Manuscripts, Painting and Production; Printing Press; StrasbourgAnna A.Grotans Ohio State University Notker LabeoA.L.H.Hage Chronicles, City, Dutch; Chronicles, Regional/National, Dutch; Chronicles, World, Dutch; Historiography, DutchRosemary Drage Hale Concordia University, Montreal, Que. Caesarius of Heisterbach; Ebner, Margaretha; Langmann, Adelheid; Legends; Preaching and Sermons, GermanLeslie Anne Hamel University of Maryland University College at Schwbisch Gmnd Esslingen am Neckar; Lorch; Maulbronn; Schwbisch Gmnd; Stuttgart; WimpfenTracy Chapman Hamilton University of Texas at Austin Charles IV, Art; Parler Family; Prague; Theoderic, MasterMelissa Thorson Hause Marburg, Ger. Marburg; Town Planning and UrbanismEdward R.Haymes Cleveland State University Dietrichepik; Heldenbcher; Nibelungia Minora; Walther und Hildegund; Wolfdietrich and OrtnitM.F.Hearn University of Pittsburgh Ottonian Art and ArchitectureSculptureHubert P.Heinen University of Texas at Austin Friedrich von Hausen; Heinrich der Glchezere; Marner, Der; Minnesang; Reinmar der Alte; Ulrich von Lichtenstein; VersificationMatthew Z.Heintzelman University of Chicago Drama, Christmas Plays; Drama, Easter Plays; Drama, Passion PlaysWolfgang Hempel University of Toronto MuspilliIngeborg Henderson University of California, Davis Drama, Last Judgment Plays; Konrad von Heimesfurt; Stricker, Der; Wigamur; Wirnt von Grafenberg

David Hiley Universitt Regensburg Liturgy, MusicErnst Ralf Hintz Fort Hays State University, Hays, Kans. Arnolt, Priester; Chronicles, City, German; Chronicles, Regional/Territorial, German; Entechrist, Linzer; Frau AvaMaartin J.F.M.Hoenen Katholieke Universiteit Nijmegen Agricola, Rodolphus; Marsilius van Inghen; Siger of BrabantMelanie Holcomb University of Michigan Lorsch; Metz; Ottonian Art and ArchitectureTextiles; Romanesque Art and ArchitectureIvoriesJoan A.Holladay University of Texas at Austin Basel; Bonn; Cologne, Art; Constance, Art; Elizabeth of Hungary; Erfurt; Frankfurt am Main; Frueauf, Rueland the Elder, Gerthener, Madern; Gothic Art and ArchitectureManuscript Painting,Sculpture, Introduction; Guelph Treasure; Hirsau; Ingelheim; Iconographies, InnovativeIntroduction,Acts of Charity,Holy Graves, Johannesschssel,Palmesel,Saint John on the Bosom of Christ,Wise and Foolish Virgins; International Style; Limburg an der Lahn; Magdeburg; Merseburg; Metalworking; Moser, Lucas; Mhlhausen; Quedlinburg; Romanesque Art and ArchitectureStained Glass; Rottweil; Sankt Paul in Lavanttal; Wartburg; Xanten; ZurichFranz-Josef Holznagel Cologne, Ger. LiederhandschriftenBram van den Hoven van Genderen Rijksuniversiteit te Utrecht UtrechtGert Hbner Univenitt Bamberg Berthold von Holle; Boppe, Meister; Hornburg, LupoldCaroline Huey University of Texas at Austin Folz, HansJoseph P.Huffman Messiah College, Grantham, Penn. Cologne, Archdiocese; Cologne, History; Matilda, Empress; Siegburg, Abbey; WestphaliaLarry Hunt University of Georgia Prayer BooksW.N.M.Hsken Nijmegen, Netherlands Drama, Dutch; Drama, Latin, NetherlandsJane Campbell Hutchison University of Wisconsin, Madison E.S., Master; Playing Cards, Master ofWilliam H.Jackson University of St. Andrews, St. Andrews, Scot. Herbort von Fritzlar; TournamentsAnteuen Jansen Rijksuniversiteit te Leiden HollandVirginia Jansen University of California, Santa Cruz Gothic Art and Architecture, LateArchitectureJohn M.Jeep Miami University Abrogans; Georgslied; IsidoreSibylle Jefferis University of Pennsylvania Aristoteles und Phyllis; Heiligenleben; Hermann von Fritzlar; Legenda Aurea, Alsatian; Maget Kron, Der; Mrtyrerbuch; Passienbchlein; Passional; Rudolf von Ems; Schondoch; VterbuchPhyllis G.Jestice California State University, Hayward Coronation; Gottschalk of Orbais; Otto I; Otto II; Otto III; Privilegium Ottonianum; TheophanuSidney M.Johnson

Indiana University Hochzeit, Die; Nabuchodonosor; Song of Songs; Vom Rechte; Wolfram von EschenbachChristine M.Kallinger-Allen Berlitz Translation Services Fuetrer, UlrichVirginia Roehrig Kaufmann Princeton Research Forum Franciscan Art and Architecture; Gothic Art and ArchitectureManuscript Painting; Helmarshausen; Henry the Lion, Art; Iconographies, InnovativeEquestrian Figures; Roger of Helmarshausen; Theophilius PresbyterRhonda L.Kelley University of Georgia Devotio ModernaPeter Klein Universitt Hamburg DendrochronologyGenevra Kornbluth University of Maryland, College Park Carolingian Art and ArchitectureSculpture and MetalworkMikel M.Kors Katholieke Universiteit Nijmegen Peters, GerlachJerry Krauel Concordia University HildebrandsliedKelly Kucaba University of Kentucky Gottfried von StraburgMarcia Kupfer Washington, DC World MapsRichard H.Lawson University of North Carolina, Chapel Hill TatianM.Rebecca Leuchak Roger Williams University, Bristol, R.I. Gothic Art and ArchitectureMetalwork; Ottonian Art and ArchitectureMetalworkDaniel M.Levine Savannah College of Art and Design Lochner, Stefan; Sankt Bartholomew Altarpiece, Master of; Sankt Veronica, Master ofGertrud Jaron Lewis Laurentian University, Sudbury, Ont. Elisabeth von Schnau; Gertrud von Helfta; Hildegard von Bingen; Sister-BooksOrlanda S.H.Lie Rijksuniversiteit te Utrecht Encyclopedic Literature, Dutch; Magic and Charms, DutchKaren E.Loaiza State University of New York at Plattsburgh Bernward of Hildesheim; Ottonian Art and ArchitectureIntroduction,Ivories; Registrum Gregorii, Master of; Sankt Gall; Theophanu, ArtDouglas W.Lumsden University of California, Santa Barbara AlcuinWinder McConnell University of California, Davis KudrunJohn M.McCulloh Kansas State University MartyrologyWilliam C.McDonald University of Virginia Beheim, Michael; Heselloher, Hans; Laufenberg, Heinrich; Patronage, Literary; Stainreuter, LeopoldJames W.Marchand The University of Illinois at Urbana-Champagne Alphabet; Fishing; Gothic Language; Hunting and Hunting Literature; Mythology; Onomastics; RunesJohn Margetts University of Liverpool Herrand von Wildonie

Susan Marti University of Dortmund Chur; Engelberg; Knigsfelden; Sankt KatharinenthalLesa Mason Savannah College of Art and Design Liturgical Vestments, Manuscripts, and Objects; Relics and ReliquariesHartwig Mayer University of Toronto Glosses, Old High GermanClaudia A.Meier Johannes Gutenberg-Universitt Mainz Kaiserchronik, Latin, IlluminatedRobert Melzak Carolingian Art and ArchitectureIvoriesKerstin Merkel Universitt Gesamthochschule Kassel MainzThom Mertens Antwerp, Belgium Mande, Henrik; Radewijns, FlorensKathleen J.Meyer Bemidji State University Jans Enikel; Lutwin; Ulrich von ZatzikhovenClyde Lee Miller State University of New York at Stony Brook Albertus Magnus; Nicholas of CusaScott Bradford Montgomery University of North Texas Gothic Art and Architecture, LateMetalwork; Iconographies, InnovativePestkreuz; Melk; Mnster; Sankt Wolfgang; ZillisRuth M.W.Moskop East Carolina. University Aschaffenburg; Coburg; Dinkelsbhl; Hamburg; Landshut; Maria Worth; Mariazell; Munich; Passau; Sankt Veit an der Glan; Viktring; Wiener Neustadt; WrzburgWilliam North Carleton College, Northfield, Minn. Adam of Bremen; Billunger; Bruno of Magdeburg; Comes/Graf, Conrad II; Dux/Herzog; Henry III; Saxon WarJim Ogier Roanoke College, Salem, Va. Wittenweiler, HeinrichJudith H.Oliver Colgate University Iconographies, InnovativeGnadenstuhl; Osnabrck; SoestLea T.Olsan Northeast Louisiana University MagicLinda B.Parshall Portland State University Albrecht von ScharfenbergBrian A.Pavlac King's College, Pa. Berthold von Henneberg; Bouvines, Battle of, Burchard of Worms; Frederick III; Golden Bull; Hammer of Witches; Henry VI; Lothar III; Marchfeld, Battle of; Maximilian; Morgarten, Battle of; Nancy, Battle of; Reichskirche; Sempach, Battle of; Trier; Worrington, Battle ofPaul B.Pixton Brigham Young University Adolf of Nassau; Burg; Coblenz; Conrad of Marburg; Conrad of Urach; Constance; Councils/Synods; Crusades, Recruitment; Engelbert of Berg; Judith the Welf; Lahn River; Lorraine; Luxemburger; Matfridings; Meuse River; Ministerials; Moselle River; Nobility and Farmers; Oliver of Paderborn; Reich; Rhenish Palatinate; Salians; Statutum in Favorem Principum; Toul; VerdunSara S.Poor Stanford University Marriage and Divorce; WomenIrmengard Rauch University of California, Berkeley Bible Epic, SaxonSusanne Reece Ohio State University

Koerbecke, Johann; Pilgram, Anton; Pleydenwurff, Hans; Schongauer, MartinMarta O.Renger Rheinische Friedrich-Wilhelms Universitt Bonn Block Book; Freiberg; Gothic Art and Architecture, LatePainting; Housebook, Master of the; Life of Mary, Master of; Nicolaus Gerhaert von Leyden; Pilgrims Badges; Wienhausen; Witz, KonradBert Roest Rijksuniversiteit te Groningen Preaching and Sermons, DutchJonathan Rotondo-McCord Xavier University of Louisiana Anno; Birth, Marriage, Burial; Ezzonids; Feudalism; Historiography, German; Land Ownership; Rainald of DasselElisabeth Rber-Schtte Landesamt fr Denkmalpflege Sachsen-Anhalt Halberetadt; Halle

James A.Rushing Jr. Rutgers University, Camden Gottfried von Straburg, Tristan, Illustrations; Heinrich von Veldeke, Eneide, Illustrations; Liederhandschriften, Illustrations; Rodenegg; Roland and Charlemagne, Illustrations; Runkelstein; Schmalkalden; Wolfram von Eschenbach, Parzival, Illustrations; Wolfram von Eschenbach, Willehalm, IllustrationsWarren Sanderson Concordia University, Montreal, Que. Ottonian Art and ArchitectureArchitectureLieselotte E.Saurma-Jeltsch Universitt Heidelberg Lauber, DieboltJ.Anda Schippers Nijmegen, Netherlands Fables, DutchCorine Schleif Arizona State University Gothic Art and Architecture, LateIntroduction; Iconographies, InnovativeSchreinmadonna; Kraft, Adam; Women and ArtMargaret Schleissner Rider University, Lawrenceville, N.J. Hartlieb, Johannes; Medicine; Pregnancy and ChildbirthBrigitte Schliewen Vaterstetten, Ger. Erhart, Gregor; Erhart, Michel; Grasser, Erasmus; Herlin, Friedrich; Leinberger, Hans; Pacher, Michael; Zeitblom, BartholomusKlaus M.Schmidt Bowling Green State University Arthurian Literature, German; Charlemage Epics, GermanCarol M.Schuler The Cloisters, Metropolitan Museum of Art Gothic Art and ArchitectureSculpture, Devotional Images; Iconographies, InnovativeArma Christi,Sorrows of the Virgin; Ludolf of SaxonyJames A.Schultz University of California, Los Angeles ChildhoodJenny H.Shaffer New York Aachen; Essen; FuldaDorothy M.Shepard Pratt Institute Admont; Millstatt; Romanesque Art and ArchitectureManuscript Illumination; Schwbisch-HallAudrey Shinner University of Georgia Saints' CultElizabeth Siberry London, Eng. Crusades, OppositionJeffrey Chipps Smith University of Texas at Austin Gothic Art and Architecture, LateSculpture; Multscher,

Hans; Nuremberg; Rothenburg ob der Tauber; Stoss, Veit; Syrlin, Jrg (Elder and Younger); Ulm; Wolgemut, MichaelSusan L.Smith University of California, San Diego ArmenbibelWilliam Bradford Smith Oglethorpe University, Atlanta, Ga. Charles IV; Hohenzollern; WenceslasKristine K.Sneeringer Washington University in St. Louis Heinrich von Veldeke; MeistersingerIrene Spijker Houten, Netherlands Charlemagne Epics, DutchCharlotte Stanford Pennsylvania State University Erwin von SteinbachMark Stansbury-O'Donnell University of St. Thomas Egbert; Speyer; Trier, ArtKathryn Starkey University of North Carolina, Chapel Hill PaleographyAlexandra Sterling-Hellenbrand Goshen College, Goshen, Ind. Albrecht von Johansdorf; Heinrich von MorungenAlison G.Stewart University of Nebraska, Lincoln PrintmakingSteven A.Stofferahn Purdue University Dhuoda; Judith, EmpressDebra L.Stoudt University of Toledo Berthold von Regensburg; David von Augsburg; Friends of God; Mechthild von Hackeborn; Seuse, HeinrichRobert G.Sullivan University of Massachusetts Anegenge; Genesis and ExodusPegatha Taylor University of California, Berkeley Capitularies; EigenkircheRita Tekippe University of Central Arkansas Frederick I Barbarossa, Art; Gothic Art and ArchitectureIvories; Siegburg, ArtLynn D.Thelen Ursinus College, Collegeville, Pa. Nibelungenlied; Werner der GrtnerJ.W.Thomas University of Kentucky Pleier, DerDavid F.Tinsley University of Puget Sound Hermann von Sachsenheim

Frank Tobin University of Nevada, Reno Mechthild von Magdeburg; Meister EckhartJens Ulff-Mller Lyngby, Denmark Coinage and Mints; Numbers and CalculationWilliam Urban Monmouth College, Monmouth, Ill. DeutschordenAlphons M.J.van Buuren Amensfort, Netherlands Potter, DircStephanie Cain Van D'Elden University of Minnesota Graf Rudolf; Helbling, Seifried; Krenberc, Der von; Moriz von Cran; Suchenwirt, PeterEvert van den Berg Zwolle, Netherlands Dutch Language, DialectsDieuwke van der Poel

Rijksuniversiteit te Utrecht Heinric; Roman de la Rose, DutchKim Vivian Augustana College, Rock Island, Ill. Hartmann von AueSusan von Daum Tholl Simmons College, Boston Carolingian Art and ArchitecturePaintingOebele Vries Rijksuniversiteit Groningen FrieslandStephen L.Wailes Indiana University DramaRichard Ernest Walker University of Maryland at College Park Literature and Historiography; Peter von StaufenbergJames K.Walter Ohio Northern University Servatius; Sylvester, Trierer; TnugdalusSusan L.Ward Rhode Island School of Design Ars Moriendi; Bamberg; Braunschweig; Cistercian Art and Architecture; Gothic Art and ArchitectureIntroduction, Sculpture, Early Altarpieces,Sculpture, Interior Programs,Sculpture, Portal Programs; Iconographies, InnovativeMass of Saint Gregory; Liturgy, Furniture; Maria Laach; Naumburg; Nicholas of Verdun; Notke, Brent; Romanesque Art and ArchitectureSculpture; Roriczer, Matthew; Rostock; SchleswigDavid A.Warner Rhode Island School of Design Liudolfinger; Magdeburg; Renovatio Imperii Romanorum; Thietmar of Merseburg; Widukind of CorveySarah Westphal McGill University, Montreal, Que. SammelhandschriftWilliam Whobrey Yale University Bookmaking and Production; Libraries; UniversitiesKatharina M.Wilson University of Georgia Hrosvit of GandersheimAnne Winston-Allen Southern Illinois University at Carbondale Johannes von Tepl; Gardens and Gardening; RosaryGregory H.Wolf St. Louis University Koblenz; Lucerne; Meien; Schwerin; WormsManfred Zimmermann University of Cincinnati Heinrich von NeustadtJan M.Ziolkowski Harvard University Archpoet; Ecbasis Captivi; Hrabanus Maurus; Latin Language; Poeta Saxo; Ruodlieb; Walahfrid Strabo; WalthariusDetlef Zinke Augustinermuseum, Freiburg im Breisgau Freiburg

A

Aachen

A cultural and strategic center during the Carolingian dynasty and Holy Roman Empire, Aachen, known for its hot springs, was the location of first-centuryRoman baths. By the late fourth or early fifth century, Roman structures had been transformed into a Christian cult site. Perhaps lured by the waters,Pippin (Ppin) III, founder of the Carolingian dyansty, wintered in Aachen with his itinerant court in 766 and erected a residence. While little is known ofPippin's activities, evidence of his continuation of the cult site exists in scanty archaeological remains beneath the church built by his son, Charlemagne.Aachen's unparalleled renown and complex, changing significance may be tied to Charlemagne, who erected a palacehis favored residencefrom ca.792805. This ambitious "capital," located within the Frankish strong-hold of Austrasia, created a political, ecclesiastical, and artistic center forCharlemagne's empire and became the kernel of the medieval city.While excavations shed light on aspects of the extensive complex, Charlemagne's palace, located in what is still Aachen's center, is no longer extant,save for portions of his chapel to the Virgin and the Granusturm, a square, multistoried, staired structure punctured by round-arched windows. Thechapel, a two-story polygonal structure with a multistoried westwork (western entry structure), preceded by a forecourt and flanked to the north and southby (now lost) basilical structures, exists today in much altered form, partially masked by nineteenth-century restorations. The chapel forecourtcommunicated with the audience hall to the north through a walk-way with a central gatehouse. The extant Granusturm stood at the east end of theaudience hall (atop which a Gothic town hall was built), giving access to the building's upper reaches as well as to a neighboring two-story building.Aspects of the palace structures may be likened formally to Roman and Byzantine worksthe chapel to San Vitale in Ravenna and the audience hall toConstantine's audience hall in Trier. From what is known of the buildings and the chapel's lavish outfitting, however, it is evident that Charlemagne mined,and thus assumed and directed, a number of pasts to create a multivalent, malleable image. The chapel's bronze doors, the spolia (recycled) columns ofthe interior columnar screen juxtaposed with the second-story bronze grills and now-lost dome mosaic, as well as the rich production of the "court school,"all bear witness to diverse, evocative artistic preoccupations.With Charlemagne's death at Aachen in 814, Louis the Pious (Louis I) ruled from the center established by his father. Throughout the Middle Ages,possession of Aachen, and thus of Charlemagne, was seen as a conferral of authority and legitimacy, a notion evidenced early, in the unsuceessfulattempt by Charles II (Charles the Bald) to take the city in 876. Aachen's multilayered and changing importance as a power center became increasinglycomplex as successive rulers took up residence, augmenting the palace as well as the burgeoning city.The 936 coronation of Otto I (Otto the Great) initiated a tradition in which the chapel at Aachen was the locus for the coronation of "German" rulers until1531. The Ottonian focus on their appropriated imperial center is evidenced by the rulers' extant commissions for the chapel, including the Lothar Cross(ca. 1000), the Gospel Book of Otto III (ca. 990), the altar frontal known as the Pala d'Oro (ca. 1020), and the ambo (lectern) of Henry II (r. 10021024).Otto III as well augmented the cityscape

Aachen, palace chapel, view from north. Photograph: Joan A.Holladay through a ring of foundations: the Church of the Savior, a Benedictine foundation for women, to the north (on the site of the late-ninth-century funerarychurch of Louis the Pious); the basilical collegiate church dedicated to the emperor's friend, the martyr Saint Adalbert, to the east; and the Benedictineabbey of Burtscheid to the south. These foundations, completed under Henry II, have subsequently undergone numerous rebuildings. Otto III's particularinterest in Aachen, and in Charlemagne, reached an apogee with his "discovery" of Charlemagne's tomb within the chapel on Pentecost in the year 1000.The twelfth century saw another spate of imperial interest in Aachen, as Frederick I Barbarossa, who walled the growing city in the late twelfth century(expanded in the thirteenth and fourteenth centuries), purportedly opened Charlemagne's tomb in 1165 and removed the remains. While the ruler againlavished great attention on Aachen, the elaborate chandelier (the Barbarossaleuchter), probably created in connection with Charlemagne's canonizationafter the exhumation, stands today as his significant commission. The creation of the shrine (ca. 11821215) for Charlemagne's relics and theMarienschrein (shrine of the Virgin), begun in 1238 to hold relics of Christ, the Virgin, and John the Baptist donated by Charlemagne, anchored the statusof Aachen as a multivalent holy site.The growing cult gave rise, beginning in the fourteenth century, to the city's prominence as a pilgrimage site, the goal of the Aachenfahrt (pilgrimage toAachen). The numerous chapels attached to the perimeter of Charlemagne's buildingthe Matthiaskapelle (first quarter of the fourteenth century); theAnnakapelle (thirteenth and fourteenth centuries); the Karlskaplle (14551474); the Nikolaskapelle (second half of the fifteenth century); and the vastchoir (13551414)together with additions to the chapels treasury, bear testimony to the changing yet persistently central importance of Aachen in theMiddle Ages.

BIBLIOGRAPHY

Faymonville, Karl. Die Kunstdenkmler der Stadt Aachen. 2 vols. 1916; rpt. Dsseldorf: Schwann, 1981.Grimme, Ernst Gnther. Der Dom zu Aachen: Architektur und Ausstattung. Aachen: Einhard-Verlag, 1994.Heitz, Carol. L'architecture religieuse carolingienne: Les formes et leurs fonctions. Paris: Picard, 1980.Kubach, Hans Erich, and Albert Verbeek. Romanische Baukunst an Rhein und Maas: Katalog der vorromanischen und romanischen Denkmler, vol. 1. Berlin: Deutscher Verlag frKunstwissenschaft, 1976, pp. 119.

Jenny H.ShafferSEE ALSOCarolingian Art and Architecture ; Charlemagne; Frederick I Barbarossa; Gothic Art and Architecture ; Henry II, Art; Louis the Pious; Otto I; Otto III;Romanesque Art and Architecture

Abrogans

Preserved in three mansucripts, this LatinOld High German glossary is "the oldest German book," the first German-Latin bilingual dictionary and thefirst German dictionary of any kind. The eighth-century manuscript from St. Gall includes the OHG Lord's Prayer and Creed (written by a different scribe),and also contains a significant source for the Latin Abrogans, the Abavus maior glossary. Some 3,670 Old High German glosses (circa 14,700attestations) of an alphabetical Latin thesaurus of obscure biblical terms were compiled from various older Latin, largely patristic glossaries (seeheading: Incipiunt closas ex novo et veteris testamenti, "Here begin glosses from the New and Old Testament"). Manuscript K (St. Gall) is a late-eighth-century copy from the southwestern German-speaking area, perhaps Murbach; Pa was copied circa 810 in Murbach; Ra represents an early ninth-centurycopy from Reichenau. K and Ra are copies made from the same version. The original Abrogans deutsch is perhaps from the mid-eighth century. Themanuscripts show Irish/Anglo-Saxon scribal influence, corresponding to the introduction of glossaries to Germany by English missionaries.Abrogans is an alphabetical listing by Latin headword [L], followed by Latin synonym(s) [S], each with Old High German translation [T]. Beginning with thetitle headword (K, p. 4): Abrogans [L1]=dheomodi [T1], humilis [S1]=samftmoati [T2]; abba [L2]=faterlih [T3], pater [S2]=vater [T4]; and so on, Theglosses, an invaluable source of early OHG vocabulary and grammar, are evidence of intense lexicographical labor, aimed primarily at careful Biblestudy. Samanunga-uuorto, an abridged reworking of the Latin-German glossary, appeared later.

BIBLIOGRAPHY

Bischoff, Bernhard, Johannes Duft, and Stefan Sonderegger (transcription), eds. Die "Abrogans"-Handschrift der Stiftsb ib liothek St. Gallen: das lteste deutsche Buch. 2 vols. St. Gallen:Zollikofer, 1977.Sievers, Eduard, and Elias Steinmeyer, eds. Die althochdeutschen Glossen, vol. 1. 1879; rpt. Dublin and Zurich: Weidmann, 1969, pp. 1270.Splett, Jochen. "Abrogans (deutsch)." In Die deutsche Literatur des Mittelalters: Verfasserlexikon, vol. 1. 2d ed. Berlin: de Gruyer, 1978, cols. 1215.. Abrogans-Studien. Stuttgart: Steiner, 1976.

John M.JeepSEE ALSOGlosses, Old High German; Latin Language

Adam of Bremen (fl. 2nd half of the 11th c.)

Author of the Gesta Hammaburgensis ecclesiae Pontificum (History of the Archbishops of Hamburg-Bremen), Adam of Bremen is widely regarded asone of the finest historians of the Early Middle Ages, yet little is known about the man himself beyond the hints and allusions embedded in his history andits extensive marginalia. These suggest that Adam was born in Franconia and was probably trained in the cathedral school of either Bamberg orWrzburg. In 1066/1067 he joined the church of Bremen, having been recruited by the mercurial and ambitious Archbishop Adalbert (10431072), whoprobably saw in him a means to improve the literary reputation of his see. By 1069, Adam was in charge of the cathedral school at Bremen, appearing ina document as magister scolarum (master of learning). Soon thereafter, Adam began working on his Gesta. In his search for information on the history ofhis church and its privileges, he drew uponoften quite criticallya wide range of sources including Carolingian hagiography, diplomata, papal letters,and the accounts of eyewitnesses such as King Sven II Estridsen of Denmark, one of Adam's principal informants on the peoples of and Christianmissions to Scandinavia. Completed just after Adalbert's death (1072), the first "edition" of the history (1075/1076) was dedicated to Adalbert'ssuccessor Liemar (10721101). Adam continued to revise and augment his history in marginalia until his death in the early 1080s.In the first two of the four books comprising his work, Adam traced the history of the church of Hamburg-Bremen from its foundation in the eighth centuryuntil 1043, attentively documenting the vicissitudes of its wealth and power in the region and the role played by its bishops in the politics of the GermanReich. In book 3, Adam turned to the pontificate of Bishop Adalbert and rendered a portrait of his late patron that is remarkable for its subtle portrayal ofthis tragic, complex man; indeed, it is recognized as a milestone in medieval biography. Having repeatedly highlighted his church's leading role in theconversion of the northern peoples to Christianity, Adam devoted the whole of book 4 to detailed descriptions of the geography, people, and customs ofthe Scandinavian lands as well as the progress of missionary efforts in those areas. Although perhaps intended to aid and inspire later missionaries,Adam's relatively balanced account of these non-Christian peoples makes his work a monument of medieval geographical writing and one of the mostimportant sources of information concerning pre-Christian Scandinavia.

BIBLIOGRAPHY

Adam of Bremen. History of the Archb ishops of Hamburg-Bremen, trans. F.J.Tschan. New York: Columbia University Press, 1959.. Magistri Adam Bremensis Gesta Hammaburgensis Ecclesiae Pontificum, ed. B.Schmeidler. Monumenta Germaniae istorica. Scriptores Rerum Germanicarum 2. Hannover: Hahn, 1917.Misch, Georg. Geschichte der Autob iographie, vol. 3, pt. 1. Frankfurt am Main: G.Schulte-Bulmke, 1959, pp. 168214.Theuerkauf, G. "Die Hamburgische Kirchengeschichte Adam's von Bremen. Gesellschaftsformen und Weltbilder im elften Jahrhundert." In Historiographia MediaevalisFestschrift fr Franz-Josef Schmale, ed. Dieter Berg and Hans-Werner Goetz. Darmstadt: Wissenschaftliche Buchgesellschaft, 1988, pp. 118137.

William NorthSEE ALSOCarolingians; Frstbischof; Reich

Adam von Fulda (ca. 14451505)

Generally remembered as a musician, Adam von Fulda was a remarkably versatile scholar who was respected for his poetry and historiography as wellas for his musical accomplishments. He was probably born in Fulda around 1445 and was a member of the Benedictine order at Vormbach until hismarriage in 1490. In that year he went to work for Frederick the Wise, Elector of Saxony, entering court service at Torgau as a singer. In 1492 Frederickappointed him court historiographer, suggesting that he compile a history of the Saxons. By 1498 he was in charge of musical activities at Frederick'scourt. In 1502 he was appointed professor of music at Wittenberg University, a post he held until his death from the plague in 1505.His music theory treatise De musica, the work for which he is best remembered, dates from his years at Vormbach; it was completed the year he left theorder. The four parts of this work deal with music in general, the modes and their application in composition, musical meter and notation, and musicalintervals. While Adam's rules for composition may be regarded today as vague and general, they are nevertheless a competent codification ofcontemporary practice. Noteworthy is his attack on those responsible for the damage done to music by instrumentation of vocal compositions andinaccurate musical notation.Most of Adam's surviving music is liturgical, including seven hymns, one mass, a magnificat, two antiphons, and a respond. The compositional style ofthese works owes less to the composer's contemporaries such as Josquin des Prez and more to the Burgundian composers of the precedinggeneration, principally Guillaume Dufay, whom Adam regarded as a composer worthy of imitation. Yet Adam was most highly regarded in his time for hissecular songs, three of which have survived: "Ach Jupiter" (Oh, Jupiter), "Apollo aller Kunst" (Apollo of all art), and "Ach hlff mich leyd" (Oh, help mesorrow), the last of which the Swiss music theorist Heinrich Loris (Henricus Glareanus, 14881563) recommended as a skillfully composed and justlyfamous work. Indeed, in addition to appearing in the Dodecachordon (Basel, 1547) with a sacred text added by Loris himself, versions of the song arefound in many other musical collections of the time, such as in a songbook from Aachen and in transcription for keyboard in two collections from Poland.Adam's publications outside of music include a collection of religious poetry compiled by Wolf Cyklops of Zwickau. This volume, published bySymphorian Reinhart in 1512 and known for its eight woodcuts by Lucas Cranach, was dedicated to Duke John of Saxony, brother of Frederick the Wise.Johannes Heidenberg (Johannes Trithemius, 14621516), abbot of Wrzburg, used Adam's unfinished history of the Saxons in his own historicalwritings, but he attributes Adam's contributions to a fictitious eleventh-century monk, Megenfrid of Fulda.

BIBLIOGRAPHY

Adam de Fulda. "De Musica." 1490. Scriptores ecclesiastici de musica sacra potissimum, ed. Martin Gerbert. Vol. 3. St. Blaise: Typis San-Blasianis, 1784; rpt. Hildesheim: Olms, 1963, pp. 329381.Borchardt, Frank L. German Antiquity in Renaissance Myth. Baltimore: Johns Hopkins Press, 1971.Bridgman, Nanie. "The Age of Ockeghem and Josquin." In The New Oxford History of Music, vol. 3, Ars Nova and the Renaissance, 13001400, ed. Dom Anselm Hughes and Gerald Abraham.London: Oxford University Press, 1960. Glareanus Henricus. Dodecachordon, trans. Clement A.Miller. N.p.: American Institute of Musicology, 1965.Niemller, Klaus Wolfgang. "Adam von Fulda." In The New Grove Dictionary of Music and Musicians, ed. Stanley Sadie. Vol. 1. London: Macmillan, 1980, p. 120.Riemann, Hugo. History of Music Theory, trans. Raymond Haagh. Lincoln: University of Nebraska Press, 1962.Seton-Watson, R.W. "The Abbot Trithemius." In Tudor Studies. Freeport, N.Y.: Books for Libraries Press, 1969.

Andrew E.Anderson

Adelheid of Burgundy (ca. 931-December 16/17, 999)

Holy Roman Empress and saint, Adelheid (Adelaide) of Burgundy (Adelheid von Burgund) was the daughter of Rudolf II of Burgundy (r. 912937) andBertha of Swabia (d. 960). In 937 Adelheid was betrothed to Lothar of Italy, marrying him in 947. After Lothar's death in 950, Berengar II of Ivrea seizedthe throne and in April 951 Adelheid was incarcerated; she escaped in August. Her plight came to the attention of the German king Otto I, who traveled toItaly in September 951; they were married in October. Between 952 and 955 Adelheid had four children: Henry and Brun, both of whom died in childhood,and Mathilda and Otto. Adelheid was politically active during Otto's reign, but after his death in 973, she retired to Italy when her relationship with her sonOtto II and his Byzantine wife Theophanu deteriorated,After Otto II's death in 983, Theophanu's assumption of the regency for Otto III restricted Adelheid's influence. But Theophanu died in 991 and Adelheidcontinued the regency to 995. Adelheid spent her remaining years at the monastery of Selz, her foundation in Alsace. She died at Selz on the night ofDecember 16/17, 999.Adelheid was called "Companion of Kings" (consors regni); Pope Sylvester II called her "Mother of Kingdoms." Abbot Odilo of Cluny wrote her epitaphand Pope Urban II canonized her in 1097. No descriptions or personal letters exist, but the memorial book of the Ottonians contains the dates April 20,950 and August 20, 950 with the details of Adelheid's imprisonment. These incidents defined Adelheid's personality, and it was through these deeds thatshe wished to be remembered.

BIBLIOGRAPHY

Baumer, Gertrud. Otto I und Adelheid. Tbingen: Wunderlich, 1951.Eickhoff, Ekkehard. Theophanu und der Knig: Otto III und seine Welt. Stuttgart: Klett-Cotta, 1996.Glocker, Winfrid. Die Verwandten der Ottonen und ihre Bedeutung in der Politik. Cologne: Bhlau, 1989.Odilo of Cluny. "Epitaphium domine Adelheide auguste." In Mitteilungen des Instituts fur sterreichische Geschichte: Ergnzungsband 20/2. ed. Herbert Paulhart Graz: Bhlaus Nachfolger, 1962.[Odilo's life of Adelheid.]

Madelyn Bergen DickSEE ALSOOtto I; Otto II; Otto III; Sylvester II; Theophanu

Admonitio Generalis

The Admonitio Generalis (General Admonition) is the capitulary, or collection of ordinaces, issued by Charlemagne in 789 that most clearly states theeducational and religious goals and ideals of the great Frankish king and that also laid the foundation for the Carolingian renaissance. Consisting ofeighty-two chapters (fifty-nine of which borrowed extensively from the eighth-century canon law collection Dionysio-Hadriana), the Admonitio reveals thelevel of cultural sophistication achieved at Charlemagne's court and the greater goals the court sought to reach. In this capitulary, Charlemagne assertedhis understanding that he was a new Josiah with the responsibility to rule over God's new chosen people and the duty to reform their moral and spirituallives so that they could achieve salvation. To accomplish this goal, and to create "peace, concord, and unanimity" among the Christian people, theAdmonitio contains legislation concerning the moral reform and discipline of the priesthood. The capitulary emphasizes the responsibility of thepriesthood to preach "rightly and honestly" and to avoid innovation and teachings contrary to the canons. Priests are expected to live moral lives, to teachtheir flocks to follow their example, and to be guided in the performance of their duties by the bishops. Chapter 72 of the Admonitio asserts theresponsibility of the bishops and monks to establish schools to teach boys to read and write and to correct books important to the faith. The AdmonitioGeneralis established the religious reform program of Charlemagne's reign and, with the Epistola de litteris colendis, the revival of learning associatedwith his broader reform program.

BIBLIOGRAPHY

Admonitio Generalis, Monumenta Germaniae historica 22, pt. 1. Hannover: Hahn, n.d., pp. 5362.McKitterick, Rosamond. The Frankish Church and the Carolingian Reforms, 789895. London: Longman, 1977.

Michael FrassettoSEE ALSOCapitularies; Carolingians; Charlemagne

Admont

In 1074 Archbishop Gebehard of Salzburg founded a Benedictine monastery in Styria with monks form the monastery of St. Peter at Salzburg. Gebehard,who presented the foundation books, vestments, chalices, and other liturgical necessities, was buried there. Among the manuscripts he gave Admont arean eleventh-century Italian giant Bible (Admont manuscripts C/D) and a gospel book (manuscript no. 511). The latter was made in Salzburg in the lateelventh century and is decorated with architectually framed portraits of the gospel writers on gold grounds.Admont's scholarly life and scriptorium were very active in the Romanesque period. It produced manuscripts of intellectual vigor, some of themilluminated. The fact that some of these were signed by women is a reminder that Admont also housed a group of nuns. Their conventual buildings andthe abbey church were both dedicated in 1121.The Admont Bible, a giant Bible made in Salzburg circa 11401150 (now Vienna, sterreichische Nationalbiblothek, no. Cod. Series nova 27012702),was owned by the monastery from the fourteenth century until 1937. This important Bible, known for its numerous framed miniatures, also contains manyhistoriated and decorated initials. Much of its iconography and the modeling of its faces derive from Byzantine models, which is characteristic of Salzburgpainting of the twelfth century.The contents of the library, including around 1,100 manuscripts, are all that are left of the medieval monastery after the fire of 1865.

BIBILOGRAPHY

Beach, Alison I. "The Female Scribes of Twelfth-Century Bavaria." Ph.d. diss., Columbia University, 1996.Buberl, Paul. Die illuminierten Handschriften in Steiermark 1: Die Stiftsb ib liothek zu Admont und Vorau. Beschreibendes Verzeichnis der illuminierten Handschriften in sterreich 4. Leipzig:Hiersemann, 1911, pp. 1160.Mannewitz, Martin. Stift Admont: Untersuchungen zu Entwicklungsgeschichte, Ausstattung und Ikonographie der Klosteranlage. Munich: Scaneg, 1989.Mazal, Otto. Katalog der abendlndischen Handschriften der sterreichischen Nationalb ib liothek, Series nova, 4 vols. Vienna: George Prachner, 1963, vol. 2/1, pp. 359368.Swarzenski, Georg. Die Salzburger Malerei von den ersten Anfngen b is zur Bltezeit des romanischen Stils: Studien zur Geschichte der deutschen Malerei und Handschriftenkunde desMittelalters, 2 vols. Lepipzig: Hiersemann, 19801913, pp. 7277; figs. 92113.Swarzenski, Hanns. "Two Unnoticed Leaves from the Admont Bible." Scriptorium 10 (1956): 9496.Swoboda, Karl M. "Die Bilder der Admonter Bibel des 12. Jahrhunderts." Neue Aufgaben der Kunstgeschichte (1935): 4763."Vitae Gebehardi et successorum eius." Monumenta Germaniae Historica, Scriptores 11, ed. G.H.Pertz. Hannover: Hahn, 1854, pp. 1751.Wehli, Tnde. "Die Admonter Bibel." Acta Historiae Artium 23/34 (1977): 173285.

Dorothy M.ShepardSEE ALSORomanesque Art and Architecture; Salzburg

Adolf of Nassau (1250-July 2,1298)

The son of Count Walram II of Nassau, Adolf was the German King from 1292 to 1298. Born in 1250, he married Imagina of Limburg and acquired areputation as a warrior early on. His brief rise to prominence came about following the failure of King Rudolf I of Habsburg to win over King Wenceslas IIof Bohemia to the election of Rudolf's son, Duke Albert of Austria, as successor to the throne at a diet held at Frankfurt in 1291, just weeks before hisdeath. Duke Albert of Saxony and probably also Margrave Otto of Brandenburg gave their votes to Bohemia at Zittau for a sum of money. This coalitionwas broken up by Archbishop Siegfried of Cologne, who supported Count Adolf of Nassau, to whom he had been obligated since the battle of Worringenin 1288. Archbishop Siegfried in turn persuaded Archbishop Gerhard II of Mainz to join him. Adolf was elected in the Dominican church at Frankfurt onMay 5, 1292 with the votes of Mainz (voting also for Bohemia), Cologne, Saxony, and perhaps also Brandenburg. Pfalzgrave (Count Palatine) Ludwig IIwas alone in supporting the candidacy of Albert of Austria.Adolf's election was in part a reaction against the proFrench policy of the Habsburgs, but it was also due to the fact that Adolf was territorially weak andthus posed no threat to the great princes of the empire. Rudolf, too, had begun his reign as a weak king, but the acquisition of Austria had made him oneof the most powerful princes in the empire, and a king with an extensive power base was not to their liking. Prior to his coronation on June 24, 1292, Adolfhad capitulated to exorbitant demands by the electors which pushed his modest resources to the limit: Cologne was promised 25,000 marks, with severalNassau fortresses taken as security; he was also obligated to hand over various lands, including some fortresses which did not even belong to him;Wenceslas II of Bohemia apparently received the promise that Adolf's son Rupert would marry Agnes of Bohemia, and that until the marriage, imperiallands in Pleien (around Altenburg) and Eger would be held as security; Archbishop Gerhard of Mainz insisted that Adolf assume his debts incurred withthe curia at his (Gerhard's) election, and that Landgrave (territorial ruler) Henry of Hesse be elevated to the status of an imperial prince; ArchbishopBohemund of Trier made rather modest demands.Adolf's policy thereafter was dictated by the need to relieve his staggering financial burdens, while at the same time securing a better territorial basis forhis monarchy. In 1293 he bought the Landgrafschaft (provincial ducal property) of Thuringia (in some sources also Meien) from the always-needy Albertthe Entarteter, Landgrave of Thuringia for 11,00012,000 marks of silver. While this increased Adolf's debt substantially, it gave him a significantterritorial base, something he had previously lacked. Adolf's presence in Thuringia was perceived as a threat to the archbishop of Mainz, however, whosechurch had extensive holdings there also. The king's position vis--vis the princes took an even bolder upturn in June 1294 when Edward I of Englandoffered an alliance against France which included a 25,000 subsidy. Backed with such resources, Adolf made a move to actually take possession of hisThuringian and other middle-Germany lands from the landgrave's disinherited sons, Frederick the Dauntless and Dietzmann (Dietrich).Adolf's growing power so close to Bohemia eventually drove King Wenceslas into the camp of his former archrival, Duke Albert of Austria. Criticism ofAdolf was voiced in 1297 while Archbishop Gerhard was in Prague to conduct the belated consecration of Wenceslas as king. By February 1298Brandenburg and Saxony had joined the conspiracy as well: they had persuaded Duke Albert to bring his army to the Rhine and attack Adolf, followingwhich they would declare the latter deposed and Albert his successor. The plot unfolded almost as scripted: while Albert busied Adolf with his army on theUpper Rhine, Archbishop Gerhard of Mainz, who had been excommunicated by the pope, set about to orchestrate the deposition; this action took placeon June 23, 1298 with five of the seven electoral votes.Adolf tried to reclaim in battle what he had lost through the electors' treachery: he fell at Gllheim, near Worms, on July 2, 1298, and was buried at themonastery Rosenthal. He was remembered in two long, contemporary poems.

BIBLIOGRAPHY

Patze, H. "Erzbischof Gerhard II von Mainz und Knig Adolf von Nassau." Hessisches Jahrbuch fr Landesgeschichte 13 (1963): 83140.Samanek, Vincenz. Studien zur Geschichte Knig Adolfs von Nassau. Sitzungsberichte der sterreichischen Akademie der Wissenschaft, philosophisch-historische Klasse 207, no. 2. Vienna:Holder-Pichler-Tempsky, 1930.Schliephake, F.W.Theodor. Geschichte von Nassau, vols. 23. Wiesbaden: Kreidel, 1867, 1869.Trautz, Fritz. "Studien zur Geschichte und Wrdigung Knig Adolfs von Nassau." Geschichtliche Landeskunde 2 (1965): 165.

Paul B.PixtonSEE ALSOWenceslas

Agricola, Rodolphus (Roel of Huysman; 1443/1444-October 27, 1485)

One of the earliest and most important humanists of the Low Countries, Agricola was multitalented and had a great influence on the development ofnorthern humanism.He was born in 1443/1444 in Baflo near Groningen, studied medieval liberal arts in Erfurt (B.A. 1458) and Louvain (M.A. 1465), and law during his stay atPavia (1468/14691475, with several interruptions). In Pavia he also became influenced by Italian humanists. In 1484 he lectured on Pliny the Younger atHeidelberg, where he died October 27, 1485.Agricola was not a prolific writer; his oeuvre is rather limited and heterogeneous. It includes a treatise on the art of dialectical invention entitled Deinventione dialectica, and a number of Latin poems, letters, and orations, most of which are available only in manuscripts and early printed editions.In De inventione dialectica, completed in 1479 and considered to be his main work, Agricola puts forward a theory for finding arguments and fordeveloping and structuring reasoning. In opposition to the medieval tradition, it combines dialectics and rhetoric. The work has a practical, not atheoretical, orientation and examines and uncovers the laws of speech and argumentation. It teaches how to use language correctly and persuasively, inliterature, politics, preaching, science, and so on. The book became very popular in the sixteenth century and was issued in a large number of editions.

BIBLIOGRAPHY

Agricola, Rodolphus. De inventione dialectica lucubrationes. Cologne, 1539; rpt. Nieuwkoop: De Graaf, 1967.. De inventione dialectica lib ri omnes. Cologne, 1539; repr. Frankfurt am Main: Minerva, 1967.. De inventione lib ri tres. Drei Bcher ber die Inventio dialectica, ed. Lothar Mundt. Tbingen: Niemeyer, 1992.. Over dialectica en humanisme, ed. Marc van der Poel. Baarn: Ambo, 1991.. "Rudolph Agricola's De Inventione Libri Tres: A Translation of Selected Chapters," ed. J.R.McNally. Speech Monographs 34 (1967): 393422.Akkerman, Fokke, and Arjo Vanderjagt, eds. Rodolpus Agricola Phrisius 14441485. Leiden: Brill, 1988 [bibliography pp. 314344].

Maarten J.F.M.Hoenen

Agriculture

See Feudalism; Gardens and Gardening; Nobility and Farmers

Albertus Magnus (ca. 12001280)

Also known as "Albert the Great" and "Universal Doctor," Albertus Magnus was a Dominican theologian, philosopher, scientist, and saint. One of themost famous medieval precursors of modern science and best known today as the teacher of Thomas Aquinas, Albert was renowned in his own day forhis encyclopedic knowledge, his voluminous writings, and his interpretive rendering of Arabic Aristotelian sources into Latin. In part due to spurious worksgiven his name, he gained further repute after his death and into the Renaissance as a magician and alchemist. Albert introduced his own sort ofAristotelian scholasticism to the Dominican houses of study he founded in Germany, and Albertist Aristotelianism became one strain of the scholastic viaantiqua (old path) that endured in German universities.Born in Lauingen, Bavaria, Albert first studied at Padua, joined the Dominicans in 1223, and went to Cologne to study theology. He moved to Paris(1241) to complete his master in theology (1245), and was the first German to hold a chair of theology there. He lectured at Paris until returning toCologne (1248) to found the Dominican precursor to the university, studium generale. Thomas Aquinas, Ulrich of Strassburg, and Giles of Lessines wereamong his students during these years. Made provincial of German Dominicans (1254), Albert acted as arbiter in many difficult ecclesial and politicaldisputes, one of which led to his being made bishop of Regensburg briefly in the 1260s. Sent to all Germany by Pope Urban IV to preach the Crusade in12631264, he thereafter resided mostly in Cologne, although he traveled on foot continuously throughout Germany, as wel