gateways 1999 (volume 12 issue 1)

GATEways to Teacher Education

The Journal of the Georgia Association of Teacher Educators

published by GATE and Berry College

Volume XII (1) Fall1999

Editors Jacqueline M. Anglin, Berry College Kathy R. Gann, Berry College

Officers of the Association President: Sam Hausfather, Berry College President Elect: Maryellen S. Cosgrove, Armstrong Atlantic State University Past President: Kathryn Gerrard, Brewton-Parker College Secretary: Gwen Middlebrooks, Spelman College Treasurer: Jackie Castleman, Tattnall County (GA) Schools Executive Secretary: Eugene Bales, Atlanta (GA) Public Schools (Retired)

Editorial Board Jacqueline Anglin, Berry College (GA) Beverly Annento, Georgia State University (GA) Cynthia Bennett, Albany State University (GA) Angela Lumpkin, State University of West Georgia (GA) Mike Miller, Gustavus Adolphus College (MN) Carla Moldavan, Berry College (GA) Christine Puckett, Floyd County Schools (GA) Diane Welley, Kennesaw State University (GA)

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From the Editor

In the manuscripts of this issue of GATEways to Teacher Education you will hear many different voices. Each of the authors writes from a unique perspective utilizing qualitative methodologies.

In the manuscript "Mathematical Problem Solving: Lessons Learned from a ' Junior Professor'," Katherine Owens invites us into a mathematics methods course, and we listen to a fifth grade student discuss problem-solving with preservice teachers. We hear the perceptions of the child, students in the class, and the faculty member as they work together to understand the challenges of developing relevant and meaningful instructional strategies.

Professor Angela Humphrey Brown leads us through "A Tale of a Labyrinth Experience: Insights Gained in Implementing an Innovative Secondary Methods Course," and we eavesdrop on her journey through professional practice. You will savor the experiences of visiting a Wall of the Holy Catalog, the Wall of Real World Teacher Voices, and the Wall of Student Reflection.

"Well, I am the only one with black hair in my class," says Alicia as she gives words to her feelings about growing up in an Anglo· American school and community. Alicia and her classmates are featured in a manuscript rich with description and interview data by Nancy Gallenstein titled "School Experiences of Elementary Hispanic Students in a Predominantly AngloAmerican Environment: A Phenomenological Study."

In "Negotiating the Construction of Field Experiences: Creating a Model of Successful Early Field Experiences," Sam Hausfather, Mary Outlaw, and Elizabeth Strehle take us through focus group methodology which challenges teachers and teacher educators to develop a model program for early field experiences. Ten focus groups worked to delineate the communication, shared responsibility, individual growth toward goals, and balance and interdependence in early field experiences.

I know you will appreciate all our authors' attempts to capture the complex nuances of diverse perspectives in the teache~ education community. I thank our editorial board for choosing manuscripts that echo our collective voices.

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Volume XII (1) Fall1999

Table of Contents

Mathematical Problem Solving: Lessons Learned from a "Junior Professor" ............................ 5 Katherine D. Owens The University of Akron

A Tale of a Labyrinth Experience: Insights Gained in Implementing an Innovative Secondary Methods Course ................... , ....................................... 19 Angela Humphrey Brown Piedmont College

School Experiences of Elementary Hispanic Students in a Predominately Anglo-American Environment: A Phenomenological Study .....•..•...... 35 Nancy L. Gallenstein University of South Carolina-Spartanburg

Negotiating the Construction of Field Experiences: Creating a Model of Successful Early Field Experiences ............ , ................................ 55 Samuel J. Hausfather, Mary Outlaw Berry College Elizabeth L. Strehle Northern Illinois University

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4 GATEways Volume Xll(l) Fall1999 Teacher Education

Mathematical Problem Solving: Lessons Learned from a "Junior Professor"

Katherine D. Owens

Abstract

The purpose of this paper is to share the insights of a group of preservice elementary teachers about a problem-solving activity experienced in the context of their mathematics methods course. The problem-solving activity was carried out by a fifth grade student who taught the university class by sharing her problemsolving techniques, her creative solution to a nonroutine math problem, and her assistance to the preservice teachers as they solved the same problem. The preservice teachers' insights, as described by their writings, include: an examination of nonroutine mathematical problems and how to solve them; an appreciation of the importance of challenging students in ways that are interesting and fun; the value of allowing students to express their own mathematical ideas; the importance of the affective domain in mathematical problem solving; and a confrontation of their personal attitudes toward problem solving.

Introduction

The hallmark of mathematics is problem-solving, identified by the National Council of Teachers of Mathematics as the most important topic in the mathematics curriculum (NCTM, 1989; NCTM, 1998). Over the last forty years, researchers have examined students' mathematical problem-solving skills and knowledge (Polya, 1957; Ballew & Cunningham, 1982; Silver,

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1982; Charles & Lester, 1984; McLeod, 1988; Malloy & Jones, 1998), investigating factors contributing to successful problemsolving. These factors include: knowledge and use of strategies, analytic reasoning ability, self-esteem, belief systems, and confidence in one's mathematical ability regardless of past success.

Experts have written about the nature and structure of teacher training in problem solving (LeBlanc, 1982; Burns, 1992; Emenaker, 1996; Van de Walle, 1998). Topics such as teaching specific strategies, beliefs about mathematics, affective goals, and cognitive and metacognitive factors have been extensively explored.

It is not the purpose of this paper to summarize the many volumes devoted to solving problems or to expound on the findings of scholarly researchers about teaching problem solving. The purpose of this paper is to share the insights of a group of preservice elementary teachers about a problem~solving activity experienced in the context of their mathematics methods course. The preservice teachers are elementary education majors enrolled in an NCA TE accredited state university in an urban setting.

Background

The preservice elementary teachers take the mathematics methods course near the completion of their teacher education studies. The methods instructor incorporates standards-based content, teaches using "best practice" methodologies, links lesson planning with authentic assessment, and emphasizes communication and cooperative learning. The course contains eight weeks of field experience in an urban elementary school. During this field experience the students design mathematics lessons, teach their lessons to small groups of children, and self-evaluate

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MATHEMATICAL PROBLEM SOLVING

their teaching. Many of the children are below average achievers in mathematics.

The preservice elementary teachers had studied the distinction between computational exercises and process problems, had been taught Polya's method (Polya, 1957) of solving problems, and had been given several experiences with mathematical problem solving before Melissa came to visit the class. Melissa is a gifted student with poise and skill far-exceeding her fifth grade peers. Melissa's math experiences had been less than enriching. Melissa's math teacher held to the constraints of the curriculum prescribed for fifth grade and was reluctant to allow Melissa to advance to more difficult math learning leaving Melissa unchallenged and somewhat bored. Melissa's mother, a university professor and friend of the math methods instructor, sought out ways to enrich Melissa's math education. With the advice of the methods instructor, Melissa borrowed the problemsolving project, Dream Park (McGraw Hill, I 997) from the university's curriculum library. Realizing that the math skills needed to complete this project would not be a formidable challenge for Melissa, the methods instructor suggested that Melissa might want to share her thinking, the processes she employed, and the finished product with the preservice elementary teachers in the math methods class. Melissa and her mother readily agreed to that extension.

The Project

Dream Park, a third grade mathematics project, combines mathematics skills with a real-world problem-solving experience and requires teams of students to design an amusement park. The project is introduced through a video in which a group of children enter a contest to design an amusement park. Rules of the contest specify that the park must contain rides appropriate for little

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children and adults, concession stands, game booths, walkways, and places to rest. The teacher's guide contains a reproducible park grid, cutouts of possible features of the park, amount of space taken up by each feature, as well as helpful instructions and teaching suggestions. The first task, helpful to the eventual completion of the layout, is to administer a survey to determine favorite rides so that the park will be appealing to those who will pay to use it. The designers must also determine the price of the tickets for each ride. Mathematics skills incorporated in the project include: designing, giving and analyzing a survey; finding area using a grid; maximizing the use of available space; and multiplication with money. In addition to these skills, the students make an oral presentation to the class to share their designs.

Presentation to the Mathematics Methods Class

Melissa's presentation began with the methods instructor's brief introduction, sharing with the preservice teachers the background of Melissa's involvement with the project. Next, Melissa offered a few remarks about herself. She described a summer enrichment program in technology, mathematics, science, and problem solving which she attended at the end of third grade. Her mother told the class that Melissa' s mathematics standardized test scores were very high and that her daughter had been placed in the top fifth grade math group. The principal of her school assigned the teacher most-highly qualified to teach math to work with the remedial math groups.

Melissa began her presentation by showing the video to the class. She next described the materials she used to complete the project. "I used the video tape, (which I didn't like because it reminded me of Barney), scissors, glue, coloring materials, and the grid. I colored the pieces because I thought they looked

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AIATHEAIATICAL PROBLEM SOLVING

better. I asked two friends to help me so we could do the survey. We designed our plan; we read the rules; we took a survey. Together we came up with the ride choices- the ones that got the highest numbers on our survey. We then arranged our rides and features on the map." The project suggested that students produce a catalog of attractions and prices for each ride. Melissa then explained her procedure. "When we chose a ride, we entered the nwnber of tickets you'd need for that ride." She gave as an example, "If each ticket costs 5¢, then 5 * 4 equals 20¢ and that's the cost of the ride."

Next, Melissa displayed her completed grid on which she had pasted amusement park rides, concessions, picnic areas, and walkways. She asked the class if they had any questions.

Preservice teacher 1 : "How did you go about doing the survey? How did you divide the work? How did you write it down?"

Melissa: "We voted on it. We had a sheet (it was in the packet) which I put into the computer. We took a survey- we voted on our favorite rides--we voted for eight of them and the ones with the highest numbers I put on the map."

Preservice teacher 2: "How many people did you survey?" Melissa: "Four people. And we surveyed my little brother to

see what rides he wanted because he's younger than us and we had to have rides for younger kids."

Preservice teacher 2: "Did you interview older people to see what rides they'd like?"

Melissa: "Well, I asked my mom, except she doesn' t really want to ride any rides."

Preservice teacher 3: "Do you think the survey would be different if you did this in a classroom?"

Melissa: "Yes, I'd probably survey my class and I'd have more people. But I'd still have to survey older and younger people because it says in the rules that you have to have rides for all those people."


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Pre service teacher 4: "How did you decide how many tickets for each ride?"

Melissa: "How big it is and how many lots it takes up ... like, if you were goin' for a kiddie ride, like the carousel that only takes one lot and then the Colossus that takes 36, so I think the kiddie carousel takes one ticket and the Colossus takes 5 or more."

Preservice teacher 5: "How long did this (project) take (to complete)?"

Melissa: "It only took me two days; maybe an hour or two at a time."

Preservice teacher 2: "What math did you learn?'' Melissa: "The math involved problems where we used

multiplication for the cost of the different rides. I thought of a different thing you could use -: fractions - like how much of a fraction each ride takes up and then like if you had like 50 tickets you could find how many tickets you would have left using subtraction. Like if the roller coaster cost 5 tickets, you'd have 45 tickets left."

Preservice teacher 6: "Do you wish your teacher had done this for the whole class?"

Melissa: "Uh huh, then it would have been more fun than giving us a paper and making us sit there and do a worksheet. That's what we usually do in math class."

At this point, the methods instructor thought it was a good idea for Melissa to discuss the methods she used to complete this project. The methods instructor began a dialogue with Melissa about this project and the math that is usually taught in her classroom.

Instructor: "Besides the skills you already knew when you did this project, did you learn anything new you hadn't done before?"' .

Melissa: "Putting stuff on a grid." Instructor: "And planning? Working together?"

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Melissa: "Uh huh, we usually don't work together in math class."

Instructor: "What was the best thing about working together?"

Melissa: "We got to share our ideas; we got to work together and we didn't have to do everything. Like there's stuff other people could help you with instead of like being stuck there forever. You can figure it out with a friend and not be frustrated trying to figure it out by yourself."

Instructor: "What about bad things in working together? Is there anything bad- times when you didn't agree?"

Melissa: "Ya; well when we first started we didn't watch the movie and we didn't know we were supposed to make a plan; so we started putting stuff on the grid and it was all touching. And then we were fighting about what rides to put on and stuff and we couldn't figure it out, so we finally figured out we were supposed to take a survey."

Instructor: "So, you didn't follow directions, but later after you watched the video and took a survey, it straightened out, right?"

Melissa: "Right? Instructor: "As you know, this is really an activity for third

graders. How would you do this with older children?" Melissa: "You could make fractions with the grid; like the

carousel is 4 blocks and you could have them figure out how many blocks are in the whole thing. And you could make a fraction, reduce it to lowest terms, and then like, put two rides together to see how much space they take up and that's like adding. That's what we were doing in my math class."

Instructor: "So you were doing fractions in your class and that's what made you think of fractions for this activity. That's wonderful; very good transfer of ideas.,

It was evident to the methods instructor at this point in the discussion that the preservice teachers were anxious to try out the

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project themselves. So, with Melissa's help, six groups of four students in each group began the task of designing their amusement park. To save time, each group would not do a formal survey and would just decide on the rides they would use in their version of Dream Park. Melissa circulated around the groups, listening to the preservice teachers, giving suggestions, and answering their questions. After about 30 minutes of work, the methods instructor called the room to order and asked if Melissa had any questions or comments to make to the group.

Melissa: "What did you think of this exercise?" Preservice teacher 2: "We needed more time. This was

actually harder than we thought it would be." Preservice teacher 3: "We found ourselves defining the steps

we needed to solve the problem. Then our group discussed how we might teach them to our future students."

Preservice teacher 6: "We didn't always agree but we tried to be thoughtful about where to put restrooms and areas that made sense."

Instructor: "Did you find yourself asking questions of each other as you were doing this? So, the overall need was to design the park, but that need had to be sliced into smaller pieces. Those were all the sub-questions that require thought and eventually determine a plan of action."

Preservice teacher 8: "What about management of this activity in the classroom?"

Preservice teacher 2: "I'd definitely circulate around and give feedback."

Preservice teacher 6: "I'd have the pieces pre-cut." Preservice teacher 1: "I'd make sure all the kids were

working when I'm roaming around." The time for Melissa to stay with the class was ending, so the

instructor thanked Melissa on behalf of the class who applauded her and wished her well. The instructor allowed a few more minutes for the students to work on their projects before assigning

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the reflective writing for the day. The topic oftoday's writing: write your reaction to Melissa's problem solving.

Written Reactions

To Melissa's presentation: Many students commented on Melissa's giftedness, her self-esteem, and poise. Several credited her mother for recognizing that Melissa was unchallenged in school and initiating the conversation that lead to an enrichment experience for her daughter. A couple of students contrasted Melissa to themselves in fifth grade. "She reminded me of myself in school - making a project out of anything - and being selfmotivated," remarked one student. While another commented, "When I was in fifth grade, I would have never talked in front of college students, let alone teach them a lesson." Melissa's presence reminded one student of her experiences working with gifted children in a local school. This student offered this, "These (gifted) students always seem to amaze me no matter how many times I work with them. Melissa would have fit in with my group of children wonderfully. She was inquisitive and very confident."

Melissa's math class: Several students expressed amazement at the methods Melis~a's teacher was using in her math class. One student offered this comment: "I remember when I was in fifth grade math was something done on worksheets or on the board. It is sad with all the advancements and research in education that teachers are still using the OLD BORING methods." And another: "I find it amazing that the teacher would NOT be innovative with her class. How does she (teacher) keep them (children) motivated?"

Challenging gifted/female students: One of the preservice teachers who is also a parent commented: "I could relate to the problem of the under-challenged child. My daughter always thought her math was too easy and found it boring. I was glad (to


Owens

see) that others outside the school setting are providing her (Melissa) with stimulating math ideas .... Going outside regular ~chool is often necessary to keep bright students working at their ability level."

Comments about girls and math anxiety were forthcoming: "I hope to find the trend for female students backing down and being discouraged from pursuing math to be disappearing. If it is not, I plan on implementing all I can to shift this common problem." And another: "We have to be particularly careful to keep girls feeling capable in math. This math anxiety that hits many middle school girls can scare them off from continuing in higher (level) math classes."

A female student revealed her own feelings about math when she wrote: "I think I would have enjoyed doing these types of activities when I was in school. I really struggled in math once I hit the 5th grade. I still struggle with negative feelings about math. Yet, doing the activity today helped me have a more positive view of math since we did a non-traditional math activity."

Student contact: The preservice teachers reflected on the chance to probe one student's thinking, an opportunity usually unavailable to a te~cher responsible for a large group of students. Typical of their comments was these: "I thought this was a great way to get us to think how kids think in real-world problemsolving situations. It was neat to see her perspective for solving the problem." And: "I liked having a student present tbis activity because it showed me the level of understanding that a student could have for such an exercise. It made it (the activity) more meaningful to me to have a student describing her own experiences in doing the activity than it would have been to listen to an adult describing a student's experiences." And: "Learning how a student thinks and approaches problems can help me to develop innovative lessons. . .. even if I was uncomfortable with these types of activities, it is still important to include them in my



classroom." One student felt that Melissa was enriched by the contact with the university class. "It was a great idea to have a young student show us her project. Not only did it give us an opportunity to see her ideas on math tluough her eyes, but I think, it helped her, too, because she was able to see that we (adults) had a lot of the same challenges that she and her friends had."

The experience of being taught by a fifth grader prompted several comments: "It was a completely different experience (being taught by a student). It helped me by showing us what students really want.'' And: "She was open, honest, and seemed very at ease with us. I liked the way she came around to the tables to assist us. She was supportive and encouraging. She guided us, but didn't give us answers. I think she must have had some good teachers to show her how to teach."

Reflections on problem-solving: The methods instructor had many goals in mind when she arranged for Melissa to visit the math methods class. One of these goals was to expose the preservice teachers to an authentic problem-solving experience. Many students reflected on the problem-solving nature of the activity. One such response: "The activity itself was interesting and really required us to work as a group. It requires cooperation, communication and problem-solving skills." And: "I really enjoyed the amusement park project. I think it is a fun activity and it is a 'real-world' type of problem; it is something they (students) can relate to since most students have been to an amusement park. ... It is also a great cooperative learning activity which usually doesn't take place in mathematics. This activity helps students mathematically by helping them use their addition, subtraction, multiplication, graphing, and grid-use skills." And a third: "There were so many ways that this problem could be adapted for older children. Melissa shared some of these and I thought of others as she was teaching. I guess, a good problem should be 'rich' and adaptable. I like to fmd new waysmore authentic ways - to use math skills in everyday life."

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Some stu'dents commented on their own views of solving problems. One student wrote: "Problem solving in mathematical terms has always been a difficult task for me. In this project I see the importance of teaching math skills and applying them to authentic situations. I think we (teachers) should allow our students to teach and present to their peers as a learning tooL" And another: "The opportunity afforded by Melissa was great. Not only did having her present her project to the class offer me a look at how she perceives problems and school, but it also allowed me to r.eflect on my own thinking toward projects like that. The opportunity for revision, growth, and age-appropriate/ subject·appropriate (within this type of problem solving) is immense .... This (experience) provided me with concrete evidence that the more freedom that students have to value problem solving, the more confidence they have solving problems in the big picture."

Summary

As has been previously stated, one of the methods instructor's main goals of the involvement of an elementary school student was to give the preservice teachers an insight into problem solving by a gifted young lady. The project generated results that the methods instructor did not anticipate. These results, as described by the writings of the preservice teachers, include: an examination of nonroutine mathematical problems and how to solve them; an appreciation of the importance of challenging students in ways that are interesting and fun; the value of allowing students to express their own mathematical ideas; the importance of the affective domain in mathematical problem

solving (McLeod, 1988) and a confrontation of one's personal attitudes toward problem solving.

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Many students set this exposure to Melissa in the context of their future career goals as teachers. One student, who was particularly critical of the way she was taught math in contrast to what she had seen Melissa accomplish remarked: "I think we as educators should teach the problem solving skills that Melissa is familiar with. All students, regardless of their abilities, can benefit from these skills. I will work to have a class full of 'Melissas' when I eventually teach!" Similarly, another student wrote, "I do not want to be a math teacher who passes out worksheets and gives quizzes. I want to make it fun and challenging. It is unfortunate that so many math teachers tum kids off to math." Meeting Melissa and sharing her excitement made a couple of students anxious for the day they will begin their teaching. In the words of one of the students: HAs soon as I saw Melissa, I knew what she had to present to the class would be wonderful. She exhibited such a positive attitude and a smile from the beginning to the end .... To think how grown up and mature Melissa came across in teaching us, I realize that I'm really proud and excited for the day when I become a full-time teacher."

References

Ballew, H., & Cunningham, J. W. (1982). Diagnosing strengths and weaknesses of sixth·grade students in solving word problems. Journal for Research in Mathematics Education, 13, 202"210.

Burns, M. (1992). About teaching mathematics: A K-8 resource. White Plains, NY: Cuisenaire (distributor).

Charles, A. U., & Lester, F. K., Jr. (1984). An evaluation of a process-oriented instructional program in mathematical problem solving in Grades 5 and 7. Journal for Research in Mathematics Education, 15, 15-34.


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Emenaker, C. (1996). A problem-solving based mathematics course and elementary teachers' beliefs. School Science and Mathematics, 96, 75-84.

Hann, L. W., Paxton, E., & Terpay, L.A. (eds.) (1997). Dream park: A mathematical problem-solving experience. Windows on math: Videotape investigation. Atlanta: Optical Data Corporation.

LeBlanc, J. F. (1982). A model for elementary teacher training in problem solving. In Lester, F. K., Jr. & Garofalo, J. (eds.) (1982). Mathematical problem solving: Issues in research. Philadelphia: The Franklin Institute Press.

Malloy, C. E., & Jones, M. G. (1998). An investigation of African American students' mathematical problem solving. Journal for Research in Mathematics Education. 29, 143-163.

McLeod, D. B. (1988). Affective issues in mathematical problem solving: Some theoretical considerations. Journal for Research in Mathematics Education, 19, 134-141.

National Council of Teachers of Mathematics (NCTM). (1989). Curriculum and evaluation standards. Reston, VA: Author.

National Council of Teachers of Mathematics (NCTM). (1998). Principles and standards for school mathematics: Discussion draft. Reston, VA: Author.

Polya, G. (1957). How to solve it. New York: Doubleday. Silver, E. A. (1982). Knowledge organization and

mathematical problem solving. In Lester, F. K., Jr. & Garofalo, J. (eds.) (1982). Mathematical problem solving: Issues in research. Philadelphia: The Franklin Institute Press.

Van de Walle. J. (1998). Elementary and middle school mathematics: Teaching developmentally (3rd ed.). New York: Addison Wesley Longman.

18 GATEways Volume XII(l) Fa111999 Teacher Education

A Tale of a Labyrinth Experience: Insights Gained in Implementing an Innovative Secondary

Methods Course

Angela Humphrey Brown

Abstract

1bis tale highlights one professor's journey as she deals with the problems and concerns encountered when creating an innovative course for methods instruction. Insights and introspections of the process of integrating theory, methodology, and student experience in the development of a relevant instructional methods course are shared. Suggestions of possible activities and outcomes to be presented in such a class, as well as questions for future study, are introduced.

Once upon a time in the land of teacher education, Angela, a new assistant professor of secondary education was presented with the opportunity to teach a methods course for pre-service teachers. The following is an account of her two-year adventure as she traveled through the Labyrinth of Planning on her way to the kingdom of effective teaching.

Keeping the goal of creating a methods course that would help students become effective secondary teachers at the forefront of her mind, Angela embarked upon her journey. After entering the Labyrinth of Planning, she came upon the Wall of the Holy Catalog. According to this sacred document the Advanced Instructional Methods Course was supposed to be "a study of instructional methods including cooperative learning, inquiry learning, grouping considerations, and other instructional variables considered for the educator" (Piedmont College, p. 130). However, the course d~scription on the Wall of the Holy


Brow11

Catalog failed to explain the unique context in which this course would be taught.

Angela continued to travel further along in the Labyrinth of Planning. As she turned a comer, she ran into the Wall of Contextual Analysis. This wall revealed that the context of Angela' s Advanced Instructional Methods Course would be different from the typical methods course. This wall revealed that all of the students in the methods course would be graduate students working toward their first teaching certificate. The methods course would be a two-semester course, which focused on multifaceted contexts, whereas other methods courses were usually only one semester and focused on one specific content area. Therefore, students in this course would come from a variety of content areas. The methods course would be taken along with their year-long student teaching, rather than as a prerequisite to student teaching. As Angela continued to look at the rigid Wall of Contextual Analysis, she started wondering if a general methods course would be as effective as content-specific methods courses in its preparation of pre-service teachers for their roles as secondary teachers. She began to wonder what she had gotten herself into and started traveling backwards down the corridor that had lead her to the Wall of Contextual Analysis.

While back-tracking through the Labyrinth of Planning from the Wall of Contextual Analysis, Angela bumped into a wall she missed when she entered the maze. At the Wall of Self Examination Angela pondered her experience and ability to teach this course. She had spent the majority of her college education preparing to teach mathematics and had taught mathematics at a local high school. With the exception of teaching a couple of communication courses and one semester of physical science, Angela had only taught mathematics and viewed herself as a mathematics specialist. She recalled the insight gained at the Wall of Contextual Analysis which left her wondering "How could a mathematics specialist teach a secondary methods course

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to students from disciplines other than mathematics?" The assignment came from her department chair thus Angela found comfort in knowing that his confidence in her abilities came from his 63 years of experience and wisdom.

As Angela continued to stare at the deep blue recesses of the Wall of Self Examination, she noticed a faint image near the bottom. Crouching lower to get a closer look, she realized the image was composed of deeply hidden thoughts from her own methods class experience ten years earlier. Remembering her mathematics methods course, Angela refreshed her feeling of its lack of benefit to her mathematics teaching. Rising from her crouched position, she started making a list of things that she wished had been a part of her methods course when she was a student. When walking away from the Wall of Self Examination, she smiled and thought, "Why can't I include them in the methods course?" With that thought in mind, Angela continued down the dark corridor of the Labyrinth of Planning until she began to hear muttered voices.

Rounding the next corner, she came face-to-face with the Wall of Real World Teacher Voices. Awe struck, Angela developed a novel idea; "Why not ask teachers who work in real schools what they felt would be beneficial for pre-service teachers in a methods course?" Angela skipped along the Wall of Real World Teacher Voices stopping from time to time to seek advice and input from teachers in the field. At first the obstacle of being a mathematics specialist blurred her vision because she only asked mathematics teachers. However, as she continued to skip, she stumbled upon a dissected frog, just as a science teacher reached out to prevent her from falling. At that point, Angela realized she needed to seek advice from other content-area teachers too. To her astonishment, many content-area teachers agreed that a combined content methods course would be more meaningful for pre-service teachers! Most of the voices from the Wall of Real World Teacher Voices expressed sentiments similar to those of Angela's


Brown

when she was at the Wall of Self Examination. They too had experienced content method courses that had not prepared them for the real world of teaching. Also, they thought about the student teachers coming to them from other universities having just completed a content specific methods course; yet, these student teachers did not feel prepared to teach. The sentiments they raised resonated with Angela's own experiences as a cooperating teacher working with several student teachers. At the Wall of Real World Teacher Voices, reflections about the things that should be included in a methods course to better prepare preservice teachers for real world teaching took place.

As Angela disappeared around the corner at the end of the Wall of Real Teacher Voices, she was drawn by the magnetic forces of the Wall of Doubt. Up until this point in her travel through the Labyrinth of Planning, Angela had only been thinking about herself and what she wanted to do in the methods course. Now facing the dark, nagging, and seemingly wunovable Wall of Doubt, she remembered that she was a new assistant professor. As a person new to teacher education, maybe she should not be thinking so radically. What did real-world teachers know about training pre-service teachers? Further, what did a new assistant professor fresh out of a doctoral pro gram really know about the needs of pre-service teachers? Maybe she should consult other professors at her college who were immersed in the culture of teacher education? As she continued to stumble along the Wall of Doubt, Angela began to plunge deeper into doubt concerning her suitability to teach this type of methods course. The soundness of the advice from the Wall of Real World Teacher Voices, and the practicality of the ideas that sprung from her own experiences were in direct contrast to the way she had been trained.

After fumbling for some time in a mist of doubt, Angela emerged at the brightly illuminated Wall of Collegial Discourse which had an old, gray owl with twinkling eyes sitting on one end of the stone wall. Getting closer, she noticed it was her

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TALE OF A LABYRINTH

department chair. It was here that Angela and her department chair conversed and shared their ideas. He seemed to have the utmost confidence in the few ideas she ventured to share at this point in their dialogue. At this Wall of Collegial Discourse, the owl shared with Angela the two books he recommended leaving the final decision for book selection up to her. Remembering the feelings she picked up at the Wall of Doubt, she whole-heartedly latched onto his recommendations. Gathering these books to her heart, she continued to travel through the Labyrinth of Planning as she planned the methods course.

During the walk down the long corridors of the Labyrinth of Planning, another idea occurred to her. Reviewing current research concerning the design of a methods course would be a good beginning or start. Angela smiled and thought to herself, "What a novel idea!" She looked around and realized that she was surrounded by the Walls of Profossional Educational Literature. While she perused the colorful, kaleidoscope walls, several pieces of relevant literature caught her eye.

On top shelves of the crimson red stones, she noticed an Harrington's article on professional development of teachers. She discovered that Harrington proposes that,

Because teaching and learning in increasingly diverse contexts are complex, prospective teachers cannot come to understand the dilemmas of teaching only through the presentation of techniques and methods. Conditional knowledge and a way of knowing that reflects and addresses the complex context and moral embeddedness of teaching and learning are also required (1995, p. 203).

As she stretched to put the article back on the shelf, she caught sight of the kiwi-green stones located over her left shoulder. There, an article written by Pendlebury ( 1990) caught her attention. Pendlebury argued that it is not enough for teachers to

GATEways to Teacber Education 23

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have routines of methods to use in the classroom. He claimed that competent teachers are ones who are able to ')udge the seriousness of each deliberative context and to bring to bear on a teaching situation the greatest number of genuinely pertinent concerns and genuinely relevant considerations" (p. 177) that apply to that specific context. It was here that Angela became aware of pre-service teachers' need for opportunities to examine varied contexts and teaching situations and make judgments about which teacher actions would be most effective for the given context.

Continuing to view the Wails of Professional Educational Literature, she became aware of a periwinkle-blue stone that contained an article on promoting student teacher learning by Tillema and K.nol ( 1997). They added a precursor to what she had already learned by proposing that teacher educators must consider the pre-existing beliefs of pre-service teachers and use that as a starting point to engage pre-service teachers in active knowledge construction instead of treating them as receptors of prescribed knowledge transmission. Also, Tillema and K.nol' s study revealed that engaging pre-service teachers in active knowledge construction can improve their performance as teachers. Furthermore, a glistening, orange stone housed an article by Harrington and Quinn-Leering (1996) which suggested that teacher educators do a disservice to pre-service teachers by allowing them to think about the mechanics of teaching but not giving them opportunities to explore through dialogue the effects their decisions can have on students, themselves, and education in general. Moreover, Harrington and Quinn-Leering propose that teacher educators need to create structures in their teacher preparation programs that will allow pre-service teachers to discuss educational issues and examine the consequences of their actions in dealing with the diversity and complexities of those issues. Sitting on the bench at the end of this glistening, orange stone, Angela began to think of methods she could use to create



the opportunities for learning indicated by Harrington and QuinnLeering.

Continuing to probe the multicolored stones in the Walls of Professional Educational Literature, Angela found other pieces of literature which dropped seeds in the development of the methods course she was designing. For instance, Rubinstein (1994), in his article on "Teaching Future Teachers To Teach," argued that college professors must model effective practices and continue to be abreast of educational innovations and willingly incorporate them in their practices. He further suggested that the attitudes and actions a pre-service teacher takes into their future teaching situations is a direct result of the type of teaching modeled by their college professors. Similarly, Collins (1997) embraced the notion that the good teaching that teacher educators advocate must be modeled first by them in their college classrooms. But more importantly, Collins recommended that Schools of Education should work collaboratively with local schools to develop more effective training programs for preservice teachers.

When drifting from the Wall of Professional Education Literature, Angela found the Wall of Student Input. The writing on this wall embraced the tenets of letting the pre-service teachers have input into the course design. The writing on this wall seemed to support the points raised by Tillema and Knol' s 1997 article. This wall was built upon the foundations of Gardner's Multiple Intelligences theories. During her stay at the Wall of Student Input, Angela made two important decisions. The preservice teachers in the methods course would have voice in the development of the year-long course. Also, she would try to reach her students through a variety of modalities to accommodate the multiple intelligences of students who would be in this class.

Feeling enlightened as she was leaving the Wall of Student Input, Angela turned the next comer and collided with the Wall of Possibilities. She found a blank slate and began to put her


Brown

thoughts into actions. Using Einstein's belief that "It is the supreme art of the teacher to awaken joy in creative expression and knowledge" as a guide and the seeds of ideas gathered at the Walls of Professional Educational Literature as a map, Angela decided on the approach for the methods course which was based upon the Secondary Education Department's goal of preparing pre-service teachers to become scholarly, reflective practitioners. Equipped with the two texts suggested by the owl, the advice from the voices at the Wall of Real World Teacher Voices, the knowledge gained at the Wall of Student Input, and the seeds of ideas from the Wall of Professional Educational Literature~ Angela entered her first class session of the methods course. She asked students about their fears, weaknesses, strengths, expectations, needs, and desires. The students and the instructor decided upon topics to be discussed during the course and planned the reading schedule accordingly.

Using the results of the opening session, she came up with the following plan. Students should submit weekly journals for the purpose of synthesizing readings, class discussions, activities, field experiences, and personal experiences. Showing evidence of how they have thought about their teaching in the context of issues related to being an effective teacher, they should document in their journals new insights gained as a result of the methods course and their student teaching field experiences. Each student will conduct a mini-exhibition to exhibit knowledge they have acquired.

Additionally, she added an individualized component to the class requirements because each student enters into the student teaching sequence with different needs and goals. The student, along with instructor guidance, will be allowed to determine other assessments are necessary for the student to meet course objectives. Some suggestions that emerged are listed below:

1. Develop a three-week comprehensive plan for instruction.

26 GATEways Volume XII(l) Fan 1999 Teacher Education


2. Develop a personalized teaching philosophy statement.

3. Write a research paper that explores issues related to teaching.

4. Develop a classroom management plan and give rationale for its various components.

5. Research an issue related to teaching and present the findings to the class.

6. Develop a plan to work on any weaknesses that might negatively impact your teaching.

7. Develop a plan for using cooperative learning. 8. Develop a plan for working with diverse learners. 9. Read and annotate several journal articles that

relate to teaching issues. 10. Participate in a listserv group that deals with

teaching. 11. Develop formal assessment plans for a ten-week

unit in your content area.

Planning assessment criteria for the various products to be produced served as a vehicle to discuss assessment issues in an authentic context.

Reflecting back, Angela noted that the students began to articulate what they believed about teaching, how they viewed the teaching profession, and what they felt was important knowledge that a teacher should possess. In evaluating this approach, Angela realized she had not only incorporated some of the mechanics of teaching but also created opportunities to acknowledge the prior knowledge of the pre-service teachers while modeling promising teaching practices. Examining her frrst class session helped Angela to develop other tenets of the course. For instance, realizing how powerful the first three-hour methods session had been, Angela felt that it was imperative to ensure that a portion of each week's class would be devoted to student discussions related


Brown

to their insights, questions, and frustrations about student teaching experiences, readings, and course projects. She decided to model yarious methodologies of teaching in her attempt to teach about different methods of teaching.

Also, reflecting back upon her travels through the Labyrinth of Planning helped Angela to enhance components of the methods course. She decided to invite content area teachers from the local high school to the methods course at various times throughout the year to assist with presenting teaching strategies, concepts and ideas in content areas that were not her specialty area. Angela also helped students establish connections and begin collegial discourse with content teachers in local public high schools.

As Angela moved beyond The Wall of Possibilities she encountered the Wall of Student Reflection. This wall, quilted with the student reflection papers from the methods course, provided her with a gauge of what students were taking away from the course. One student wrote, "Teaching is a job that requires one to grow, to look for better ways to do things; therefore, continued professional development is a must." While another student penned the following sentiments, "I know there is not one way to teach and no perfect method of teaching ... You learn by doing and by studying.'' According to on~ student,

The general method to instruction is to keep trying things, until you fmd what works. Remember that what works in one classroom may or may not work in another. Keep things multi-modal and shift activities to keep kids engaged. There are resources (people, books, etc.) that can help me with strategies for instruction.

Stretching to see the top right corner of the Wall of Student Reflection, Angela detected the following reflections:

Get out of the box! Think about teaching in as many ways as possible. A class is composed of individuals who have a variety of backgrounds and

28 GATEways Volume XU(l) Fall1999 Teacher Education


experiences that must be taken into consideration ALWAYS. I'm not the omnipotent source of knowledge; I am a guide who leads and directs and has the power to change lives and minds.

Similarly, a student scrawled, "There are many approaches that you can take to achieve your goals .... these approaches depend on the objectives, goals, and individuality of each situation."

As Angela looked to her left, she saw that another student had composed this conclusion, "Teaching is not just teaching a subject matter bu~ being able to relate and create new ways of explaining how and what is important for the student to know." Glancing just below her she noted the following inscription, "In order to teach students in a manner that is creative and interesting, I, myself, must employ critical thinking strategies into my classroom." Walldng further along the Wall of Student Reflection, Angela noticed a paper sticking out of the crevices. After stopping to pick up the paper, she found these words written on the third page, "My responsibility is not totally consumed with curriculum. As an instructor one of the most important p~s of my job will be to motivate students and keep them motivated to learn." As she continued to read the papers on the Wall of Student Reflection she marveled at the great wisdom and insight portrayed by her students' reflections. As she began to ponder the students' reflections, she realized that an ABCs of teaching methodology was represented in the student reflections. According to the student reflections, teachers should consider the following:

Assess students and yourself in many ways. Be creative. Consider the context. Determination is a must. Evaluate your rationale, methods, students learning, and yourself constantly. Flexibility is so very important. Get counsel from students, peers, and administrators.


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Human is what you are. I know that there are no formulas for teaching. Just do it! Kids are the key. Lesson planning is essential and there is no effective substitute. Make sure you do your job and remember that schools are political. No one~room school houses should exist. Opportunities allow students and teachers room to grow. Patience is a requirement. Quit whining, be optimistic and proactive! Rapport, reflection, and rigor should be with you daily. Survival is essential. Try to be confident. Unique situations occur often and unexpectedly. Variety is welcomed. Why am I doing this? 'Xactly who said teaching was easy? You can only do so much in the time you have. Zeal and zest will take you through the rough times.

Wow she thought, "These are the things we want teachers to know going into the classroom!"

Surrounded by clouds of joy and warmth, Angela floated down more corridors of the Labyrinth of Planning until she noticed the clouds were disappearing. Finally she was gazing at the stony Wall of Student Evaluations. Glancing over the stones of student evaluations she noted a varied mixture of comments from the students. One of the most prevalent suggestions was to require students to have a content specific methods text. Another suggestion was to create hypothetical classroom situations and have students share their strategies, perspectives, and insight in responding to these. Angela loved embracing these suggestions.

30 GATEways Volume XU(l) Falll999 Teacher Education


Not looking where she was going, Angela then stumbled on another stone of student evaluation. Students felt that she had not given enough of what she personally thought or believed regarding their discussions of educational issues. They felt that she was an authority, and, therefore, she should start or close each discussion with her beliefs about the issues being discussed. Furthermore, some students suggested a need for more direct instruction. These particular stones of student evaluation caused conflicting emotions and ideology. She wanted students to start thinking through situations, forming their own beliefs, and not to accept Angela's opinions as the absolute truth. Nonetheless, she allowed her opinions and beliefs to surface more intermittently during the second semester of the course and incorporated more direct instruction.

Looking more closely at the Wall of Student Evaluations, she noticed some precious gemstones. Among them were the many aspects that students deemed positive experiences for them. Most of the students felt that class discussions aided in their growth. Many of those students wrote at length about the usefulness of collegial discourse. The majority of the students praised the power of reflection that they had come to know by joumaling. All students commented positively about the distribution of useful, timely, written materials/supplements regarding topics discussed in class. Several students praised the intriguing questioning technique Angela used to make them think about their teaching and the education profession. One thing that seemed to be evident in most of the student evaluations was the role the instructor played in the class. Her modeling of teaching methods and promising practices helped students think positively about using such methods in their classes. A comment written by a student in his 50s sums up the overriding consensus of the students' views on the methods course. He wrote, ''This class clearly showed what the ideal goals of a teacher should be!"


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The Beginning

As one examines Angela's trek through the Labyrinth of Planning, many questions come to mind. Will secondary preservice teachers be better prepared to meet the real challenges of teaching in today's schools by engaging in a noncontent-specific methods course which has the flexibility and structure to provide experiences that hone the skills that secondary teachers will need to survive in the complex world of teaching? Would a professor who has not yet been emerged in the rigid culture of teacher education be a better candidate to teach a method courses for preservice secondary teachers because of his or her fresh perspective? What should a methods course really be about in order to maximize the potential of pre-service teachers? What role should students occupy in planning a methods course? How can teacher educators model the promising practices they feel preservice teachers need to adopt? Should teacher educators be utilizing the knowledge of their past experiences and should they include the insights and wisdom of currently practicing secondary teachers, as well as, the pre-service teachers they are teaching? These are but a few of the questions raised by Angela's tale of teaching as she traveled through the Labyrinth of Planning. Angela's experiences have highlighted the many questions that teacher educators need to be pondering as they plan methods courses and experiences for pre-service teachers. Therefore, the tale has just begun.

l2 GATEways Volume XII(J) Fall1999 Teacher Education


References

Collins, M. L. (1997). Imperatives for Teacher Education Faculty in Higher Education. Action in Teacher Education, XIX(l), 47-54.

Harrington, H. L. (1995). Fostering reasoned decisions: Case-based pedagogy and the professional development of teachers. Teaching and Teacher Education, 11(3), 203-214.

Harrington, H. L. & Quinn-Leering, K. (1996). Considering teaching's consequences. Teaching and Teacher Education, 12(6), 591-607.

Pendlebury, S. (1990). Practical arguments and situational appreciation in teaching. Educational Theory, 40, 171-179.

Piedmont College. (1996). Piedmont College 1996-1998 Catalog. Demorest, Georgia.

Rubinstein, R. E. (1994, May/June). Teaching future teachers to teach. Clearing House, 67(5), 274-276.

Tillema, H. H. & Knol, W. E. (1997). Promoting student teacher learning through conceptual change or direct instruction. Teaching and Teacher Education, 13(6), 579-595.

GATEways to Teacher Education J3

34 GATEways V<Jiume XU(l) Fall1999 Teacher Education

School Experiences of Elementary Hispanic Students in a Predominately Anglo-American Environment:

A Phenomenological Study

Nancy L. Gallenstein

Abstract

This study involved an investigation of school experiences of Hispanic students in grades 4-8 in a predominantly AngloAmerican environment. The Hispanic population in the research setting was 2.5o/o of the total population. The purpose of this qualitative study was to acquire an understanding of Hispanic students' experiences in predominantly Anglo-American school environments by focusing on the meaning of these experiences from the students' perspectives. Through phenomenological interviews, 11 students described their school experiences in both individual and focus group sessions. All interviews were audiotaped and transcribed. Protocols were analyzed for themes that emerged from students' described school experiences. Themes described included: a sense of belonging, encountering school experiences, responding to learning environments, and demonstrating a concern for others.

Introduction

Our nation is becoming increasingly diverse. Figures reported in the 1998 Statistical Abstract of the United States revealed a projected increase in minority populations from approximately 25% in the year 1990 to 50% in the year 2050. The Hispanic population, currently over 29 million people, comprises approximately 11% of the total U.S. population and is growing much faster than the rest of the population (United States

GATEways to Teatbu Education JS

Gallenstein

Bureau of the Census, 1998). It is estimated that Hispanics will become the largest minority group in the U.S. by the early years pfthe twenty-first century (Jensen, 1992).

Hispanic children often experience and perceive life in ways that differ from the dominant culture of the United States placing them at a disadvantage when they enter U.S. schools. Figures reported in the 1997 Digest of Education Statistics, revealed that in fal11995, Hispanic students comprised 13.5o/o of our nation's elementary and high school students. Carrasquillo ( 1991) stated that policy makers, educators, and agencies should be attentive to the various circumstances Hispanic students bring to the classroom. According to Carrasquillo, many Hispanic children face four major obstacles in obtaining an education: They (1) are from a low socioeconomic group, (2) belong to a minority group, (3) may not understand English well enough to keep up with their English-speaking counterparts, and (4) have home envirorunents that have not prepared them for school programs in the United States.

Virtually, all of the nation has been influenced by the change in population demographics. The research setting was no exception. From 1989 to 1994, school enrollment figures in the research site reflected a 87% increase in the Hispanic school population from 303 to 565 students (Bean, 1994). Because of this Hispanic school population increase, a need existed for educators to better understand experiences these students had in the school system so that culturally sensitive environments could be provided. Additionally, the teacher population in the research setting was predominantly Anglo-American, therefore, it was critical for local educators to understand and meet the needs of their ethnically diverse learners.

~n the field of education, opportunities exist in which educators can better understand their students' experiences. Jonathan Kozol (1991) in his acclaimed work Savage Inequalities discussed the importance of listening to our nation' s children.

36 GATEways Volume Xll(l) Fall1999 Teacber Education

ELEMENTARY HISPANIC STUDENTS

Kozol mentioned that discussions on education have omitted the voices of children. "Tills seems especially unfortunate because the children often are more interesting and perceptive than grownups are about the day-to-day realities of life in school" (Kozol, 1991, p. 6).

The purpose of this investigation was to describe experiences of Hispanic students in grades 4-8 in the research setting, focusing on the meaning of the experiences from the students' perspectives.

Methodology

The underlying methodology of this study was phenomenology. Phenomenology attempts to describe meanings associated with descriptions of lived experience. This methodology is particularly appropriate for cultural studies, as it takes "into a~count the sociocultural and the historical traditions which have given meaning to our ways of being in the world" (van Manen, 1984, p. 38). In support of the phenomenological philosophy of describing participants' experiences, dialectic interviews were used in this investigation. During the conversational interviews, participants were considered as experts on the phenomenon. This study involved six research phases.

Initializing the Qualitative Researcher's Role

Phase one involved initializing the researcher's role. The primary instrument in qualitative research is the researcher, therefore, it was necessary that the researcher's personal values and biases be identified at the outset of the study (Creswell, 1994). In this phase, bracketing was conducted- a technique that involves an attempt on the part of the researcher to remain neutral


Gallenstein

and avoid making judgments during the investigation, yet, still recognizing that personal understandings and biases could influence the interpretation of events (Reeder, 1986). The results of the bracketing interview sessions revealed that the researcher strongly valued human worth and believed that a respect for each individual is critical to one's growth in order to reach his/her potentialities. In addition to the bracketing interviews, the importance of confidentiality and anonymity was emphasized. Pseudonyms were assigned to participants, community members as well as the research site.

Pilot Interviews

Phase two involved conducting four pilot interviews in order to gain familiarity with the phenomenological interviewing process. Each student was requested to describe or tell a story about any school experience such as an event, situation, or person of their choice. An unstructured, open-ended format was used by asking "what" and "how" questions to further clarify descriptions rather than asking "why" questions. "Why" questions create reflection rather than description; phenomenological interviews focus on meanings derived from descriptions.

Research Setting and Participants

Phase three dealt with access and entry as well as the search for participants. This study was conducted in a valley area surrounded by mountains in a Rocky Mountain state with a Hispanic population of approximately 4,000; 2.5% of the valley's population. Approximately 70% of the Hispanic population in the research setting was from Mexico, while others originated from Central and South America as well as California.

38 GATEways Volume XU(l) Fall 1999 Teacher Education


Phase three was challenging because the researcher lacked fluency with the Spanish language. With the assistance of Hispanic community members, eventually the needed participants for the study were acquired. According to Wertz (1984), the number of participants needed for a phenomenological study depends on how many it takes to "illuminate the phenomenon." And, according to Osborne ( 1990), one person may be sufficient if he/she is capable of illuminating the phenomenon. In total, 11 students from 5 families agreed to participate in this investigation. All students were from two-parent homes. Six students were first generation students, all originally from Mexico; five were second generation students originally from Central America. Students attended six different schools in the valley area: three (K-5) and three (6-8). Student descriptions provided in Table 1 are in alphabetical order by students' assigned pseudonyms.

Table 1 Participants in Study

Students Gender Generation Grade

Alicia Female Second 5 Angela Female First 4 Davis Male First 6 Lucero Female First 4 Maria Female First 7 Sara Female Second 7 Tatiano Female First 8 Teresa Female Second 8 Tiera Female Second 5 Todd Male Second 6 Victor Male First 8


Gallenstei11

Data Collection

Phase four involved data collection, which included individual and focus group interviews, artifacts, and familiarity with the local Hispanic community. Each student in the study participated in two individual interviews in their home setting. Depending on the participant, interview sessions lasted from 20-60 minutes. To elicit descriptions of school experiences, each participant was requested to focus on the experience of being a student at his/her school. Students were then asked to volunteer descriptions of their school experiences. When needed, clarification of descriptions was requested by asking participants to share more about an event. The interviews conducted were open-ended and conversational in nature. The first interview with each student was completely unstructured and open-ended, allowing students to describe their choice of school experiences. The second interview was semi-structured, yet still open-ended whereby, each student again had an opportunity to describe school experiences of their choice. When they exhausted their descriptions, they were then asked to describe school experiences about times with their friends; being happy, proud, sad, or mad; and, family involvement.

Each student also participated in one of two focus group interviews. These focus group interviews were open-ended and semi-structured. The initial questions asked were general in nature, followed by specific questions relevant to the study. For example, students provided responses on what was most important to them at school; later, they focused on their treatment as a Hispanic student in school. In total, 24 interviews were conducted, audio taped, and transcribed.

Data also included a collection of artifacts such as newspaper clippings, newsletters, school flyers, and student school work as well as family photographs. Additionally, to become more familiar with the local Hispanic community, the researcher read



extensively about the local population, attended forums and cultural events, visited Hispanic homes with outreach workers, interviewed 3 5 Hispanic community members, attended a 16-week adult conversational Spanish class, and kept a personal journal and extensive field notes of experiences throughout the investigation.

Data Analysis Procedures

Phase five involved data analysis. According to Merriam (1988), in qualitative research, data collection and analysis should be a simultaneous process; yet, data analysis becomes more intensive once all data have been collected. Prior to data analysis, each audio-taped interview was fully transcribed within 24 hours of the completed interview. Thematic data analysis was used to determine common threads interwoven throughout the participants' conversations that existed in the transcribed protocols. After considerable review, four salient themes emerged.

Discovered themes and meanings derived from the protocols were confirmed by two sources: peer examination and member checks. First, as patterns were derived from the protocols, peer examination was conducted and used to confirm discovered themes and meanings from several protocols.

Considering that the participants were experts on their described school experiences, after writing narrative descriptions based on each student's protocol, each student reviewed their individual narrative for member checks. All participant analyses were confirmed as accurate; therefore, no adjustments were made to their narrative descriptions.


Gallenstein

Data Interpretation

Phase six of this study involved the interpretation of the findings. Wolcott described an interpretation as a way to determine "What is to be made of it all?" (Wolcott, 1994, p. 12).

The Hispanic population in this study was not indigenous to the research setting. Their settlement in the area was driven by a desire to search for a better life, which for some meant escaping political turmoil and/or persecution, recession, crime in metropolitan areas, responding to an area's need, or simply to better themselves. People usually settle where conditions are acceptable, where opportunities exis4 and where elements necessary for survival are present.

But what about the offspring of those who initially braved the elements for survival? Would they have the same desire, fortitude, and strength to survive as their parents did? And, are educators equipped to work effectively with ethnically diverse children? How do educators affect Hispanic students' sense of belonging?

To address these concerns, the four salient themes that emerged from the students' described school experiences are discussed. Findings were supported by themes that also emerged from the study's historical context and literature reviews involving elementary Hispanic students. The four recurring themes were a sense of belonging, encountering school expectations, responding to learning environments, and demonstrating a concern for others.

Theme One - A Sense of Belonging

A sense of belonging was a strong theme that emerged from the students' described experiences. Barriers in belonging affected Hispanic students' ability to take root in their new

41 GATEways Volume Xll(l) Fall1999 Teac:h~r Education


environments. The language difference was a concern expressed by most first generation students in this study. As a result, students experienced isolation and loneliness. Tatiana commented, "When I was in sixth grade, I just got to school and I didn't speak any English, and so I was alone." Lucero stated that "When I was in third grade, I was in school and I didn't speak any English at first." Differences in appearance and ethnicity were also mentioned by some students. They expressed how students would make fun of them. Teresa commented, "They were just making fun of me because I had darker skin. They would say, 'How did you learn English?' It was just like very ignorant. But I got through it." Many students commented that they were called names such as "burrito," "Mexi-fry," and "wet back."

Students who attempted to "fit-in" or assimilate with the dominant population appeared to experience a stronger sense of belonging. For example, Teresa developed tolerance of others' treatment toward her. She decided not to listen to students' derogatory comments. Teresa stated that "I made friends with them so they started respecting me. That's how it just worked." Other students also commented on the role that respect played when connecting with others. Maria commented, "That's the whole thing you know, respect. If I respect people, they'll respect me .... If there's some new people in school, I treat them nice because I know what they've been through." Todd also realized that respect was an important factor in friendships. "Everybody respects me at school-~everybody does." When asked how he earned his friends' respect he commented, "Just by treating them nice." The need for Hispanic students in this study to conform and assimilate at school as well as adopt mainstream characteristics was consistent with research findings of Cordeiro and Carspecken (1993).

Students in this study who distanced themselves from the mainstream pref~rring to identify strongly with their Hispanic culture struggled with their sense of belonging. For example,


Gallenstein

Victor recognized that most Anglo-American students were not as good at playing soccer as Mexican students. "We got the baddest

. players in the whole school. They don't know how to play and they don't try." For enjoyment, he often found himself gathering with other Mexican soccer players in a local park. Victor also described how he felt about most of his classes and teachers. "I hate school. It's like the teachers are just too boring .... The teachers just start talking and they never stop .... And they just don't like Hispanic people you know. They're racist." Victor also expressed concern over false accusations of himself and his friends by principals. He said, "It feels bad you know because you didn't do it. They just blame you without having proof." Victor was also aware that administrators labeled certain types of clothi~g as gang related and unacceptable for school. "There are some kids who cause trouble so they think you're one if you're wearing certain clothes .... they think that we're gangsters or something .... Well, they think I'm one. But they don't really know me." Maria also realized that because of her ethnicity she was not always treated fairly at school. "We have this principal-well he is really rude. He doesn't treat us fair because he lets the White girls wear these bandannas on their hair .... There was this one time that we were wearing those bandannas on our head ... and he goes, 'Take those off immediately .... because that's gangster stuff .... Yeh sure, I'm going to want to be a gangster."

Students who considered themselves different from the norm or who were self-conscious about their differences also struggled with adapting to their environment. Sara viewed herself differently from her classmates and spent many school years physically defending herself. She commented, "I've had problems like that for a long time .... In sixth grade I did get into a whole bunch of fights. I have lots of scars on my hand ... and my arms ... and my knees. I get pushed down to the ground." Alicia was also self-conscious about her differences. "Well, I'm the only one with black hair in my class."

44 GATEways Volume Xll(l) Fall 1999 Teacher Education


Students who struggled to belong in this study were both first and second generation Hispanic students whose parents, as Ogbu (1992) in his explanatory model would classify as "immigrant" or "voluntary" minorities. Therefore, the findings in this study did not support Ogbu's explanatory model. Ogbu's model supports that children of immigrant minorities who have moved to the United States for better opportunities, tend to adjust socially and academically. But the children's comments concerning their treatment and that of other Hispanics in the local schools appeared to be more consistent with Ogbu's description of the treatment of "involuntary" minorities, those who are a part of the United States as a result of slavery, conquest, or colonization.

This study instead would lend support to Hayes' ( 1992) reflection of Ogbu' s theory. She reported that even though Hispanic children's parents are voluntary immigrants, their adolescent children's "values toward education more closely resemble involuntary minority values" (Hayes, 1992, p. 254). Yet, consistent with Mehan, Hubbard, and Villanueva ( 1994) and Patthey-Chavez (1993) even though students in this study were very aware of discriminatory treatment toward themselves or others, they were enthusiastic toward learning and overall expressed positive attitudes about school. For example, Maria repeatedly expressed her appreciation and enjoyment for her teachers and for learning opportunities presented to her at school. Davis also shared many positive experiences about his friends, teachers and classes. His description of his treatment as a student was, "I've been treated nicely. And I like being a Hispanic student."

In this study, students' individual personalities and dispositions were the overriding factors that affected their sense of belonging and their relationships with and attitudes toward others. Most Hispanic students in this study learned to deal with transitions and adapt by demonstrating tolerance of the elements


Gallenstein

necessary for survival. Those who did not, continued their struggle to solidify their sense of belonging.

Theme Two - Encountering School Expectations

Meeting expectations was a theme that emerged from the students' described experiences. For students in this study, a portion of school meant meeting one's own expectations as well as those of others whether in the form of academic achievement or behavior. Abi-Nadar (1990), Donato and de Onis (1994), and Patthey-Chavez (1993) discussed how educators' expectations and perceptions of Hispanic students' level of competency can affect students' achievement. In this study, teacher expectations of Hispanic students' academic achievement level did not appear to be a voiced concern by students. Yet, teacher behavioral expectations of Hispanic students was a concern. Several students implied that behavioral expectations by teachers and administrators were not the same nor fair for Hispanic students.

Additionally, a number of students voiced concern over classmates' attitudes, referring to Hispanic students as if they "weren't smart" or were "dumb."

Cordeiro and Carspecken ( 1993) emphasized how grade expectations can create pressure for students. This study supported their findings; several students discussed the importance of grades. Sara pressured herself to achieve academically because she felt her grades would reflect on her future ability to obtain desirable jobs. ''Everyone was getting low grades. They were putting themselves down .... My grades, my grades, my grades--that's all I thought of." Tiera related that poor grades directly affected her pool of friends. "Like when I get bad grades, they make fun of me and then I lose some friends." And Todd, as required by his parents, had to keep his grades up in order to play sports. "I was getting bad grades and so I wasn't



able to play soccer. And then I started to bring them up better--so I was able to play soccer."

This study also supported the findings of Cordeiro and Carspecken (1993) and Mehan et al. (1994) concerning the role of positive recognition and material reinforcements in order for students to meet academic and behavior expectations. Students in this study enthusiastically mentioned their enjoyment and appreciation of positive reinforcements. Teachers who provided students with positive reinforcements were looked upon favorably, while teachers and administrators who demonstrated inconsiderate, insulting, or "rude" behavior toward students were not at all favored. This study was also consistent with findings of Hayes (1992) concerning Hispanic parents' expectations for student achievement and appropriate behavior. The participants' parents in this study shared their value for education and were hopeful that their children would meet or exceed their level of academic attainment.

Theme Three - Learning Environments

Learning environments that foster academic and behavioral growth for Hispanic students contain certain elements. This study supported previous research concerning instructional strategies integrated into learning environments that benefit Hispanic students such as cooperative learning and collaboration (Donato & de Onis, 1994; Mehan, Hubbard, & Villanueva, 1994); peersupport groups and competition (Cordeiro & Carspecken, 1993); hands-on, curiosity-seeking, inquiry learning, and shared cultural experiences (Moll, Amanti, Neff & Gonzalez, 1992; Velez-Ibanez & Greenberg, 1992); role plays, debates, and drama (Abi-Nadar, 1990); supportive adults, mentors and role models (Cordeiro and Carspecken, 1994); and parent involvement (Hayes, 1992; Moll, Amanti, Neff & Gonzales, 1992).


Gallenstein

Some students shared the value of relevant school experiences such as career educational opportunities and/or educational

. organization skill classes; students responded positively to these opportunities. Relevancy in relation to connections with their homeland and culture was not emphasized in local school settings to the degree necessary to benefit Hispanic students. Moll, Amanti, Neff & Gonzalez (1992) and Velez-Ibanez & Greenberg (1992) emphasized the importance of incorporating knowledge from Hispanic students' homes and communities into the learning environment. At times, students commented that they had opportunities to share information about their native homelands and traditions but felt that learning about different countries should be accompanied by cultural understandings in order that students of all ethnicities benefit.

Students in this study experienced enjoyment when involved in collaborative efforts with their peers. Tatiana described science as a fun time to learn. "The labs I do in science--it's really fun when I have a partner ... because we help each other." Additionally, hands-on, curiosity-seeking, inquiry learning provided students with opportunities to experience innovative and exciting material. Davis commented, "My teacher, he said like we can test anything we want., As a result, Davis and his friend discovered something new in technology class. "Well, it's like nobody knew this, but me and this one friend." In this study, most students also enjoyed competitive activities in the classroom, at recess, and in physical education classes. Todd described his enjoyment of soccer. He was aware that part of the game involved developing better people skills. "I enjoy it because you get to be with your friends and you learn to get along with them better." Field trips, innovative assemblies, and class presentations were also high points for the students.

This study also supported the view that caring adults and role models are very important for Hispanic students' academic and behavioral success (1990; Cordeiro & Carspecken, 1993; Donato

48 GATEways Volume XII(l) Fall1999 Teacher Education

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& de Onis, 1994; Hayes, 1992). In this study, because of support from some teachers and parents, evidence revealed the powerful influence caring adults can have for students. Sara described her teacher as such, "She's really nice to me. She's really a good example for me. She never puts anyone down .. .. She tries to keep you up in your grades."

According to Hayes (1992) and Mollet al. (1992), one critical element for academic and behavioral success of most Hispanic students is parent and family involvement. Sara experienced powerful reinforcement at home from a parent in the form of conversational dialogues; what Delgado-Gaitan (1994) termed consejos meaning cultural advice. But for most students in this study, parent involvement appeared to be confined to attendance at parent/teacher conferences, science fairs, and assemblies. Alicia mentioned that she was not aware of any parent involvement activities at school. "I don't think any parents were involved in anything because we hardly have any parents involved with things at school." Victor said that because of the language barrier, his parents could not understand what was being said at school, therefore, they did not attend any school events, not even parent/teacher conferences. "My parents are never involved in anything at school ... And things like parent/teacher conferences--my parents, they don't like to go because they don't understand." He also mentioned that students were not allowed to accompany their parents to parent/teacher conferences so it placed his parents at an added disadvantage.

Consistent with other research findings, Hispanic students in this study did not appreciate boring teachers, worksheet driven classrooms, or rude adults (Donato & de Onis, 1994; Hayes, 1992). Additionally, several students mentioned that they struggled with teachers who assigned homework without providing thorough explanations. At times as such, they were especially grateful for assistance from their peers. Sara commented that ''Some of the teachers don't really explain it to

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you .. .. But that was okay because my friends already knew it. So I just kind of asked them."

Theme Four - Demonstrating a Concern for Others

Research related to Hispanic students' demonstrated concern for others was not as prevalent as was literature for the previously discussed themes. Yet, participants in this study recognized that being bilingual and bicultural would benefit them as well as assist them in serving needs of Hispanics in this country and in their country of origin (Abi-Nadar, 1990; Cordeiro & Carspecken, 1993). Maria commented, "Learning English is important because that way when my mom or my dad need help, I can help them. Or, when other people need an interpreter, I can help them." Tatiana stated that "It's so important in my country [Mexico] to know different languages so we can get a nice job--and teach people." Maria often assisted new students with language challenges. She stated, "I used to help the teacher like teach them. She used to teach me first and then I taught them and I learned more things that I didn't even know." Several authors reported that some minority students developed support groups to assist each other academically and with other school encounters (Cordeiro & Carspecken, 1993; Mehan, Hubbard & Villanueva, 1994).

Students in this study also demonstrated a concern for others by befriending those often ostracized by others, defending other minority students when observed as treated unfairly or discriminated against, and being of service to those who were injured. Students' empathic responses toward others probably resulted from their personal experiences of rejection, isolation, hurt and loneliness. And with so few minority students in the area, these students automatically assumed responsibility for assisting others.

SO GATEways Volume XD(l) Falll999 Teacher Education


Summary

Four common themes interwoven throughout the protocols were determined and supported by data of the study. Often these themes were closely linked to each other. For example, students' sense of belonging strongly affected how they handled school expectations, how they preformed in their learning environments, and how they demonstrated a concern toward others. Many students encountered obstacles at school that were necessary for them to deal with prior to their ability to acquire knowledge. Students who adapted to their new surroundings were more likely to experience educational growth and productivity.

Yet questions arise, will only those Hispanic students who "fit-in" or assimilate into the mainstream culture experience success in predominantly Anglo-American schools, or will they be able to retain their own identifying characteristics that serve as contributors to the whole? What contributions can minority students provide in a majority environment?

Conclusion

Descriptions of Hispanic students' school experiences in the research setting have been presented to the reader. Voices of 11 elementary Hispanic students were listened to and heard. For it is what children experience in their environments that provides adults with a place to begin understanding what their lives are comprised of (Kozol, 1991 ).

Teachers on a daily basis also have many challenges to face. One challenge to address is the wide range of differences students bring to each teacher's classroom. Most teachers have had limited experience with students of different cultures. As a result, challenges of Hispanic students are magnified by a lack of understanding on the part of many teachers. But, like McDermott

GATEways to Teacher Education Sl

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and Gospodinoff(l981) we need to believe that once teachers become sensitive to the needs of their students, "they can be the helpful and loving teachers they no doubt would like to be" (p. 215). Hopefully, this sensitivity will lead to thoughtful action by concerned educators.

References

Abi-Nadar, J. (1990). ''A house for my mother": Motivating Hispanic high school students. Anthropology & Education Quarterly, 21,41-58.

Bean, S. W. (1994). Annual report of the state superintendent of public instruction 1993-94. Salt Lake City, UT: Utah State Office of Education.

Carrasquillo, A. L. (1991). Hispanic children and youth in the United States: A resource guide. New York: Garland.

Cordeiro, P. A., & Carspecken, P. F. (1993). How a minority of the minority succeed: A case study of twenty Hispanic achievers. Qualitative Studies in Education, 6 (4), 277-290.

Creswell, J. W. (1994). Research design: Qualitative and quantitative approaches. Thousand Oaks, CA: Sage.

Delgado-Gaitan, C. (1994). HConsejos": The power of cultural narratives. Anthropology & Education Quarterly, 25 (3), 298-316.

Donato, R., & de Onis, C. (1994). Mexican Americans in middle schools: The illusion of educational reform. Theory into practice, 33 (3), 173-182.

Hayes, K. G. (1992). Attitudes toward education: Voluntary and involuntary immigrants from the same families. Anthropology & Education Quarterly, 23 (3), 250-267.

Jensen, J. M. (1992). Hispanic Americans struggle for equality. Vero Beach, FL: Rourke Corp., Inc.

52 GATEways Volume Xll(l) Fall1999 Teacher Educatioa


Kozol, J. (1991). Savage inequalities. New York: Crown Publishers, Inc.

Mehan, H., Hubbard, L., & Villanueva, I. (1994). Forming academic identities: Accommodation without assimilation among involuntary minorities. Anthropology & Education Quarterly, 25 (2), 91-117.

Merriam, S. B. (1988). Case study research in education: A gualitative approach. San Francisco, CA: Jossey-Bass.

Moll, L. C., Amanti, C., Neff., & Gonzalez, N. (1992). Funds of knowledge for teaching: Using a qualitative approach to connect homes and classrooms. Theory Into Practice, 31 (2), 132-141.

McDermott, R. P., & Gospodinoff, K. (1981). Social contexts for ethnic borders and school failure. In H. T. Trueba, G. P. Guthrie, & K. H. Au Eds.), Culture and the bilingual classroom: Studies in classroom ethnography (pp. 212-230). Rowley, MA: Newbury House Publishers, Inc.

Ogbu, J. U. (1992). Adaptation to minority status and impact on school success. Theory Into Practice, 31 (4), 287-295.

Osborne, J. W. (1990). Some basic existentialphenomenological research methodology for counselors. Canadian Journal of Counseling, 24 (2), 79-91.

Patthey-Chavez, G. G. (1993). High school as an arena for cultural conflict and acculturation for Latino Angelinos. Anthropology & Education Quarterly, 24, 33-60.

Reeder, H. P. (1986). The theory and practice ofHusserl's phenomenology. Lanham, MD: University Press of America.

United States Bureau of the Census (1998). Statistical abstract of the United States 1998. Washington, DC: U.S. Government Printing Office.

U.S. Department of Education. National Center of Education Statistics. Digest of Education Statistics. 1997, NCES 98-015. Washington, DC: 1997.


Ga/lenstein

van Manen, M. (1984). Practicing Phenomenological Writing. Phenomenology & Pedagogy, 3 (1) 36·69.

Velez-Ibanez, C. G., & Greenberg , J. B. (1992). Formation and transformation of funds of knowledge among U.S.-Mexican households. Anthropology & Education, 23 (4) 313-335.

Wertz, F. J. (1984). Procedures in phenomenological research and the question of validity. In C. M. Aanstoos (Ed.), Exploring the world, West Georgia College Studies in the Social Sciences, 23, 29-48.

Wolcott, H. F. (1994). Transforming qualitative data: Description, analysis, and interpretation. Thousand Oaks, CA: Sage.

S4 GATEways Volume Xll(l) Fall1999 Teacher Education

Negotiating the Construction of Field Experiences: Creating a Model of Successful Early Field Experiences

Samuel J. Hausfather, Elizabeth L. Strehle, and Mary E. Outlaw

Abstract

As field experiences increase in teacher education, the role of the classroom teacher becomes more pivotal as mentor of preservice teachers. Focus groups of supervising classroom teachers and college teacher educators explored elements they felt were essential to creating successful early field experiences. Ten focus groups created models that synthesized their discussion of key issues. Analysis of the diverse models led to the identification of four themes: communication, shared responsibility, individual growth toward goals, and balance and interdependence. A model was developed that integrated the four themes to highlight elements in the creation of successful early field experiences. Implications for teacher education programs are discussed.

Teacher education appears to be coming full circle, returning to an apprenticeship model as the source of knowledge about teaching. The original field experience was an apprenticeship under a master teacher, needing no additional course work (Hopkins, 1995). Field experiences were modified as teacher education moved to normal schools and colleges, with model schools and then laboratory schools fulfilling more limited field experiences. In the last 25 years, teacher preparation programs have seen a proliferation of more and earlier field experiences, significantly increasing the amount of pre-student-teaching field


Hausfather

experiences (Guyton & Mclntryre, 1990). Recent reports call for more focus on clinical training and induction programs emphasizing preparing and supporting supervising teachers as mentors (National Commission on Teaching & America' s Future, 1996). These reports redefine teaching apprenticeships. Traditional teaching apprenticeships, which focused on practicing what a master teacher modeled, must evolve to become more focused on questioning and experimenting (Hopkins, 1995).

The relationship between the field-experience student and the supervising teacher forms the basis for the success of an apprenticeship model. As the mentor, the supervising teacher's representation of the important components in this relationship is at the heart of a successful field experience for preservice teachers. This study elucidates teacher educators' and supervising teachers' views of field-experience relationships and defines key elements in the creation of successful early field practicurns. Using focus groups, field experiences were examined and models of successful early field experiences were created. Our goal was to use the models generated to analyze and improve the supervision of students in early field experiences.

Field Experiences as Apprenticeship

As teacher educators move toward an apprenticeship model for field experiences, new approaches are needed. The cognitive apprenticeship model (Collins, Brown, & Newman, 1989) may be helpful in understanding what happens in creating field experiences. In the cognitive apprenticeship model, knowledge, both conceptual and factual, is learned in terms of the context of its use in solving problems and carrying out tasks. There is a focus on learning through guided experience on cognitive and metacognitive skills and processes, not merely physical skills. Through reflection on differences between novice and expert

56 GATEways Volume Xll(l) Falll999 Teacher Education

MODEL OF EARLY FIELD EXPERIENCES

performance, cognitive apprenticeship encourage~ self-correction and self-monitoring skills. Preservice teachers often perceive a dichotomy between practice and theory in the knowledge base of teacher education. As an apprenticeship model is applied to field experiences, perhaps teacher knowledge can be situated within authentic activity while maintaining a reflective stance on that knowledge.

Creating a "construction zone" (Newman, Griffin, & Cole, 1989) where field-experience students can appropriate understandings fron1 classroom teachers requires the creation of intersubjectivity, in which individuals share a purpose and a focus (Rogoff, 1990). Joint attention and shared problem-solving are needed to create a process of cognitive, social, and emotional interchange. The creation of relationships between fieldexperience students and supervising classroom teachers allows this interchange to occur.

Too often, early field experiences are perceived by preservice teachers as mis- or non-educative, negating their potentially educative value (Mcintyre, Byrd, & Foxx, 1996). Cole & Knowles (1993) identified four factors that contribute to the success of field experiences. One factor relates to the strength of the curriculum and instructional strategies of the teacher education program. A second success factor centers on preservice teachers' development of a sense of self as teacher. The third factor relating to success is that in the context of the field experience isolation, lack of collegiality, and inappropriate role models exist and must be dealt with as they arise. Patterns of past performances and elements of personal histories, which may also contribute to an individual's inability to master the expectations of classroom teaching during the field placement, constitute the fourth factor influencing the success of field experiences. Based on these factors, field placements should occur where experiences can be monitored and inquiry supported during the time that preservice teachers are constructing their role as teacher. The


Hausfather

relationship between the preservice teacher and the supervising teacher has critical implications for what the preservice teacher learns in the placement (Kagan, 1992; Strehle, 1995).

Conversations represent a unique dimension of learning to teach (Gonzalez & Carter, 1996). A powerful way to learn how to think about teaching is through an experienced teacher's understandings of a classroom event. Providing an opportunity for preservice teachers and supervising teachers to discuss classroom events bridges the gap between expert and novice. Conversations with the supervising teacher aid in the preservice teacher's interpretations and understandings of decisions made in the classroom. Conversation also helps supervising teachers understand the frames of reference preservice teachers bring to field experiences, allowing misconceptions to be addressed and avoiding miscommunicating intentions and insights.

A concern in any field-based project is to have the work of the college supported. This study engaged supervising teachers in discussing their perceptions of the teacher education process. Supervising teachers are especially willing to be active participants in the creation of field experiences when they understand that the college is not only asking for them to help, bu is interested in listening to and helping them. Too often, we forget or simply ignore the most crucial element of all educationa endeavors: the people who participate in them (Zeichner & Liston, 1987). To provide a program where the preservice teache is engaged in reflective thought, mindful as opposed to mindless, may depend on the supervising teacher's advice and recommendations (Dunn & Taylor, 1993).

Method

Focus groups of teacher educators and supervising classroom teachers were asked to discuss and create models representing

58 GATEways Volume XII(l) Fall1999 Teacher Education


successful early field experiences. Focus groups are a form of qualitative research based on group interviews. Interviews begin with the researcher's questions and proceed by incorporating participants' responses to base line questions (Morgan, 1988). The power of this research methodology lies in the interaction within the group. The researcher typically takes the role of moderator and creates questions based on topics of interest or concern to the group. Responses from focus group participants are relatively spontaneous and there is a fairly high level of motivation (Morgan, 1988). The data from focus groups are usually transcribed and analyzed. Generally, a focus group is limited to verbal interaction in discussion groups. Groups in this study had the additional responsibility of creating a visual model that illustrated the group's conception of a successful field expenence.

Three sessions were held involving a total often separate focus groups. The first session involved approximately 38 members of a state-sponsored committee studying the evaluation of student teaching and field experiences. Participants consisted of pairs of college teacher educators and supervising classroom teachers associated with higher education institutions from throughout the state of Georgia. The session began with participants challenged to individually brainstorm and record \Vhat goes into making a successful field experience. College teacher educators then interviewed supervising classroom teachers regarding preservice field experiences. Classroom teachers were specifically asked to respond to the following questions:

• How do you use preservice teachers in your class? What do you like them to do? Do you know what the college expects you to do with them?

• What helps the preservice teacher the most? • How do you give feedback? How do you get feedback?


Hausjather

• What are your three main goals for preservice teachers in your classrooms?

Each interview pair was then combined into a group with two other pairs. The six group members were directed to discuss the results of their individual brainstorming and interviews. The group was then asked to draw a model that synthesized the discussion and represented the elements of successful field experiences. Five models generated were then presented by the group and explained to all participants of the session. Completed models and notes taken on individual group participation and whole-group explanations were collected for analysis.

Twelve elementary-school teachers participated in the second session during a day-long retreat called to address issues related to early field experiences. The third session involved ten middleschool teachers participating in a similar day-long retreat several weeks later. The teachers involved in each retreat were active participants in the creation of partner school relationships between a college and local school districts. The teachers in each session spent a morning divided into focus groups, each facilitated by a college faculty member. Using a prepared list of topics (see Figure 1 ), each facilitator asked questions to initiate discussions among the participants, allowing teachers' ideas to lead the direction of the discussions. Three models of successful early field experiences were generated by the elementary-school teachers and two by the middle-school teachers. Focus group meetings were audio recorded and the tapes transcribed. Each group constructed a visual model of the relationship among the stakeholders (college faculty, supervising teachers, and preservice teachers) representing key aspects of a successful field expenence.

60 GATEways Volume Xll(l) Fall 1999 Teacher Education


Figure 1 Questions for Consideration by Focus Groups

What is the role of the preservice teacher in your classroom? What have they done in your classroom? How have you used them? What do you notice about how they fit in your classroom?

How have you interacted with them? How do you make them feel comfortable? How do you involve them in talking with you?

What are things you say, allow them to do, ways you connect them with pupils, involve them in daily routines, responsibilities you give them?

How do the preservice teachers interact with the students? How does the preservice teacher make him/her self comfortable or not? How do we make a field experience successful? What makes a good fit of preservice teacher and supervising teacher? Draw a model of what happens in the creation of a successful field experience.

Examples of Models Generated

Although shared themes were apparent, the ten models generated varied greatly. While some models used geometric figures and words exclusively, others incorporated symbols or metaphors along with extensive explanations. One model used no words, symbolizing the preservice teacher as a growing flower. Another used the image of a hamburger to explicate "a tasty field experience." One had five overlapping circles with the successful field experience occurring at the junction of all five. A look at

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Hausfather

three of the ten models created can provide an indication of both their diversity and the depth of the underlying concerns.

Model 1 Working together was the theme of one group whic created an analogy using a NASA space shuttle. A triangle of hands was at the center of this model, emphasizing communication between teacher, preservice teacher, and college. The teacher was seen as the pilot of a school space shuttle. Field-experience students were tethered to the space shuttle yet out in the field of stars representing the classroom pupils. The college was represented by Houston Control communicating witt both teacher and field-experience students. Establishing clear goals and multiple opportunities for conferencing were seen as ways communication was facilitated.

The participants in this group were concerned with preservice teacher~ establishing themselves in classrooms. "When I find out what their goals are, then I can work my classroom around to where I can meet their goals as well as mine. It's so overwhelming for them at first." Preservice teachers needed to be involved with pupils from the beginning, "allowing them to experience learning with the kids." Conferencing was seen as an important vehicle for feedback. "What they're thinking and what they're seeing may not be what I'm seeing and thinking." Their model emphasized everybody working together to support goals established through open communication.

Model 2 A second model depicted the field-experience student and the supervising teacher as counterbalanced sides of a scale illustrating characteristics and roles of the participants. Characteristics both sides shared included common goals and expectations, positive attitude, flexibility, and cooperation. Teachers needed to model appropriate teaching and management strategies and provide communication and feedback to the students. The field-experience students needed to be responsible, prepared, and able to use their newly learned teaching methods.

62 GATEways Volume Xll(l) Falll999 Teacher Education


Concern was voiced about how supervising teachers can establish a comfortable environment for preservice teachers. Often both teachers and field-experience students struggled with how to work gracefully with each other. Such struggles require time for discourse between the teacher and field-experience students. Teachers commented about the students, "they wanted to talk, they really wanted the feedback." Discussion time was also valuable in grasping the culture of the particular school.

Model 3 Discussion in another group revolved around conveying the complexity of teaching to the preservice teacher. The model this group created was based on an oak tree. The preservice teacher was represented by the oak and the supervising teacher and teacher educators were the roots representing sources of growth during the practicum. The strength of the field experience depended· on the guidance, support, and sharing of opportunities provided by the teacher educator and the supervising teacher. The teachers felt that communication, guidance, instruction, time for reflection, and a supportive classroom were necessary for a collaborative effort to provide successful field experiences.

Results: Defining a Model of Field Experience

Analysis of the ten models yielded four shared themes, elements essential to the creation of successful early field experiences. Although the themes can be described separately, it is their interaction within the context of school, classroom, and college that gives them meaning. The authors propose a model (see Figure 2) which formulates the interaction of these themes within the field-experience classroom.


Hausfatller

Figure 2 A Model of Elements in the Creation of

Successful Early Field Experience

Individual

CtUCf;~ -:·!;e.cfli~::- E6.~Grs

Communication

The first theme derived from the ten models stressed the importance of communication among stakeholders. Although communication would appear to be an obvious aspect of any relationship, the challenges to communication are enormous within the field-experience classroom. Teachers are busy people whose classrooms are marked by multi-dimensionality, simultaneity, immediacy, and unpredictability (Doyle, 1986). Keeping up with the many simultaneous happenings in the

64 GATEways Volume XII(I) Fall 1999 Teacher Education


classroom is a continual challenge. The immediacy and unpredictability of events make time a precious commodity within the classroom. Finding the time for communicating with preservice teachers is not easy. Participants stressed repeated! y that time for communication was essential if they were to understand the goals and abilities of the preservice -teachers with whom they work.

Communication was also essential to fulfill the role of teacher educator. Having the time to talk with preservice teachers was essential for the creation of an apprenticeship relationship. Multiple forms of communication are necessary among teachers, preservice teachers and college instructors. Some of these forms included conferencing at various points in the experience, midterm and final evaluations, journals and/or notebook feedback. Yet, all of these took time which teachers felt challenged to fmd.

Balance and Interdependence A second theme focused on creating a sense of balance and interdependence among school, college, and preservice teachers. Each individual in this triad was seen as essential to the success of the field experience. Both college and school must see themselves as co-creators and partners in the field experience. The preservice teacher must also see him or herself as a balanced part of this triad, responsible for contributing to the learning experience. Teachers felt all members of the triad should be interdependent. Balance, interdependence, and trust create a milieu for the creation of successful field experiences.

Shared Responsibility Shared ownership and responsibility for the process of educating preservice teachers was the third theme identified. Both school-based and college-based educators needed to be seen as teacher educators. While college-based educators define themselves as teacher educators, school-based educators often perceive themselves as purely a classroom teacher, participating with but not educating the preservice


Hausfatlrer

teach~r. As classroom teachers were brought into the process of defining the field experience, they began to see the teacher

. educator's role as one with which they could identify. In our discussions, the supervising teachers began to both question the existing field experience and suggest how it should be shaped. Classroom teachers saw the necessity for college-based educators to share the teacher-educator role and responsibility for constructing field experiences for preservice teachers.

Individual Growth The importance of the individual preservice teacher's growth and movement toward a goal, particularly with the support of college instructors, classroom teacher, and fellow preservice teachers, was the fourth theme. Preservice teachers in early field experiences are just beginning the process of creating an identity as a teacher. Each brings a different history to this process. Classroom teachers recognize the importance of supporting individual preservice teacher growth in the field experience. Preservice teachers move toward shared goals, yet each must also move in ways appropriate to their own stage of development. In order for a field experience to be successful, those involved must perceive the individual goals toward which the preservice teacher is moving and identify their role in aiding and molding that journey. When all parties share in the awareness of goals, then a successful field experience becomes more attainable.

The Model These four themes can be seen to work together in a model to guide the development of effective early field experiences (see Figure 2). The preservice teacher is moving through this model, entering with individual goals and developmental needs. Multiple opportunities for communication must be present to express these goals and to provide developmentally appropriate feedback to the preservice teacher. College teacher-educators and classroom teachers must communicate about goals and needs in order to establish a sense of shared responsibility for the development of the pre service



teacher. No one should feel sole ownership over this process of development. The entire experience occurs within a milieu of balance and interdependence. The preservice teacher is a balanced part of a triad creating the field experience. Trust helps establish a sense of interdependence and all members of the triad depend on each other to create the best possible environment for the growth of the pre service teacher.

College teacher educators are an essential part of the process of creating successful field experiences. Too often, in early field experiences, preservice teachers are left by their college instructors to negotiate the experience on their own. Classroom teachers in our study emphatically stated the importance of college teacher educators in the creation of successful field experiences. College teacher educators must be involved in facilitating and negotiating with supervising teachers each of the elements identified. Most challenging for college teacher educators, they must communicate with classroom teachers both regularly and in depth. It is through communication that a relationship is created where both classroom teacher and college teacher educator share responsibility for the preservice teacher in the field experience triad.

Within the teacher education program at our college, we have begun to create structures that allow for the involvement of college faculty with classroom teachers in early field experiences. Field-based courses have placed large groups of college students at common times in partner schools. Students are placed in pairs within classrooms, allowing them to observe each other and providing an additional perspective when thinking about and reacting to classroom situations. College faculty spend this common time in the schools with their students, visiting classrooms, talking with teachers, and observing the college students interacting with classroom pupils. Group orientation meetings involving classroom teachers occur twice per semester.


Hausfatl•er

The resulting relationships between college faculty and classroom teachers empower classroom teachers to share in the responsibility of educating pre service teachers (Hausfather, Outlaw, & Strehle, 1996). This relationship is essential for a model of early field experience to be successful.

Educational Importance

This study explored elements supervising teachers and teacher educators felt were imperative to creating successful field experiences for preservice teachers. The goal of the study was to construct an understanding of successful early field experiences. Common themes which were revealed lead to the creation of a model which helps us understand the field experience setting and can be used to examine how that environment influences the interactions of the preservice teacher, supervising teacher and teacher educator. The role of supervising teacher becomes an essential part of teacher education as we move to increase early field experiences. The task for the teacher educator is to gain insights in how to link the university course work with the field

0

expenence. The goal of working with partner schools is to create strong

ties that will provide opportunities for conversations between the school and the college. The connection between the teacher education program at the college and field-experience schools will provide the preservice teacher with an opportunity to think beyond what exists in the curriculum and to look critically at the processes and values underlying educating children within public schools. As we increase the presence of teacher education programs within professional development schools, negotiating the field experience becomes essential.

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References

Cole, A., & Knowles, J. G. (1993). Shattered images: Understanding expectations and realities of field experiences. Teaching & Teacher Education. 9, 457-471.

Collins, A., Brown, J. , & Newman, S. (1989). Cognitive apprenticeship: Teaching the craft of reading, writing, and mathematics. In L. Resnick (Ed.), Knowing, learning, and instruction: Essays in honor of Robert Glaser. Hillsdale, NJ: Erlbaum.

Doyle, W. (1986). Classroom organization and management. In M. Wittrock (Ed.). Handbook of research on teaching (3rd ed.). New York: Macmillan.

Dunn, T., & Taylor, C. (1993). Cooperating teacher advice. Teaching & Teacher Education, 9, 411-423.

Gonzalez, L., & Carter K. (1996). Correspondence in cooperating teachers' and student teachers' interpretations of classroom events. Teaching & Teacher Education, 12,39-47.

Guyton, E., & Mcintyre, D. J. (1990). Student teaching and school experiences. In W . R. Houston (Ed.), Handbook of research on teacher education. New York: Macmillan.

Hausfather, S., Outlaw, M. E., & Strehle, E. (1996). Relationships as a foundation: Emerging field experiences within multiple college-school partnerships. InT. Warren (Ed.), Partnerships in teacher education: Schools and colleges working together. Lanham, MD: University Press of America.

Hopkins, S. (1995). Using the past; Guiding the future. In G. Slick (Ed.), Emerging trends in teacher preparation: The future of field experiences. Thousand Oaks, CA: Corwin.

Kagan, D. (1992). Images: A way of understanding the practical knowledge of student teachers. Teaching & Teacher Education, 8, 123-136.


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Mcintyre, D. J., Byrd, D., & Foxx, S. (1996). Field and laboratory experiences. In J. Sikula, T. Buttery, & E. Guyton (Eds.); Handbook of research on teacher education (2nd ed.). New York: Macmillan.

Morgan, D. L. (1988). Focus Groups as Qualitative Research. Newbury Park, CA: Sage Publications.

Newman, D., Griffin, P., & Cole, M. (1989). The construction zone: Working for cognitive change in school. New York: Cambridge University Press.

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Rogoff, B. (1990). Apprenticeship in thinking: Cognitive development in social context. New York: Oxford University Press.

Strehle, E. (1995). Negotiating uncertainty: Making sense of the student teaching experience. Unpublished doctoral dissertation, Virginia Polyteclmic Institute and State University.

Zeichner, K. M., & Liston, D.P. (1987). Teaching student teachers to reflect. Harvard Educational Review, 57, 23-48.

70 GATEways Volume XII(l) Falll999 Teacher Education


GATEways to Teacher Education is a refereed journal with national representation on its editorial review board published by the Georgia Association of Teacher Educators. Each issue is nonthematic. The journal, published annually in October, is devoted to the discussion of theory, practice, research, and issues related to teacher education, including teaching and learning, induction, in-service education, and pre-service education. Articles may deal with local, state, or national activities or issues. Views expressed in the articles are not necessarily those of the editor or GATE. The cost of a copy of the journal is $6.00.

Criteria for submitting a manuscript: Manuscripts must be postmarked by the Aprillst preceding the October of publication

APA style (fourth edition) not more than 15 pages, double-spaced four copies of the manuscript clipped, not stapled author's name and affiliation on the title page only autobiographical sketches of the authors (three to five sentences each) on one separate page complete title and abstract (150 word maximum) on the first page of text running head and page number on subsequent pages of the manuscript 3 x 5 index card with complete name, postal address, email address, and telephone and fax numbers of the contact person and the title of the manuscript [an electronic file copy of the manuscript in MS Word or compatible software for Windows 95 (or 3.1) will be needed after acceptance for publication]

Submit manuscripts to: Jackie Anglin, Editor GATEways to Teacher Education Berry College P.O. Box 5037 Mount Berry, GA 30149-5037 706.236. t 717 (voice) 706.238.5827 (fax) janglin@berry .edu


gateways 1999 (volume 12 issue 1)

Documents

berry college volume

berry college kathy

berry college officers

teacher education volume

berry college president

gateways volume

education community

spelman college treasurer