geetha reddy
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Urban Settlements Size & Cooking Energy An Appraisal of Andhra Pradesh
Geetha Reddy Anant
Introduction:
Cooking Fuel Choices by households are reflections of fuel availability,
personal capacities and preferences and project the prospective demand for
particular energy carriers. Studies on these dimensions of household energy
consumption commenced in the 1980s and have since expanded in scope.
Beginning with pricing and subsidies, they expanded to include supply-
demand projections, transitions, substitutions, impact on user health and
clean fuel technology propagation. Two very important concerns are the need
emphasis on clean fuel use vis-s vis solid fuels to reduce burden of disease,
and energy consumption reduction mechanisms. This necessitates the
understanding of the nuances of cooking energy choices, preferences,
transitions, substitutions as settlements sizes-energy choice inter-relation,
and as products of household incomes.
In the developing countries/ regions in particular, the use of multiple fuels
due to insecure supply system and individual socio-economic disposition,
persists. The nature of this trend is appraised with respect to the state of
Andhra Pradesh in India. The focus is on fuel choice and settlement size on
the one hand, and the income profile of select user households and the
income threshold for fuels, on the other. The data is essentially drawn from
the Census of India, complemented by a survey of 285 households (0.4%
sample) from different designated size classes of settlements, and data
previously collected for another study on household energy consumption inmetropolitan Hyderabad.
Significance of Fuel Choice:
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Fuel choice is a factor of resource availability, supply adequacy, price parity,
subsidy, and consumer awareness, as well as inter-sectoral demand related
competition. The kind of fuel used reflects the capacity of the system to
support transition to clean commercial
Table 1: Andhra Pradesh: Fuel Choice of Urban
Households
Regions
Commercial non-commercial
LPG Kerosene
Fuelwoo
d OthersAndhra
Pradesh 21.3 46.1 27.8 4.2
Telangana 29 48.8 17.4 4.8Rayalaseema 15.8 47.2 32.1 20.7Coastal
Andhra 13.7 35.3 47.2 3.8
Telangana-
Minus
Hyderabad 20.9 40.4 23.4 5.3Source: Computed form Census of India 2001
fuels by making them increasingly available and accessible. It hasimplications for the quality of life of user household in terms of both active
and passive users (all inhalers). The rural households are almost totally
traditional or solid fuel consumers with almost nil assessment - at best they
can be approximations projected with the help of case studies. In any case
with the escalating urbanisation, the demand for commercial fuels is growing
and the pollution implications here can be far greater than in rural areas that
essentially have open-to-sky kitchens.
The complexities of energy-development relations are yet to gain clarity (Smil
and Knowland -1980) but persistent inquiries alone can make inroads into
such information. In urban India in general the proportion of commercial
energy consumer households stands at 51 per cent, ranging from less than
10 percent in Orissa and Bihar states to over 51 percent in Maharashtra and
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Gujarat states (reddy, mjit, P.70). In Andhra Pradesh the share of commercial
energy users in urban settlements increased from just around 20 percent in
1991 to 67.4 per cent in 2001 - ranging from 77.8 in Telangana (61.3 if
Hyderabad is deleated), 63 in Rayalaseema and 49 percent in Coastal
Andhra. While policy implications (for distribution and pricing) have a strong
bearing, the impact of agricultural output and waste generation, the
prevalence of forests and coal fields have their own typical effects.
Settlement Size and Fuel Choices:
The size of settlements have a significant bearing and that is because of the
neglect of small and medium towns in terms of infrastructure amenities and
services, vis a vis the metro-cities. It is a universal fact that rural households
are essentially non-commercial energy dependent, given the near absence of
commercial fuel supply in the settlements.
Table 2: Andhra Pradesh: Cooking Fuel Choice of Households (2001)Size Class of
Settlements
(No.settlemen
ts)
Households (000) Using Different Cooking Fuels
LPG Kerosene Fuelwood
Other
s
Total
HouseholdsHyd 298 279 24 1 602I (76) 1511 763 667 95 3036II(43) 230 68 263 27 588III(47) 134 41 169 21 365IV(22) 29 8 37 3 77V(21) 20 9 29 2 60VI (2) 0.3 0.1 1 0.6 2
All
2222.3(47.
3) 1168.1 1190 149.6
4730 (100)
Source: Obtained and computed, from Census of India, 2001
The elements of choice and compulsions determine these trends and
patterns. Developing countries offer a wide choice in all rural areas and
numerous urban areas with respect to traditional and free fuels, but with
respect to commercial fuels purchasing power at the individual level and
distribution at the institutional and marketing level constitute serious
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impediments. The tendency for larger settlements to consume more
commercial fuels exists. An appraisal of the share of households using
different energy sources shows that of the main commercial fuels LPG and
Kerosene, LPG dips off, becoming unsustainable in settlements with less than
25,000 population, and kerosene displays a very sharp drop at the 50,000
population size settlements itself. Fuelwoods significance increasing in the
second size class, its use in the class I settlements (100,000 population) by a
substantial proportion of households persists. It is interesting to note the
intersection
A.P.: Fuel Choice by Size Class of Settlements
-2001
0
10
20
30
40
50
60
metro I II III IV V VI
Siz e Class of Settlements
LPG
Kerosene
Fuelwood
Others
of Fuelwood with Kerosene at the 100,000 population size, while despite
being a more superior fuel, LPG intersects at the second size class of 60,000.
This is probably on account of the use of back-up fuels and combinations
rather than inter-fuel substitution apart from availability of LPG under
deepam scheme to the low income group households. The other energy
sources essentially agricultural residues and wood-droppings, gain
significance in the last size class of less than 10,000 population where the
number of even kerosene users drops. Respondents in some of the
household energy studies attributed this tendency to the availability of free
fuels (agro-waste and collected twigs). There is need and scope to obtain
more accurate energy threshold information from a wider data base and
improved precision tools.
Commercial and Non-Commercial Fuels
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The inverse relation between the commercial and non-commercial fuel users,
as also between the Size class of settlements and the commercial fuels/ non-
commercial fuels is
Andhra Pradesh:Commercial-Non-Commercial
Cooking Fuel Use (2001)
0
20
40
60
80
100
120
Metro I II III IV V VI
Size CLass of Urban Settlements
PercentHouseh
Series2
Series1
evident in the graph given above. The disparity between metropolitanHyderabad and the smallest urban settlements signifies the latters marginal
status in terms of access and affordability. This trend is not unexpected.
Commercial Energy LPG, Kerosene:
An appraisal of all the urban settlements is attempted here to examine the
possible relation between the size of settlements, percent of households
using particular fuels for the three most widely used energy sources LPG Kerosene and Fuelwood. The three commercial energy sources in use in India
are LPG, Kerosene and to a very limited extent electricity. Electricity is used
almost exclusively for food processing, storage and cooling. Hence its direct
use for active cooking is extremely limited and hence not taken into
consideration here.
Andhra Pradesh: Distribution of Commercial Energy Users
(2001)
0
10
20
30
40
50
60
70
80
90
100
0 10 20 30 40 50
No. of cities
%o
fHouseholds
ClassI
ClassII
ClassIII
ClassIV
ClassV
ClassVI
Andhra Pradesh: Distribution of LPG Users (2001)
0
10
20
30
40
50
60
70
80
90
0 5 10 15 20 25 30 35 40 45 50
No. ofCities
%o
fHouseholds
Class I
Class II
Class III
Class IV
Class V
Class VI
Andhra Pradesh: Distribution of Kerosine Users (2001)
0
10
20
30
40
50
60
70
0 10 20 30 40 50
No. of Cities
%o
fHouseholds
Class I
Class II
Class III
Class IV
Class V
Class I
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The proportion of households using commercial energy across all the six
settlement sizes shows over 60 percent in the highest size class, 40 to 70
percent in the second category,
30 to 60 percent in the third category. The fourth size class displays a mix of
the patterns common to the first three and last two, and the proportions
range from 10 to 65 per cent. It can be considered a transition size.
Commercial energy consumer households in the last two size classes
constitute less than 35 percent of the total households.
As compared to the aggregate figures of combined commercial fuel
consumer households, LPG consumers, within each size class the more
populous settlements tend to have higher proportion of LPG consumers as
substantiated by the slight (250) gradient in the distribution from Y to X
axis in all the categories. This underscores the earlier statement of demand
threshold.
Compared to LPG, kerosene does not entail heavy upfront costs. Both the
cooking stoves and the fuel are easily available in the market unlike LPG.
Hence its use as main fuel and as back-up fuel persists. The distribution of
kerosene users in each of the urban settlement is more clearly displayed in
the graph, than in the case of LPG. The class I towns at one end and the class
five and six towns at the other end seem to form their own group/ cluster,
leaving the class II and III to form their own cluster.
Traditional Fuels (Non-Commercial Fuels) Use:
The use of traditional fuels is on account of non-availability or inaccessibility
of commercial fuels due to affordability handicaps, or due to apprehension of
using something non-accustomed to, and also because of free availability of
traditional fuels. The possibility of the last is highest in rural settlements and
small towns located in close proximity to agricultural regions and forest
areas. In the urban areas the traditional and freely available energy sources
include wood, twigs, charcoal, cow-dung cakes, etc in
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Andhra Pradesh: Distribution of Non-Commercial Energy users
(2001)
0
20
40
60
80
100
120
0 10 20 30 40 50
No.of Cities
%
ofHouseholds
Class I
Class II
Class III
Class IV
Class V
Class VI
Andhra Pradesh: Distribution of Firewood users (2001)
0
20
40
60
80
100
120
0 5 10 15 20 25 30 35 40 45 50
No. of Cities
%
ofHouseholds
Class I
Class II
Class III
Class IV
Class V
Class VI
that order. Not all are freely available, but they are all freely accessible, and
can be purchased in small quantities according to the purse strings of the
household. A comparison of the non-commercial or traditional fuel users with
the users of only fuelwood shows no difference because of the predominance
of fuelwood among the various traditional energy sources.
It was noted in earlier studies on household energy preferences in urban
(Reddy 1997) and metropolitan (Alam et al 1995) areas that culture and
menu specificity also impacts fuelwood consumption for cooking. But
gradually, this is declining, with the changing work structure of household
members and mushrooming of traditional food outlets (who prepare and
market food cooked on fuelwood stoves in fact specific woods alone are
used). The end-use of fuelwood used to be water heating across all income
groups but has been gradually relegated to the low income households, the
affluent having switched to electrical appliances for water heating, electric
stoves and LPG for cooking and electricity for lighting. The incidence of
fuelwood use in higher order settlements is o account of the low income
dwellers, the slum dwellers and the sub-urban residents who constitute
household of the settlements but whose lifestyles are still rural in nature.
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Andhra Pradesh: Distribution of Commercial Energy Users
(2001)
0
10
20
30
40
50
60
70
80
90
100
0 10 20 30 40 50
No. of cities
%o
fHouseholds
Class I
Class II
Class III
Class IV
Class V
Class VI
Andhra Pradesh: Distribution of Non-Commercial Energy users
(2001)
0
20
40
60
80
100
120
0 10 20 30 40 50
No.of Cities
%o
fHouseholds
Class I
Class II
Class III
Class IV
Class V
Class VI
Andhra Pradesh: Distribution of LPG Users (2001)
0
10
20
30
40
50
60
70
80
90
0 5 10 15 20 25 30 35 40 45 50
No. ofCities
%o
fHouseholds
Class I
Class II
Class III
Class IV
Class V
Class VI
Andhra Pradesh: Distribution of Kerosine Users (2001)
0
10
20
30
40
50
60
70
0 10 20 30 40 50
No. of Cities
%o
fHouseholds
ClassI
ClassII
ClassIII
ClassIV
ClassV
ClassI
Andhra Pradesh: Distribution of Firewood users (2001)
0
20
40
60
80
100
120
0 5 10 15 20 25 30 35 40 45 50
No. of Cities
%o
fHousehol
Class I
Class II
Class III
Class IV
Class V
Class VI
A clear distinction is evident between the proportion of specific cooking fuel
users (traditional versus commercial fuels) across the different size classes of
settlements, with the prominence of the lower order and higher order
settlements highlighting the higher share of traditional - lower order solid
fuels and commercial modern higher order fuels respectively. The middle
order settlements in both cases project the transition stage of household and
settlements alike halfway up the energy transition ladder.
The difference between the cooking energy consumption patterns of
metropolitan households (settlements) and the non-metropolitan households
(settlements) is very high. In order to obtain a clearer picture of the other
settlements the few metropolitan settlements have been deleted from the
graph. Two factors are to be noted the first is with respect to the socio-
economic factors impacting fuel choice, and the second is the prospective
demand for commercial energy from the household sector together with its
implications for subsidies, healthcare, and supply preparedness.
Socio-economic Determinants of Fuel Choice:
Households in most developing countries use a wide range of cooking fuels
and the transition to clean commercial fuels is yet to take place, with
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saturation levels still at 30 (in African countries) and 60 (Asian and Latin
American countries). Most of even those households that have commenced
commercial fuel use depend on back-up fuels because of supply as well as
purchasing power uncertainties. As a result one finds widespread and a range
of fuel mixes. LPG-elctricity, LPG-kerosene, LPG-kerosene-fuelwood, LPG
kerosene-charcoal, kerosene-fuelwood, kerosene charcoal, fuelwood-
charcoal, fuelwood-cow-dung cakes, wood shavings-cowdung cakes,
fuelwood-agricultural residue, as the more common combinations. Among
these only the electricity-LPG combination users may be stated to be energy
secure households. The rest of the households are subjected and vulnerable
to fuel supply and pricing fluctuations.
In India in general and Andhra Pradesh (Hyderabad) in particular, income,
education, culture wield equal influence on fuel choice, fuel-mixes, and
quantum cooking fuel consumed, as per the 1994 and 1997 studies. This is
still applicable, but to a declining degree. Awareness and policy interventions
through pricing, subsidies, free supplies have actually jumped the energy-
ladder trends facilitating the switch from fuelwood to LPG. Thus while the
natural change in household energy choice and use is evident because of
increasing affordability and availability, but facilitating factors are important
push-factors enabling the low income households to more ahead. As a result
one finds households that use exclusive fuels as well as fuel-mixes.
Exclusive fuel users are not too many, and are essentially metropolitan
households with assured commercial energy supplies. They constitute less
than one-third of the all households. A survey of 265 households across small
and medium towns (geeta - 2002) projected the predominance of LPG as
main fuel (32 % households) followed by fuelwood and kerosene (12 %
households). A hefty 51.7 percent of the sample households use fuel-mixes
and that is mainly due to supply uncertainties (as stated earlier) with respect
to higher income households, and affordability and supply uncertainty among
low income households. Less than two percent respondents entertain fuel
mixes and that is on account of menu specificity and special dishes.
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An examination of the cooking fuel security position of the urban households
projects that 58 percent households face severe, 29 percent households
medium and 13 percent households experience mild fuel insecurity. The
tendency to switch to solid fuels and the frequency of such switch-overs (also
called inter-fuel substitution) adversely affects the health of the active users.
Andhra Pradesh: Fuel Use in Smal l a nd
Medium Towns (2001)
0
10
20
30
40
50
60
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10
Income Decile
NumberUserHousehold LPG
Kero
FW
LPG-Ker
LPG-FW
FW-Ker
Other
Andhra Pradesh: Main Fuel of Households
Across Income Groups, Field Survey, 2000
0
20
40
60
80
100
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10
Income Decile
Fuelwoo
d
Agri.
Residue
Kerosen
e
LPG
The above graphs show fuel use trends across the income decile. Both LPG
and fuelwood project income-impact, with the former displaying a sharp riseat the 8th income level i.e. it can be inferred that a per capita monthly
income of Rs. 800 constitutes the threshold supporting LPG use the
cleanest of available fuels. Similarly, with respect to the most polluting of the
available fuels fuelwood use projects a sharp fall at the second income group
but again experiences a rise in the fourth group. This trend can be better
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understood when one examines it vis a vis the fuel mix of kerosene-fuelwood.
In the case of metropolitan Hyderabad, (geetha MJTG) lpg threshold is the
6th income group (Rs.550 per capita per month) and the place of fuelwood is
marginal, but kerosene use declines from the seventh income group or Rs.
650 per capita per month. The evident use of LPG in the income groups below
this threshold, is on account in both metropolitan Hyderabad and in other size
classes is on account of the deepam scheme and continued subsidy support
to target groups and ease out policy to other low income households,
despite world bank directions to withdraw. The economic burden incurred
through this stand is amply compensated by the man-hours gained through
declining burden of disease in clean fuel user households. Although a
scientific account of the man hours is not available, it emanates from a
logical deduction.
The implications of urbanisation in terms of population increases and lifestyle
changes impact the energy consumption patterns in all developing countries,
because of the entailed fuel supply and accessibility imbalances.
A.P.: Percent Population by Size Class
of Settlements-1981
0
20
40
60
80
100
1 2 3 4 5 6Size C lass of Sett lement
No.settle
%pop
A.P.:Percent Population by Size Class
of Settlements -1991
0
20
40
60
80
100
1 2 3 4 5 6
Size Cl ass of Settlement
No.settle
%pop
A.P.:Percent Population by Size Class
ofSettlements -2001
0
20
40
60
80
1 2 3 4 5 6
Size Cl ass of Settlements
Series2
Series1
With the number of households in progressively larger settlements escalating
- expected to reach 70 percent by around 2030, the demand for commercial
fuels is expected to increase rapidly. Some studies identify low household
incomes, locational disadvantages and high delivery thresholds as variables
defining the accessibility and availability limitations. The inclination in most
rural - and low-income urban households is therefore would be towards
traditional and solid fuel use.
Conclusion:
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