The World BankJANUARY

1999

NUMBER 14

IN ASSOCIATION WITH THE FINANCE, PRIVATE SECTOR, AND INFRASTRUCTURE NETWORK GE N D E R

Gender and transport:A rationate for actionTransport can make a big difference in increasing women's productivity andpromoting social equity. How best can transport policies and projects identifyand respond to the needs of women?

Transport investments have consistently rep- burdens of headloading a large portion of

resented 15-20 percent of the World Bank's fuel, water, and produce.

lending portfolio. In addition to its major con- Yet women have less access than men

tribution to economic growth, transport plays to private vehicles and public transport. Making transporta crucial role in socially sustainable develop- In urban areas public transport is generally

ment by broadening access to health and edu- less than satisfactory on nonradial and non- policy sustainablecation services, improving the exchange of peak routes, on which women rely more

information, and promoting social cohesion. than men. The combination of"multitask- requires payingBecause women are vulnerable members ing" and poor service and vehicle access

of society and their productive roles are severely limits the time available for (and more attentionsometimes not fully reflected in sector strat- timing of) other activities.

egy, considering how transport policies and While these patterns are disturbing, they to women's needsprojects address women's needs is impor- are not a sufficient basis for policy. More

tant for socially and economically sustain- knowledge is needed about the conse-

able transport policy. Yet little attention quences of the transport burden for both

appears to have been paid to women's needs rural and urban women's availability for

in transport projects. In fiscal 1997 just 4 employment and access to markets and

percent of Bank transport projects included social services-and about the economic

a gender component or gender actions- losses that result. Little work has been done

compared with 15 percent for water sup- in urban or rural contexts on the most cost-

ply projects, 35 percent for agriculture, 44 effective interventions for gender-related

percent for education, and 67 percent for transport problems. Making transport pol-

population, health, and nutrition. icy more responsive to the needs ofwomen

The burden of transport for rural women requires developing a structured approach

is well documented. In addition to their major to understand their needs, identifying

productive roles-for example, women instruments to address those needs, ana-

account for about 70 percent of agricultural lyzing the costs and benefits of those instru-

production in Africa-women are almost ments, and establishing an appropriate

exclusively responsible for household and policy framework. To that end the PREM

child-rearing tasks, so they have numerous Network and the Transport Division are

and diverse transport needs. For example, developing a toolkit-scheduled for release

in rural Africa women transport more than in 1999-that will help task managers iden-

three times as much as men (figure 1). tify, design, and assess gender-responsiveWomen also suffer the physical and health transport projects.

FROM THE DEVELOPMENT ECONOMICS VICE PRESIDENCY AND POVERTY REDUCTION AND ECONOMIC MANAGEMENT NETWORK

Pub

lic D

iscl

osur

e A

utho

rized

Pub

lic D

iscl

osur

e A

utho

rized

Pub

lic D

iscl

osur

e A

utho

rized

Pub

lic D

iscl

osur

e A

utho

rized

Identifying woren's transport ically directed to women's transport needs,needs such as better route planning or the provi-The growing use of household and public sion of special buses or increased off-peaktransport user surveys-as in current pub- hours or services on less-traveled routes.lic transport projects in Europe and Cen- Where women are highly dependent ontral Asia-offers an excellent opportunity nonmotorized transport, studies in severalto improve basic data on the travel patterns countries suggest that the simplest forms ofof urban and rural women. Estimating wheeled transport (such as wheelbarrowswomen's latent (unsatisfied) travel demand or handcarts) could halve the amount ofis also important, although doing so requires time women require for local transport.

Reducing women's that information be collected directly from Promising interventions also include widen-women rather than from male heads of house- ing roads to provide safer and faster passage

transport-retated holds. Reducing women's transport-related or providing cycling and walking paths andtime burdens will also require new modes teaching women and girls to ride bicycles.

burdens wit tre quire of analysis of this data-for example, explor-ing howwomen's time is allocated, or its avail- Evaluating the benefits of

new modes of ability is constrained, may contribute to the gender-oriented effortsdesign of measures to reduce transport time. Most transportinfrastructure projects are sub-

analysis In developing that analytical framework ject to a cost-benefit analysis comparing theit is important to understand how travel pat- capital costs and incremental malntenanceterns develop. In both urban and rural areas costs of the new infrastructure with the reduc-this requires analyzing intrahousehold dynam- tions in vehicle operating costs, accident costs,ics with respect to control of household and time costs resulting from the project. Forincome, ownership and control of means of savings in travel time a distinction is usuallytransport, disaggregation of transport demand made between working time and nonwork-among household members; and latent trans- ing time. Where the division oflabor in house-port demand among women. Particular atten- holds involves men working in paidtion should be paid to the impact on women employment and women performing house-of urban transport policies and programs. hold tasks and unpaid productive activities,

conventional analytical methods tend toIdentifying potential policy undervalue the transport needs ofwomen byinitiatives not adequately reflecting the opportunity costA number of policy initiatives can help of their time. This includes time spent man-ensure that women benefit from road con- aging households and home-based economicstruction and maintenance projects: activities, caring for children, transporting* Promoting labor-based construction and fuel, engaging in formal and informal eco-

FIGURE 1 WOMEN maintenance, with incentives to hire nomic activities, and so on.SHOULDER A MUCH women. Analytical approaches that require theHEAVIER TRANSPORT * Ensuring that women are represented in valuing of transport time may be particularlyBURDEN THAN DO MEN the planning and design of transport difficult to apply in developing countriesTon-kilometers investments, including on user panels, with high subsistence or semi-subsistenceper year road fund boards, and so on. self-employment by both men and women,40 * Improving the dissemination of infor- particularly in rural areas. In such cases val-35 mation on transport investments and uation requires carefully reexamining the30 related employment opportunities. treatment of time savings to take into account2520 Women In recent years more attention has been such issues as the value of time saved in espe-15 pald to the institutions and regulatory frame- cially arduous tasks (such as carrying water),10 Men works in which services are provided and the value of time saved by women engaged5

0 to the factors affecting the sustainability in domestic activities, and the appropriate-Burkina Uganda Zambia of projects. This approach raises the possi- ness of conventional willingness to pay

Faso bility of a new range of instruments specif- approaches when household budgets are

controlled by men and the opportunity cost costs, because it tends to reduce the over-of women's time is not easily measured. all level or quality of service. Attempting

There are other challenges to face. The to avoid this conflict by directly subsidiz-tradeoffs between the private and social ben- ing gender-targeted services merely changesefits of improved transportation services- the question into one of deciding on thefor example, better access to health and best uses for available finance.education services, economic and socialempowerment of women, social inclusion Setting the policy stanceof marginal urban and rural populations- The limited gender focus in World Bank trans-are also often not accounted for in evalua- port projects can be at least partly attributedtions of transport projects, especially urban to an emphasis on traditional transport plan- The poticy responseprojects. Nor are some of the broader issues ning objectives, which focus on ensuring thatrelating to the case for public goods-for investments are economically efficient but witt depend onexample, the impact of better transport on typically say little about the distribution of pro-women's labor participation and wage rates, ject benefits. This approach raises the ques- whether gender-impacts on social standing and empower- tion of whether the gender impacts ofment, and indirect impacts on family health, transport should be treated primarily as an retated transportamong others. efficiency issue or an equity issue.

If the problem is seen as primarily eco- burdens are seen asEvaluating the costs of gender- nomic, the issue to decide is whether theoriented efforts benefits of gender-specific interventions are an efficiency issue orAbout 80 percent of public transport is typ- worth their costs. This evaluation involvesically provided by the private sector on a technical issues about how impacts are esti- an equity issuecommercial basis. Thus the crucial ques- mated and judgment issues about howtions for transport projects are whether a impacts are valued.service is likely to be considered commer- Differentissuesariseiftheproblemisseencially attractive by a private supplier and, as essentially an equity issue. It may be clearif not, how the commitment of public funds that women have worse or more expensiveto support the service should be appraised transport than men, but this maybe the resultand, if warranted, financed. ofmore general gender inequality-for exam-

In most cases the profit motive is sufficient ple, in terms of access to the household bud-to ensure the provision of any service that is getor to private transport-rather than biasespotentially commercially viable. For example, in transport service provision. The questionspecialized taxi rickshaws that transport school- that must then be answered is whether gender-children in Bangladesh are an entirely pri- related transportmeasures are a cost-effectivevate initiative. But in many countries the way to address gender-related disadvantages,private supply of a public transport service given other avallable alternatives for low-costis provided under a license or franchise that interventions to reduce women's time anddefines-and often limits-what the supplier load burdens. In practice, many transport inter-can and cannot do. In such regulated systems ventions can be designed to help the mostself-interest may drive operators to focus on vulnerable. For example, public transport sub-satisfying the planners, and thus not seek- sidies are oftenjustified on equlty grounds.ing to maximize profits by going beyond the Similarly, the first stage of the design processprovision of the regulated service. in rural road projects is to identify areas at the

This may mean facing a serious trade- greatest disadvantage.off. Where there is some form of mono- Attention to gender in Bank transportpoly franchise it may be possible to secure projects must be part of a broad sector strat-unremunerative services (such as low- egy that considers all disadvantaged groups.demand off-peak services or low-occupancy In general, well-designed improvements ingender-specific services) through cross- transport systems can benefit women andsubsidies. But this approach is not without men equally and, in some cases, women

more than men. But problems may arise port, Travel and theTFemale Traders ofAccra.when projects do not address gender dif- Aldershot, U.K.: Avebury Press.ferences in transport needs and women Kudat, Ayse, Stan Peabody, Ovezdurdybenefit less than men. Some women may Muhametberdieve,andKlausMoeltner.even be worse off. Thus assisting women 1997. "Strengthening Ashgabat's Urbanmeans raising awareness among policy- Transport System." In Michael Cernea andmakers and planners and ensuring that Ayse Kudat, ed., SocialAssessments for Bet-women are represented in user-based par- ter Development: Case Studies in Russia andticipatory planning. CentralAsia. Environment and Sustainable

In discussions with nontransport line Development Studies and Monographsministries, cross-sectoral impacts of trans- Series 16. Washington, D.C.: World Bank.

Attention to gender port improvements-such as better access Paul-Majumder, Pratima, and Masuda Kha-to and provision of health or education ser- toon ShefAi. 1997.ExaminingGenderDimen-

in Ban k transport vices-can serve as a basis for raising gen- sions ofTranportation inDhaka Metropolitander issues. Many times there will be tradeoffs Area. Nan Uddug Kendra. Dhaka,

projects must be to be faced, and informed decisions will Bangladesh.require information about women's trans- World Bank. 1994. "Case Study on the Role

part of a broad port needs. A first step will be to ensure that of Women in Rural Transport: Access ofat each stage of the planning process, atten- Women to Domestic Facilities." SSATP

sector strategy tion is paid to involving women in the plan- Working Paper 11. Sub-Saharan Africanning and implementation of projects that Transport Program, Washington, D.C.

that considers at affect them. .1996. Sustainable Transport: Priorities

for Policy Reform. A Development in Prac-disadvantaged Further reading tice book. Washington, D.C.

Barwell, Ian. 1996. Transport and the Vil-groups lage. World Bank Discussion Paper 344. This note was written by MichaelBamberger (Senior

Washington, D.C. Sociologist, GenderDivision, PREMNetwork) andBryceson, Deborah Fahy, and John Howe. Jerry Lebo (Transport Specialist, Transport Divi-

1993. "Rural Household Transport in sion, Transportation, Water and Urban Devel-Africa: Reducing the Burden on Women?" opmentDepartment) with assistancefom KennethWorld Development 21 (11): 1715-28. Gwilliam and Coln Gannon. The authors are

Gannon, Colin, and Zhi Liu. 1997. "Poverty grateful to Margaret Grieco and Ajay Kumarforand Transport." TWU Discussion Paper helpful comments.30. World Bank, Transportation, Water, Ifyou are interested in similar topics, considerand Urban Development Department, joining the Gender and Public Services ThematicWashington, D.C. Group. Contact Michael Bamberger(x36438) or

Grieco, Margaret, NanaApt, andJeffTurner. Jerry Lebo (x87396), or click on Thematic Groups1996. At Christmas and on RainyDays:v Trans- on PREMnet.

This note series is intended to summarize good practice and key policy findingson PREM-related topics. PREMnotes are distributed widely to Bank staff and arern also available on the PREM website (http://prem). If you are interested in writing

PREMnote, email your idea to Asieh Kehyari. For additional copies of this PREM-Paony gdmRanienamgmn note please contact the PREM Advisory Service at x87736.

Prepared for World BaSk staff